=* A Distributed Proofreaders Canada eBook *= This eBook is made available at no cost and with very few restrictions. These restrictions apply only if (1) you make a change in the eBook (other than alteration for different display devices), or (2) you are making commercial use of the eBook. If either of these conditions applies, please contact a https://www.fadedpage.com administrator before proceeding. Thousands more FREE eBooks are available at https://www.fadedpage.com. This work is in the Canadian public domain, but may be under copyright in some countries. If you live outside Canada, check your country's copyright laws. IF THE BOOK IS UNDER COPYRIGHT IN YOUR COUNTRY, DO NOT DOWNLOAD OR REDISTRIBUTE THIS FILE. _Title:_ The Oxford Encyclopedia of Canadian History _Date of first publication:_ 1926 _Author:_ Various [Lawrence J. Burpee (editor)] _Date first posted:_ Sep. 1, 2020 _Date last updated:_ Sep. 1, 2020 Faded Page eBook #20200902 This eBook was produced by: Brenda Lewis, David T. Jones, John Routh & the online Distributed Proofreaders Canada team at https://www.pgdpcanada.net [Illustration] THE OXFORD ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF CANADIAN HISTORY [Illustration] [Illustration] _=THE MAKERS OF CANADA SERIES=_ _=Anniversary Edition=_ THE OXFORD ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF CANADIAN HISTORY BY LAWRENCE J. BURPEE, F.R.G.S. LONDON AND TORONTO OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1926 COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1926 BY THE MAKERS OF CANADA, LIMITED PRINTED IN CANADA INTRODUCTION The _Encyclopædia of Canadian History_ will fill a need that has been felt very seriously by students of Canadian history, and indeed by everyone who has occasion to secure or verify information in that wide field. Mr. Burpee’s work will bear the same relation to Canadian history as Low and Pulling’s famous book of reference does to English history, and in some respects it will be found to be even more encyclopædic in scope. Some fifteen years ago Mr. Burpee prepared a General Index to the Makers of Canada Series, and by incorporating in the Index a considerable amount of new matter, biographical sketches, short articles on various topics relating to Canadian history, and bibliographical references, made it in some sense a dictionary of Canadian history. Although it had the inevitable limitations of such a composite work, the Index and Dictionary of Canadian History proved extraordinarily popular, newspaper offices, public libraries and other similar institutions reporting that they had worn out half a dozen copies. The _Encyclopædia of Canadian History_ is a far more comprehensive work than the Index and Dictionary. While it is not in any sense an index to the Makers of Canada Series, it is an indispensable adjunct to the Series, and at the same time stands on its own feet as a scholarly work of reference. Although a pioneer in its own particular field, the _Encyclopædia_ will be found so inclusive and accurate that it will probably remain the standard for many years to come. The plan is to throw into one alphabetical arrangement every title of any real importance in the entire field of Canadian history, interpreting history in the widest sense. Here will be found all the outstanding figures in Canadian history, from the earliest voyagers to our shores to the leading figures in public life to-day. Here also are included compact articles on every important event in the history of Canada, its wars and rebellions, its discoveries and explorations, its political, economic, social and intellectual development. The whole is bound together with very complete references and cross-references, so that it is possible both to approach a particular topic from any one of a number of angles, and to follow it through all its ramifications. For instance, the War of 1812-14 will be found treated under that general title, but the reader will also be referred to separate and more detailed accounts of the individual battles, and he will at the same time find separate biographical sketches of the principal actors in the war, and of some of the principal regiments that took part in it. Similarly the student will find a general article on Confederation, with separate sketches of the Quebec Conference, the Charlottetown Conference and the Westminster Conference, the Anti-Confederation Movement, the British North America Act, and biographies of each of the Fathers of Confederation. Or if one is interested in the Fur Trade, he will turn up that general title, perhaps get what he needs there; or if not, be referred to more detailed articles on the Hudson’s Bay Company, the North West Company, the X. Y. Company or one of the old trading companies of New France; in these again, he will be led on to articles on the principal men in each company; or to sketches of the famous trading posts of the period of the fur trade. In the same way, every phase of every subject in the fascinating story of Canada, east and west, French and English, is worked out individually and linked up with other phases of the same subject. And attached to each topic is a carefully selected working bibliography. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS Audet, _Can. Dates_. Canadian Historical Dates and Events, 1492-1915, by Francis J. Audet. 1917. Bibaud, _Dict._ Dictionnaire Historique des Hommes Illustrés du Canada et de l’Amerique, par Bibaud. 1857. Bibaud, _Pan. Can._ Le Panthéon Canadien, par M. Bibaud. 1858. _Canada: An Ency._ An Encyclopædia of the Country, by J. Castell Hopkins. 1898. Casgrain, _Biog._ Biographies Canadiennes, par l’Abbé Casgrain. 1873. Chambers, _Biog. Dict._ Chambers’s Biographical Dictionary. 1902. _Cyc. Am. Biog._ Cyclopædia of American Biography. David, _Biog._ Biographies et portraits, par L. O. David. 1876. Dent, _Can. Por._ Canadian Portrait Gallery, by John Charles Dent. _Dict. Eng. Hist._ Dictionary of English History, edited by Low and Pulling. 1910. _Dict. Nat. Biog._ Dictionary of National Biography. 1903. _Ill. Hist. Coll._ Illinois Historical Society Collections. _Mich. Hist. Coll._ Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society Collections. Morgan, _Bib. Can._ Bibliotheca Canadensis, by Henry J. Morgan. 1867. Morgan, _Can. Men_. Canadian Men and Women of the Time, by Henry J. Morgan. 1898, 1912. Morgan, _Cel. Can._ Sketches of Celebrated Canadians, and Persons Connected with Canada, by Henry J. Morgan. 1862. Morice, _Dict._ Dictionnaire Historique des Canadiens et des Métis Français de l’Ouest, par A. G. Morice. 1908. _N. S. Hist. Trans._ Nova Scotia Historical Society Transactions. _N. Y. Hist. Coll._ New York Historical Society Collections. _Ont. Hist. Pap._ Ontario Historical Society Papers. Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ Cyclopædia of Canadian Biography, by George Maclean Rose. 1886, 1888. R. S. C. Royal Society of Canada Transactions. Sabine, _Loyalists_. Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution. 1864. Taché, _Men_. Men of the Day, edited by Louis H. Taché. 1890. Tassé, _Canad._ Les Canadiens de l’Ouest, par J. Tassé. 1882. Taylor, _Brit. Am._ Portraits of British Americans, by W. Notman, with letter press by Fennings Taylor. 1865. Wis. _Hist. Coll._ Wisconsin Historical Society Collections. _Who’s Who_. Who’s Who. London: 1925. [Illustration] [Illustration] THE OXFORD ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF CANADIAN HISTORY =Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell= (1821-1893). Educated at McGill University; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1847. A candidate for the Legislative Assembly for Argenteuil, 1857, but defeated by Sydney Bellingham. Bellingham subsequently unseated and Abbott declared elected, 1860. Solicitor-general for Lower Canada in Macdonald-Sicotte ministry, 1862-1863, and for a few days retained same position in Macdonald-Dorion ministry. From 1867 to 1874 and from 1880 to 1887 represented Argenteuil in House of Commons. May, 1887, admitted to Macdonald ministry as minister without portfolio, and at same time appointed to Senate, where he became leader of the Conservative party. On death of Macdonald, became prime minister, June, 1891; held this position until ill health compelled him to resign, November, 1892. A recognized authority on questions of commercial and constitutional law. Framed Insolvent Act of 1864, and Jury Law Consolidation Act of Lower Canada. =Bib.=: _Annual Register_, 1893; Terrill, _Chronology of Montreal_; Thomas, _History of Argenteuil and Prescott_; Weir, _Sixty Years in Canada_; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Abbott, Joseph= (1789-1863). Born and educated in England. Came to Canada, 1818. Missionary of the Church of England. Wrote _The Emigrant_, containing information for farmers about Canada. =Abercrombie, James.= Entered the army, and obtained a captaincy in the 42nd or 1st Battalion of Royal Highlanders, 1756. Appointed aide-de-camp to Major-General Amherst, 1759, with whom he made the campaigns in Canada of that and the following year. Appointed major of the 78th or 2nd Highland Battalion, 1760, and, in September following, employed by General Amherst in communicating to the Marquis de Vaudreuil the conditions preparatory to the surrender of Montreal, and in obtaining his signature to them. The 78th Regiment having been disbanded in 1763, retired on half-pay. Again entered active service, 1770, as lieutenant-colonel of the 22nd Regiment, then serving in America under the command of Lieutenant-General Gage; killed in the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17th, 1775. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_. =Abercromby, James= (1706-1781). Entered the army, and obtained commission as major, 1742; lieutenant-colonel, 1744; colonel, 1746. Sent to America with 50th Regiment, 1756; superseded Shirley and Webb in command of the army; and then resigned command to Lord Loudoun. In 1757 commanded second brigade against Louisbourg. On Loudoun’s recall, became commander-in-chief, 1758. Led expedition against Ticonderoga, with Lord Howe as second in command. On Howe’s death, the campaign became a dismal failure for the British, Abercromby being outgeneralled at every point by Montcalm. Returned to England, and in 1772 deputy governor of Stirling Castle. _See also_ Howe; Rogers; Ticonderoga. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Rogers, _Journals during the Late War_, ed. by Hough. =Aberdeen.= Mountain peak in Canadian Rockies, near Lake Louise, named after Marquess of Aberdeen. Height, 10,250 feet. First climbed in 1894 by W. D. Wilcox, S. E. S. Allen and L. F. Frissell. =Bib.=: Outram, _In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies_. =Aberdeen, John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, Marquess of= (1847-). A baronet of Nova Scotia. Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Succeeded to peerage, 1870. Appointed viceroy of Ireland, 1886. Governor-general of Canada, 1893. Again viceroy of Ireland, 1905. Outstanding events of his term in Canada were the Colonial Conference at Ottawa, the meeting of the Bering Sea Seal Commission at Victoria, Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, the Second Colonial Conference in London, and the meeting of the British Association at Toronto. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Who’s Who_; _We Twa_. =Abnaki Indians.= A tribe of the Algonquian family, inhabiting a portion of what is now the state of Maine. One of their villages near the mouth of the Penobscot was the mythical Norembega. They were early converts of the French missionaries, and made common cause with the French against the English colonists. A number were brought to Canada in the seventeenth century, and formed a settlement on the St. Francis River, a few miles above its junction with the St. Lawrence. The Indian town was destroyed by Robert Rogers in 1759. The remainder of the tribe now at St. Francis and Bécancour in Quebec, and in New Brunswick. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_ and _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Pilling, _Bibliography of Algonquian Languages_; Vetromile, _The Abnakis and their History_. =Abraham, Plains of.= _See_ Plains of Abraham. =Academy of Arts.= _See_ Royal Canadian Academy of Arts. =Acadia.= The name of Acadia or “la Cadie” is found as early as November 8th, 1603, in the commission of Henry IV appointing Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, lieutenant-general in La Cadie, extending from the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude. The limits were afterwards reduced, and the boundaries of Acadia became a cause of contention between France and England. France claimed that the English possessions were restricted to the peninsula of Nova Scotia, and that the territory now known as New Brunswick had not been ceded to England. The first settlement in Acadia was on the Island of St. Croix in 1604, but the following year it was transferred to Port Royal, and abandoned in 1607. Three years later the Sieur de Poutrincourt established a new settlement at Port Royal, which was destroyed by Argall in 1613. In September, 1621, James I granted the territory of Acadia, under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir William Alexander. This grant was renewed in July, 1625, by Charles I. A small Scottish settlement was established at Port Royal by the grantee. Acadia was restored to France by the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye in 1632, and during the same year new settlers were brought from France. Acadia was finally ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. =Bib.=: Champlain, _Voyages_; Lescarbot, _New France_; Denys, _Acadia_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Rameau de Saint-Père, _Une Colonie Féodale_; Calnek and Savary, _History of the County of Annapolis_; Moreau, _Histoire de l’Acadie_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Acadia College.= Situated at Wolfville, Nova Scotia. Founded by the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society, 1838. Application made to the Nova Scotia Assembly for incorporation as “The Trustees, Governors and Fellows of the Queen’s College.” The corporation created with university powers, 1840. At the next meeting of the Legislature its name changed to Acadia College. Power of appointing governors transferred from the Education Society to the Baptist Convention of the Maritime Provinces, 1851. Final changes in the Act of Incorporation, 1891. =Bib.=: _Canada_: An _Ency._, vol. 4. =Acadian.= Newspaper published at Halifax, devoted largely to literary matters. Purchased and edited by Joseph Howe in 1827. Formerly the _Weekly Chronicle_, published by William Minns. =Acadians.= The first permanent settlers were those who came with De Razilly in 1632, and from these the Acadians of to-day are descended. Other French immigrants were brought by d’Aulnay de Charnisay from 1639 to 1649, and by La Tour and Le Borgne in 1651 and 1658 respectively. There were also small immigrations at divers later dates. The first general nominal census was taken in 1671, and gave a population Of 392 souls. In 1686 there were 885 persons in Acadia. Seven years later the inhabitants numbered 1,018. When Acadia was ceded to Britain in 1713, the Acadian population was 2,500. Although from 1713 to 1745 a number of families had escaped to the new French colonies of Isle Royale and Isle St. Jean (now Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island), still in 1749, when the British settled Halifax, there were about 12,500 Acadians in the province. Another large influx of population to the same colonies, and to the St. John River, took place between 1749 and 1755, yet there remained in the latter year in the peninsula and in the Isthmus of Chignecto some 10,000 inhabitants, of whom nearly 7,000 were deported in 1755. The rest escaped to the woods; some went to Miramichi, and later to Baie de Chaleur; others crossed over to the Isles Royale and St. Jean, and quite a number found their way to the St. John River, and from thence to the province of Quebec. The whole population of Acadians in the peninsula, the Isthmus of Chignecto, the St. John River, Isle Royale, and Isle St. Jean, at the time of the expulsion, is computed at 16,000. =Bib.=: Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Haliburton, _Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_; Raymond, _St. John River_; Gaudet, _Acadian Genealogy_ (Report on Dominion Archives, 1905, vol. 2). =Acadians, Expulsion of the.= Governor Lawrence in 1755, with the advice of his Council and of Admirals Boscawen and Mostyn, but apparently without consulting the home government, decided that the Acadians must be deported from Nova Scotia. The reason for this decision was the obstinate refusal of the Acadians to take the oath of allegiance, and the conviction of the governor that the safety of the colony depended upon their expulsion. In September, 1755, all preparations having been made with the utmost secrecy, Monckton at Beauséjour, Winslow at Grand Pré, Murray at Piziquid, and Handfield at Annapolis, seized the inhabitants and held them prisoners until the arrival of the transport and provision ships. These having been delayed, the final embarkation did not take place until late in December. The Acadians were distributed among the British colonies along the Atlantic seaboard. Some hired vessels in 1763, and sailed to Miquelon, and in 1767 and following years returned gradually to their old Acadian home. Others came directly to Nova Scotia in 1766, there being no longer any reason for their exclusion, while others went north to Quebec or south to Louisiana. The present Acadian population in the three Maritime Provinces is over 150,000, and these are the descendants of the few families who escaped deportation, and of those who returned from exile. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Richard, _Acadia_; Casgrain, _Un Pélérinage au Pays d’Evangeline_; _Une Seconde Acadie_; _Les Sulpiciens et les Prêtres des Missions Etrangéres en Acadia_; _Documents Inédits sur l’Acadie_, 1710-1815; _Archibald, Expulsion of Acadians_ (N.S. Hist. Soc. Coll., 1887); _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins; Calnek and Savary, _History of the County of Annapolis_; Doughty, _The Acadian Exiles_. =Accommodation.= First steamboat on the St. Lawrence. Built by John Molson at Montreal. Arrived at Quebec from Montreal, November 5th, 1809, making the run in thirty-six hours. The vessel measured eighty-five feet over all, had sixteen feet beam, and was equipped with an engine of six horse-power. See also Molson; Steamships. =Bib.=: _Semi-Centennial Report of Montreal Board of Trade_, 1893. =Adams.= United States twelve-gun brig on Lake Erie in War of 1812. Surrendered to the British on capture of Detroit and name changed to _Detroit_. Recaptured by the Americans at Fort Erie and burnt. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Adams, John.= Came to Nova Scotia from Boston. Appointed member of the Council, 1720. After the death of Lawrence Armstrong, administered the government during 1739 and 1740. Returned to Boston, 1740, as blindness prevented him from attending to his duties. =Agniers.= _See_ Mohawks. =Agriculture.= Made little progress either in volume or methods during the French period. Societies for improving the conditions of agriculture were founded in Nova Scotia, 1789; in Quebec the same year; and in Upper Canada in 1792. Simcoe in Upper Canada and Dorchester in Lower Canada did much to further agricultural interests, but Quebec owes most to J. F. Perrault (_q.v._), and Nova Scotia to John Young (_q.v._). Elgin took a deep interest in the encouragement of farming; and under the Hincks-Morin government a department of agriculture was established, charged among other things with the founding of model farms and agricultural schools. In the West, agricultural experiments were carried out as early as 1820 in the Red River Colony; also on the Pacific Coast. An agricultural school was founded at Ste. Anne de la Pocatière in 1859; the Guelph Agricultural College was established in 1874; the Nova Scotia School of Agriculture, 1885; and the Macdonald College, at Ste. Anne de Bellevue, opened in the fall of 1907. Agricultural Colleges are also in operation in connection with the provincial universities of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. _See also_ Guelph Agricultural College; Macdonald College; Puget Sound Agricultural Society. =Bib.=: _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 5; Skelton, General Economic History of the Dominion, in _Canada and its Provinces_; _Report of Ontario Agricultural Commission_, 1881. =Aikins, Sir James Albert Manning= (1851-). Born at Grahamsville, Ontario. Son of the following. After taking his M.A. at Toronto University, he studied law and was called to the bar, 1878; Q. C., 1884. President, Canadian Bar Association. Represented Canada at the International Congress on Moral Education at The Hague, 1912. Represented Brandon in the House of Commons, 1911-1915. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1916. =Aikins, James Cox= (1823-1896). Educated at Victoria College. Elected for Peel County, 1854, and sat in Assembly until 1861. Elected to Legislative Council, 1862; and at Confederation became a member of the Dominion Senate. Secretary of state in Macdonald administration, 1869-1873, and again in 1878-1880; minister of inland revenue, 1880-1882; lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1882-1888; again called to Senate, 1896. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Ailleboust de Coulonge, Louis d’.= Administered settlement of Villemarie during the absence of Maisonneuve. Promoted to governorship of Three Rivers. Became governor of Canada, 1648. Succeeded by Lauzon, 1651. Administered the colony, 1657. Died at Quebec, 1660. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Aillon, Father de la Roche d’.= Récollet missionary. Acted as interpreter between Champlain and Kirke. Negotiations carried on in Latin. Returned to France, 1629. =Bib.=: Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of.= Signed between Great Britain and France, April 18th, 1748. Brought the War of the Austrian Succession to a close. The practical effect of the treaty was to renew the _status quo_. All former treaties were renewed and all conquests restored. So far as British North America was concerned, the most vital article was that which provided for the restoration to France of Cape Breton. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_. =Akamina Pass.= Through the Rockies, immediately north of the international boundary. The eastern side of the pass is in Waterton National Park. Height above sea level, 5,835 feet. Name of Indian origin, and applied in 1861 by the International Boundary Commission. Means “high beach land.” =Alabama Claims.= A Southern privateer, the _Alabama_, escaped from a British port and destroyed Northern shipping. United States claimed compensation from England. Claims referred to a joint high commission, with other matters in dispute, 1871. Sir John Macdonald one of British commissioners. Claims submitted to arbitration. Geneva award required England to pay the United States $15,500,000. _See also_ Washington, Treaty of. =Alaska Boundary Question.= Arose out of differences of opinion as to the interpretation of the 1825 Convention between Russia and Great Britain, and particularly as to the boundary of the coast-strip. The United States contention was that the boundary should follow a line approximately parallel to the coast and thirty marine miles distant therefrom; the Canadian, that it should follow the summit of the first range, crossing many of the inlets near their mouths. The decision of the Joint Commission of 1903 did not concede the United States claims in full, but gave them an unbroken littoral, substantially what they had contended for. =Bib.=: Hodgins, _British and American Diplomacy Affecting Canada_; MacArthur, _The Alaska Boundary Award_, in the _Univ. Mag._, December, 1907; Bourinot, _Canada under British Rule_; _Proceedings of the Alaska Boundary Tribunal_, Washington, 1904; Davidson, _The Alaska Boundary_; Ewart, _The Kingdom of Canada_; White, _Boundary Disputes and Treaties (Canada and its Provinces)_. =Albanel, Charles= (1613-1696). Came to America from France, 1649. Jesuit missionary. Made expeditions from Quebec to Hudson Bay by way of the Saguenay in 1671-1672, and again in 1674. Met Radisson at the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post at the mouth of Rupert River. Carried prisoner to England. Returned to Canada, 1675, and sent to western missions. Died at Sault Ste. Marie. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations_; Laut, _Pathfinders of the West_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Albany River.= Empties into west side of James Bay after a course of 610 miles. Named after the Duke of York and Albany, later James II. Fort Albany stands at its mouth. Several other posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company are on its upper waters. =Bib.=: Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Alberta.= Created a province of the Dominion on September 1st, 1905. Includes the former district of Alberta, with the west half of Athabaska, and a strip of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan. Area, 255,285 square miles; population (census, 1921), 588,454. The former district or territory of Alberta was named in honour of the Princess Louise. Seat of government, Edmonton. _See also_ North-West Territories. =Alberta, University of.= Created by Act of the Legislature of Alberta passed at the first session after provincial autonomy had been granted. First president appointed, 1908. Seat of university at Strathcona, on the Saskatchewan River, now part of the city of Edmonton. =Alexander, Sir William.= _See_ Stirling, Earl of. =Algie, Wallace Lloyd.= Lieutenant in the 20th Battalion, C. E. F. Won the _Victoria Cross_ by conspicuous bravery and self-sacrifice on the eleventh of October, 1918, near Cambrai, when with attacking troops which came under heavy enfilade machine-gun fire from a neighbouring village. His valour and personal initiative in the face of intense fire saved many lives and enabled the position, which he had won by capturing machine-guns and turning them on the enemy, to be held. Having gone back for reinforcements, he was killed in leading them forward. =Algonquian Indians.= The name is now applied to what was the most widely distributed linguistic stock of North America. Their territory reached from Newfoundland to the Rocky Mountains, and from Churchill river to Pamlico Sound. They embraced such widely-scattered tribes as the Blackfoot, Chippawa, Cree, Montagnais, Micmac, and Malecite. In the days of French Canada, the name was given to a comparatively unimportant tribe, whose home was on the banks of the Ottawa. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_; Brinton, _The Lenape and Their Legends_; Pilling, _Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages_; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Aliens.= Acts have been passed at different times in Canada, designed to protect the country against sedition or anti-British sentiment. Dorchester had an Act passed by the Assembly in 1794. Another was adopted in Upper Canada in 1804. Imperial statutes were passed in 1790 and 1826. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Dorchester_; Lindsey, _Mackenzie_. =Allan, George William= (1822-1901). Born in York, Upper Canada. Educated at Upper Canada College; studied law and called to the bar, 1846. Served with the volunteers during the Rebellion of 1837. Mayor of Toronto, 1855; elected member of the Legislative Council, 1858; appointed to the Senate, 1867; Speaker of the Senate, 1888-1891. From 1877 until his death, chancellor of Trinity University. He was a generous patron of Art, and in particular made possible Paul Kane’s series of Indian pictures. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Allan, Sir Hugh= (1810-1882). Founder of the Allan line of steamships. Came to Canada from Scotland, 1826, and in 1831 entered the shipbuilding firm of James Millar & Co., Montreal, of which he became a partner in 1835. In 1853 his firm began building iron screw steamships, and their first vessel, the _Canadian_, made its first voyage in 1855. The following year, with a fleet of four vessels, a regular service was opened between Canada and England, with fortnightly sailings. In 1859 the fleet was increased to eight steamers, and a weekly service opened. From these small beginnings, the Allan Line has risen to a foremost place in transatlantic transportation. Sir Hugh Allan was president of the first company which undertook to build the Canadian Pacific Railway, and his corrupt bargain with the government of the day led to the Pacific Scandal and the temporary downfall of Sir John Macdonald. _See also_ Transportation; Canadian Pacific Railway; Molson; Cunard; _Royal William_. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 3; _Semi-Centennial Report of Montreal Board of Trade_, 1893. =Allcock, Henry.= Studied law at Lincoln’s Inn, and called to the bar, 1791. In November, 1798, appointed judge of Court of King’s Bench for Upper Canada. Elected to Legislative Assembly for constituency of Durham, Simcoe, and E. York, 1800, but unseated by the Assembly, June, 1801. Under the direction of Lieutenant-Governor Hunter, engaged in the preparation of a bill to establish a Court of Equity in the province, and was to have been the first chancellor of the Court. The Court of Equity, however, was not at this time established, and on the removal of Chief-Justice Elmsley to Lower Canada, October, 1802, Allcock was appointed chief-justice of Upper Canada, and a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. On the death of Elmsley, promoted to chief-justice of Lower Canada, July 1st, 1805. In August, 1806, took his seat as a member of the Executive Council, and in January, 1807, appointed a member and chairman of the Legislative Council. Died at Quebec, February 22nd, 1808. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_; Cartwright, _Life and Letters of Richard Cartwright_. =Allen, Ethan= (1737-1789). A resourceful but not over scrupulous Vermonter, leader of a guerilla corps, the Green Mountain Boys. Captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point, May, 1775, and seized St. Johns. In September he made a demonstration against Montreal, was captured and sent to England in irons. After the peace he was released and returned to Vermont, where for several years he and his brothers were engaged in a supposed attempt to bring Vermont back to British allegiance as a separate colony, the refusal of Congress to give Vermont the status of a state having embittered the Vermonters. _See also_ Montgomery; Arnold; American Invasion. =Bib.=: _Allen’s Captivity: Being a Narrative Containing His Voyages, Travels_, etc.; Henry Hall, _Ethan Allen_; Jared Sparks, _American Biography_, ser. 1, vol. I; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_; McIlraith, _Haldimand_; Bradley, _Dorchester_. =Allen, Ira= (1751-1814). Brother of Ethan, and associated with him in most of his enterprises. =Bib.=: _See previous title._ =Allen, Isaac= (1741-1806). United Empire Loyalist. Served as lieutenant-colonel of New Jersey Volunteers. Emigrated to St. John, N.B., after the Revolution, and was a grantee of that town. Became a member of the Executive Council, and a judge of the Supreme Court. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Allen, Sir John Campbell= (1817-1898). Born in county of York, New Brunswick. Studied law in Fredericton, and called to the bar in 1840. In 1842 appointed one of the commissioners to settle land claims under the Treaty of Washington. Elected to the Assembly for York, 1857. Solicitor-general same year. Speaker of New Brunswick Assembly, 1862-1865. Attorney-general, 1865. Sent as a delegate to England to represent views of New Brunswick in opposition to confederation. In 1865 appointed puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick; in 1875 chief-justice. In 1866 he had been made vice-president of the Court of Governor and Council for determining suits relating to marriage and divorce. In 1878 one of the arbitrators for settling the north-west boundary of Ontario. =Bib.=: Rose,_ Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Allen, William.= United Empire Loyalist. Son of Chief-Justice Allen of Pennsylvania. Served under Howe in 1776, and in 1778 raised the Pennsylvania Loyalists, which he commanded. He was a grantee of St. John, N.B., in 1783, and his American estate was confiscated. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Allouez, Father Claude= (1622-1689). Came to Quebec, 1657. Left for the West, 1665. Reached Lake Superior in September, which he named Lac Tracy, and founded a mission at Chequamegon Bay; went to Green Bay, Lake Michigan, 1669, and established a mission on Fox River. The remainder of his life was spent in the Illinois country. He met La Salle there in 1679. =Bib.=: Shea, _Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley_; Griffin, _Discovery of the Mississippi_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Allsopp, George.= Settled in Quebec, 1761, and became prominent in maintaining the rights of the civil authority as opposed to the military. January, 1766, appointed deputy secretary, clerk of the Council, and registrar of enrolments, but because of his opposition to the government, Murray refused to admit him to office. In April, 1768, Carleton confirmed him in these appointments, which he retained until superseded by George Pownall in 1775. From 1771 to 1776 deputy commissary-general. One of the original members of the Legislative Council under the Quebec Act. In 1780, when the Legislative Council presented an address to Haldimand opposing the passing of an ordinance amending the judicial system of the province in accordance with royal instructions to the governor, voted against the address and caused a strongly worded protest to be entered in the minutes of the Council. This action resented by members of the Council, and ultimately led to his dismissal by Haldimand, February, 1783. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Alwington.= Name of governor-general’s residence at Kingston. =American Invasion= (1775-1776). Grew out of the belief entertained by the rebellious colonists that the French of Canada could readily be won to their side. As a matter of fact the latter, while for the most part showing no enthusiasm to join Carleton’s forces, were still less inclined to coöperate with the invading army under Montgomery and Arnold, or to support the movement for union with the New Englanders. On the other hand, the Americans had a number of English-speaking sympathizers in Montreal—men who had come there from the colonies to the south. This, and its geographical position, made the capture of Montreal an easy matter; but Quebec was a different problem. Here Carleton gathered a small but efficient force of regulars and militia, and successfully held the town against the invading enemy. Montgomery was killed in the assault, December 31st, 1775, and in the spring of 1776 the siege was raised. The invading army hastily retreated to Montreal, and finally was driven out of the country. _See also_ Montgomery; Arnold; Dorchester; Ethan Allen. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Smith, _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_; Stone, _Invasion of Canada_; Codman, _Arnold’s Expedition to Quebec_; Lucas, _History of Canada_; Coffin, _The Province of Quebec and the Early American Revolution_; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_. =Amherst, Jeffery, Baron= (1717-1797). Born in Kent, England. Entered the army as a boy, served as aide-de-camp to the Duke of Cumberland in his German campaigns. In 1756 colonel of the 15th Infantry. In two years promoted to major-general. Sent to America, 1758, and in coöperation with Admiral Boscawen, captured Louisbourg that year. Made colonel Royal American Regiment, and succeeded Abercromby when the latter recalled. Took Ticonderoga and Crown Point in 1759, but, instead of advancing into Canada to make a diversion for Wolfe, he set his men to work building a new fort at Crown Point. The following year, Wolfe having in the meantime captured Quebec, Amherst brought all his available forces to the final conquest of Canada. Murray was to advance against Montreal from Quebec, Haviland by way of Lake Champlain, while he himself led the main army down the St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario. The three movements were successfully carried out, and, September 8th, Vaudreuil signed the capitulation of Montreal and all Canada. Appointed commander-in-chief and governor-general in America, 1761. Raised to peerage, 1776, as Baron Amherst of Holmesdale. Rose to be commander-in-chief of the army in England, and field-marshal. _See also_ Louisbourg; Ticonderoga; Crown Point. =Bib.=: _Expedition of British and Provincial Army against Ticonderoga and Crown Point_; Samuel Waldo, _Reduction of Louisbourg_ (Dominion Archives, 1886); Johnstone, _Journal of Louisbourg_, 1750-1758 (Coll. de doc. rel. à la Nouvelle France, vol. 3); _Dict. of Eng. Hist._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Bradley, _The Fight with France_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Amherstburg.= A town on the Canadian side of the Detroit River. Founded as a fort in 1796. In 1812 the village contained a court-house, and over a hundred houses. It was the only British naval station on Lake Erie. The fort, named Malden, was of little defensive value. An important military position in the war, garrisoned by about seven hundred militia. There is a description of it in Richardson’s _War of 1812_. Incorporated as a village in 1851, and as a town in 1878. =Bib.=: James, _Early History of the Town of Amherstburg_. =Amiens, Battle of.= Opened August 8th, 1918. The Canadian line was from Thennas to the Amiens-Chaulnes railway line. Five divisions engaged. In fourteen days heavy fighting advanced at the farthest point over fourteen miles, capturing sixty-seven square miles of German defences. The Canadians fought fifteen German divisions and thoroughly defeated ten. Captured over 9,000 prisoners, 190 guns and thousands of machine-guns and trench-mortars. This decisive victory proved to be the turning point in the war and led the way to the final defeat of the German armies. =Bib.=: Hill, _The Battle of Amiens_ in _Canada in the Great World War_, Vol. V. =Amiens, Treaty of.= Signed between Great Britain and France, March 25th, 1802. Brought to an end the war that had lasted since 1793. Among other provisions, the Newfoundland fisheries were restored to the same position held before the war. Napoleon’s object in signing the treaty was to be free to recover Louisiana and St. Domingo. Had he succeeded in the former he would probably have made Louisiana the base of an attack on Canada. Finding he had to reckon with American opposition, he decided to sell Louisiana to the United States. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_; Bowman, _Preliminary Stages of the Peace of Amiens_; Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_. =Amnesty Acts=, 1838 and 1849. The former was adopted by the Assembly of Upper Canada to enable the government to extend a conditional pardon in certain cases to those engaged in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. The latter was proposed by Elgin, on behalf of the Imperial government, as a measure of pardon for those implicated in the same Rebellion, and passed by the Legislature of Canada. Led to riots in Montreal and the burning of the Parliament building. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Lindsey, _Mackenzie_. =Anderson, A. Caulfield.= An officer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, employed for many years in the New Caledonia district, under Dr. McLoughlin. He had charge of Fort Alexandria, on the Fraser river, and explored a road from Kamloops to the lower Fraser. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Anderson, Anthony.= One of the officers assigned by William Lyon Mackenzie to lead the rebels in the projected attack on Toronto in 1837. Shot and killed by John Powell, whom he was taking prisoner to Montgomery’s Tavern. =Anderson, David= (1814-1885). Born in London, England. Educated at Edinburgh Academy and at Exeter College, Oxford. Vice-principal of St. Bees College, Cumberland, 1841-1847, and incumbent of All Saints’, Derby, 1848-1849. Came to the Red River Settlement as bishop of Rupert’s Land, 1849. Remained until 1864, when he returned to England. Subsequently vicar of Clifton and chancellor of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. =Bib.=: Works: _Notes on the Flood_; _Net in the Bay_. For biog. _see_, Mockridge, _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_; Machray, _Life of Archbishop Machray_. =Anderson, James.= Chief Factor Hudson’s Bay Company, 1855. That year, under instructions from the Company, he made an expedition down Great Fish River, or Back River, to the Arctic Coast. He had been engaged previously in the Company’s service on the Pacific coast. Left a journal of his Arctic expedition; also one on the North-West coast. =Bib.=: _Extracts from James Anderson’s Arctic Journals_ in _Royal Geographical Journal_, 1857. _See also_ Bancroft, _North-West Coast_. =Anderson, Samuel= (1735-1836). United Empire Loyalist. Born in New York. Emigrated to Canada at the beginning of the Revolution. Settled near Cornwall, Upper Canada, in 1783, after having served in the army under Sir John Johnson. Became judge of a district court, and afterwards of the Court of Queen’s Bench of Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =André, Louis.= Jesuit missionary. Came to Canada in 1669, and from that time until 1684 laboured among the Ottawa Indians and in what is now Wisconsin. He was at Green Bay, 1671-1681. At a later period he was a missionary among the tribes on the lower St. Lawrence. Died at Quebec in 1715. =Bib.=: Jones, _Louis André_, in _U.S. Cath. Hist. Mag._, 1889. =Aneda.= An evergreen, used by Jacques Cartier and his men as a remedy against scurvy. Parkman suggests that it was a spruce, or, more probably, an arbor-vitae. Douglas believes it to have been balsam. Cartier spells the name _ameda_, and Lescarbot, _annedda_. =Angers, Sir Auguste Rèal= (1838-1919). Born in Quebec. Studied law, and called to the bar; made Q.C. 1880, and the same year appointed a puisne judge of the Superior Court of Quebec. Member Legislative Assembly of Quebec 1874-1879. Solicitor-general Quebec, 1874-1876; attorney-general, 1876-1878. Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1887; resigned and called to the Senate, 1892. Minister of agriculture, 1892-1895; president of the Council, 1896. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Chapais, _Angers_ (Men of the Day). Anglican Church. _See_ Church of England. =Anglin, Francis Alexander= (1865-). Son of following. Called to the bar, 1888; K. C., 1902. Senior judge Ontario High Court, 1904; puisne judge Supreme Court of Canada, 1909; chief-justice, 1924. =Anglin, Timothy Warren= (1822-1886). Born in Ireland. Came to St. John, New Brunswick, 1849. Established _Weekly Freeman_ that year. Elected to New Brunswick Legislature for St. John, 1860, and became a member of the Smith administration. Defeated for St. John County in 1866. Opposed Confederation. Elected to the House of Commons, 1867, for Gloucester. Elected Speaker, 1874, and again in 1878. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Hannay, _Wilmot_, _Tilley_. =Angus, Richard Bladworth= (1831-1922). Born at Bathgate, near Edinburgh. Came to Canada, 1857, and joined the staff of the Bank of Montreal. Rose steadily in the service of the bank, and in 1869 became general manager. In 1879, associated with George Stephen (Lord Mount Stephen), Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona) and James J. Hill, in securing possession of the St. Paul and Pacific Railway, which later became the Great Northern, and laid the foundation of all their fortunes. President of the Bank of Montreal, 1910; and director of the Canadian Pacific Railway. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_; Skelton, _The Railway Builders_. =Anian, Strait of.= Supposed to lead through continent of North America. Dr. Ruge says that the name arose through a misunderstanding of Marco Polo’s book (bk. 3, ch. 5). His Ania “is no doubt the present Anam, but the Dutch cartographers thought that this land was in north-east Asia, and called the strait that was said to separate the continents the Strait of Anian.” The name appears for the first time on Gerh. Mercator’s famous maritime chart of 1569. It was sought by many early navigators as a way through the continent; and has been confused with Carver’s River of Oregon. =Bib.=: Soph Ruge, _Fretum Aniam_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Annand, William= (1808-1892). Born in Halifax County. Entered the Nova Scotia Assembly as one of the members for Halifax, 1836; advocated non-sectarian college for Nova Scotia; financial secretary in Howe’s ministry, 1860-1863. An active opponent of Confederation, and an Anti-Confederate delegate to London in 1866. Formed the first Anti-Confederate or Repeal government in Nova Scotia, 1867; retired in 1874 to accept the position of immigration agent at London, where he died. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Annapolis Royal.= When Nicholson, with his fleet and New England troops, captured Port Royal in 1710, he changed the name to Annapolis Royal, in honour of Queen Anne. It was besieged the following year by the Acadians with their Micmac and Penobscot allies, but the New England garrison held the fort. Under treaty of Utrecht, 1713, ceded to England by France. In 1744 Paul Mascarene successfully defended the place against Du Vivier. Fort Anne created a National Park and maintained by Dominion government. In 1921 tablets were unveiled to commemorate the 300th anniversary of charter to Nova Scotia; 200th anniversary of the establishment of first Court of English Common Law; and 100th anniversary of arrival of Haliburton at Annapolis. _See also_ Port Royal. =Bib.=: Calnek and Savary, _History of the County of Annapolis_; Nicholson, _Journal of the Capture of Annapolis_ (N.S. Hist. Soc, vol. I). =Annexation to the United States.= A fitful movement, never reaching serious proportions, and generally the result of temporary or local dissatisfaction with political conditions, or of commercial depression. Goldwin Smith was for many years its prophet, and Edward Farrer its publicity agent. Despite their eloquence they made few converts to annexation. It had been the aim of some at least of the leaders of the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in both provinces. It had been threatened on the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846; and again in 1849 when the adoption of the Rebellion Losses Bill led to the famous Annexation Manifesto. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Weir, _Sixty Years in Canada_; Kirby, _Counter-Manifesto to the Annexationists of Montreal_; Denison, _The Struggle for Imperial Unity_; Allin and Jones, _Annexation, Preferential Trade and Reciprocity_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; “Proposals of Annexation” in Moore’s _International Law Digest_, vol. 1, 580. =Anti-Confederation Movement.= The League of the Maritime Provinces was organized at Halifax in 1866. Joseph Howe was the moving spirit. Despite its name, the membership was confined to Nova Scotia and largely to Halifax. The League adopted a constitution, and sent Howe, Hugh McDonald and William Annand to oppose Confederation in England. The fight was mainly between these three and Tupper and Jonathan McCully. Failing to prevent passage of the British North America Act, Howe returned to Nova Scotia, and in the provincial elections he and the Anti-Confederates swept the province. In the elections for the new Dominion Parliament, eighteen out of nineteen Nova Scotian members were Anti-Confederate. Tupper stood alone for the new Dominion. Howe and his colleagues then started an agitation to withdraw Nova Scotia from Confederation, and again laid siege to the Imperial authorities, but once more without success. _See also_ Howe, Joseph; Annand, William; Millar, William; Stairs, W. J.; Smith, Sir A. J.; Troop, J. C. =Bib.=: _Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe_, ed. by J. A. Chisholm; Howe, _Confederation considered in relation to the Interests of the Empire_; Burpee, _Joseph Howe and the Anti-Confederation League_, in Trans. R.S.C., 1916. =Anticosti.= Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with area of 2,460,000 acres. About 140 miles long and thirty-five miles broad at widest part. The first mention of the island is in Cartier’s narrative of his first voyage, 1534. The following year he again visited the island, which he named Isle de l’Assomption. On the origin of the present Indian name, _see_ W. F. Ganong’s note, Royal Society _Trans._, 1889, II, 51. Louis XIV granted the island to Louis Jolliet in recognition of his geographical discoveries. Placed under jurisdiction of Newfoundland in 1763; transferred to Canada, 1774. Purchased by Menier, the French chocolate manufacturer, who stocked it with game and maintained it for some years as an immense estate. =Bib.=: Huard, _Labrador et Anticosti_; Guay, _Lettres sur l’île Anticosti_; Schmitt, _Monographie de l’île d’Anticosti_; Lewis, _Menier and his Island_. =Archibald, Sir Adams George= (1814-1892). Educated at Pictou Academy. Studied law; in 1838 called to the bar of Prince Edward Island; and to that of Nova Scotia in 1839. Elected to the Nova Scotia Assembly for Colchester, 1851. Solicitor-general of Nova Scotia, 1856; attorney-general, 1860-1863. Delegate to the various Conferences leading up to Confederation. Became secretary of state for the provinces in the first Dominion ministry, 1867. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1870-1872; and of Nova Scotia, 1873-1883. Knighted, 1885. =Bib.=: _Expulsion of Acadians_ (N.S. Hist. Soc., vol. 5). For biog., _see_ Dent, _Can. Por._; _Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Archibald, Sir Edward Mortimer= (1810-1884). Born at Truro, Nova Scotia. Son of S. G. W. Archibald (_q.v._). Studied law and called to the bar, 1831. The following year he was appointed Registrar of the Supreme Court of Newfoundland, and Clerk of the Assembly, and became attorney-general in 1841. Advocated reciprocity with the United States as early as 1849; and took a prominent part in the agitation in Newfoundland for a complete measure of responsible government, which was finally conceded in 1855. After a residence of twenty-three years in Newfoundland, he left the Ancient Colony, and after spending two years in Nova Scotia, was appointed, in 1857, British Consul at New York. This diplomatic post, second only in importance to that of ambassador, he occupied for twenty-six years, through such critical times as those of the War of the Rebellion, the Fenian Raids, and the Alabama Claims. As Sir Robert Borden has said, he filled this difficult office with keen foresight and wide vision, and earned not only the grateful appreciation of his own government, but the esteem and confidence of the government to which he was accredited. =Bib.=: Archibald, _Life and Letters of Sir Edward Mortimer Archibald_. =Archibald, Samuel George William= (1777-1846). Born in Colchester County, Nova Scotia. Studied law and practised in Nova Scotia; obtained a seat in the Legislature; became Speaker, solicitor-general and afterwards attorney-general of the province. Chief-justice of Prince Edward Island, 1824-1828, remaining Speaker of the Nova Scotia Assembly and solicitor-general, during the whole term of his incumbency of the chief-justiceship. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Longworth, _Life of S. G. W. Archibald_. =Archives.= Provision was made by the Parliament of Canada, in 1872, for an Archives Branch, and Douglas Brymner was appointed Dominion Archivist. His first report appeared in 1873. The earlier reports were of a preliminary nature, but in 1884 the first of the important series of calendars was included in the report. Abbé Verreau made a special report on historical material in Europe bearing on Canadian history, published in 1874. A report on manuscript material in the colonial archives at Paris, by Edouard Richard, was published as a supplement to the report for 1899. Dr. Brymner died in 1902, and Arthur G. Doughty was appointed Dominion Archivist in 1904. The report for 1905, in three volumes, represented a new departure; the publication of calendars was abandoned, and replaced by volumes containing series of documents relating to definite subjects, systematically arranged. The archives were moved into a special building in 1907. In 1910 began the issue of a series of publications, containing historical journals and other special material. In 1925 a new wing was added to the archives building at Ottawa. Provincial archives, of a more or less distinct character, have also been established in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Alberta. =Arctic Archipelago.= Embraces the islands lying north of the mainland of Canada. Canada’s title rests on the discovery of these islands by British explorers, their transfer to the Dominion by the Imperial government, and the fact that they have been officially taken possession of and occupied on behalf of the Dominion government in recent years. By Imperial order-in-council, June 23rd, 1870, Rupert’s Land and the North-western Territory were united to Canada. The former, as claimed by the Hudson’s Bay Company, included parts of Cockburn Land and Baffin Land, north of Hudson Strait. The North-western Territory included all the unorganized territory to the west, and possibly to the north, of Canada and Rupert’s Land. Doubts existing as to the northerly and north-easterly boundaries of these territories, an Imperial order-in-council was passed July 31st, 1880, transferring to Canada “all British territories and possessions in North America not already included in the Dominion of Canada, and all islands adjacent to such territories or possessions” (except Newfoundland and its dependencies). This was confirmed by an Act of the British Parliament in 1895. Later in the same year a Canadian order-in-council was passed, and another in 1897, formally assigning the Arctic Islands to provisional districts then created. Mounted Police posts were established in these districts and the laws of Canada are in force therein. _See also_ Sir Martin Frobisher; John Davis; Henry Hudson; Sir Thomas Button; Bylot and Baffin; Sir John Ross; Sir William Edward Parry; Sir John Franklin; Sir Robert McClure; Sir Edward Belcher; Sir Francis Leopold McClintock; Captain Joseph Elzear Bernier; Vilhjalmur Stefansson. =Bib.=: Johnson, _Canada’s Northern Fringe_; King, _Report upon the Title of Canada to the Islands north of the Mainland of Canada_. =Arctic Coast.= First reached by Samuel Hearne, at mouth of Coppermine, 1771; by Alexander Mackenzie at mouth of the Mackenzie, 1789. Sir John Franklin reached the coast overland in 1821. Between that year and 1854 the Arctic Coast was surveyed by Richardson, Back, Dease and Simpson, Rae, and Anderson, from Point Barrow in the west to Melville Peninsula in the east. _See_ under these names. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Argall, Sir Samuel.= Born in Walthamstow, England. A type of the founders of British colonial dominion. Sent, May, 1609, with a small vessel to the new settlement at Jamestown, Va., to trade and fish. The following year took out Lord Delaware to Jamestown, arriving in time to save the colony from starvation. In 1612 carried off Pocahontas to the settlement of Jamestown. Later in the year sent with a vessel of fourteen guns to destroy the French settlements on the north coast, regarded as infringing on the Virginia patent. Captured Mount Desert, St. Croix, and Port Royal. On return voyage forced the commandant at New Amsterdam to recognize English suzerainty by hauling down the Dutch flag and running up the English. May, 1617, made deputy governor of Virginia. In 1620 served against the Algerine pirates under Sir Robert Mansell. Knighted in 1622. In 1625 admiral of a squadron cruising after a hostile Dunkirk fleet, and took some prizes. In October, 1625, with the futile expedition against Cadiz under Lord Wimbledon. Died, 1626. =Bib.=: Argall’s own narrative; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Calnek and Savary, _History of the County of Annapolis_. =Argenson, Pierre de Voyer, Vicomte d’= (1626-1710). Succeeded Jean de Lauson as governor of New France, 1658. His governorship marked by personal quarrels with Laval, and a series of humiliating raids throughout the colony by the Iroquois. Recalled in 1661. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Argyll, John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, ninth Duke of= (1845-1914). Married H. R. H. Princess Louise, 1871; succeeded to dukedom, 1900. Represented Argyllshire in Parliament, 1868-1878. Governor-general of Canada (as Marquis of Lorne), 1878-1883. Founded Royal Society of Canada, 1881. His tenure of office was marked by such notable events in Canadian history as the adoption of the National Policy, the turning of the first sod of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the organization of the North-West into Provisional Districts. =Bib.=: Works: _Memories of Canada and Scotland_; _Imperial Federation_; _Canadian Pictures_; _Passages from the Past_. For biography, _see_ Dent, _Can. Por._; _Who’s Who_; Collins, _Canada under the Administration of Lord Lorne_. =Armistice.= In War of 1812. Arranged by Sir George Prevost and General Dearborn, in 1812, to the mortification of Brock. It helped the Americans and crippled Brock. The capture of Detroit had inspired the Canadians and depressed the Americans, and, as Brock’s biographer says: “If General Brock’s hands had not been tied, he would doubtless have swept the frontier from Sandusky to St. Regis.” =Armour, John Douglas= (1830-1903). Educated at Upper Canada College and the University of Toronto; studied law and called to the bar, 1853; made Q. C., 1867; Bencher of the Law Society, 1871. Appointed a puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench of Ontario, 1877; raised to the chief-justiceship, 1887. Chief-justice of Ontario and president of the Court of Appeal, 1890. Judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1902; in the same year represented Canada on the Alaska Boundary Commission. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Armstrong, Lawrence.= Came to Nova Scotia as lieutenant-colonel of General Philipps’s regiment. Appointed to the governor’s Council, 1720. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1724; held office until 1739. Served in America for more than thirty years. Committed suicide, 1739. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Arnold, Benedict= (1741-1801). A druggist at New Haven, Conn. When the War of Independence broke out, in 1775, organized an expedition against the British on Lake Champlain. The same year led a body of picked men to Quebec by way of the Kennebec and Chaudière. After the unsuccessful assault on Quebec, was in several small engagements near Montreal; burnt the château of Senneville; narrowly escaped capture; finally driven out of the province. Commanded American vessels on Lake Champlain. Defeated near Crown Point. Given command of Philadelphia; took offence at slights put upon him by Congress, and attempted to betray West Point to Clinton. Afterwards commanded a corps of American refugees on the British side. In 1797 was an unsuccessful applicant for a grant of land in Upper Canada. Simcoe reported against it as “General Arnold is a character extremely obnoxious to the _original_ Loyalists of America.” Arnold lived for some years in St. John, N. B., where he was equally unpopular. He settled for a time in the West Indies, and died in London. _See also_ Montgomery; Ethan Allen; American Invasion. =Bib.=: Arnold, _Life of Benedict Arnold_; Todd, _The Real Benedict Arnold_; Sparks, _American Biography_; Codman, _Arnold’s Expedition to Quebec_; Henry, _Arnold’s Campaign against Quebec_; Smith, _Arnold’s March from Cambridge to Quebec_; Jones, _The Campaign for the Conquest of Canada in 1776_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Aroostook War=, 1839. Arose out of the unsettled boundary question between Maine and New Brunswick, each side claiming certain disputed territory. Troops were called out on both sides, but fortunately more sober counsels prevailed at the last minute, and General Winfield Scott and Sir John Harvey came to an agreement. =Bib.=: Sprague, _The North-Eastern Boundary Controversy and the Aroostook War_; Roberts, _History of Canada_. =Arthur, Sir George= (1784-1854). The last lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1838-1841. He succeeded Sir Francis Bond Head, and inherited the difficult task of cleaning up after the Rebellion, a task in which he had only indifferent success. He has been condemned for unnecessary severity to those who had been involved in the Rebellion, or were suspected of disloyalty. Had been successively governor of Honduras and Van Diemen’s Land previous to his Canadian appointment; and on leaving Canada appointed to the governorship of Bombay. _See_ Rebellion of 1837 (Upper Canada). =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Bradshaw, _Self-Government in Canada_; Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_. =Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Baron= (1774-1848). Entered Parliament in 1806. Opposed measures against American commerce. President of board of trade and master of mint, 1834. Raised to peerage, 1835. Commissioner at Washington for settlement of boundary dispute, 1842. He was bitterly condemned for sacrificing the interests of Canada in the treaty, but the fact seems to be that of the territory in dispute between Maine and New Brunswick, the United States actually got less in 1842 than had been awarded to her some years before by the King of the Netherlands, and which at the time the United States Senate had refused to accept. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Ashburton Treaty.= Negotiated between Great Britain and the United States, 1842, Lord Ashburton acting for the former and Daniel Webster on behalf of the latter. Provided for the settlement of the international boundary between Maine and Canada. Of the territory in dispute, the United States got about seven-twelfths and Canada five-twelfths. Also provided for the determination of the boundary in the St. Mary River and thence to the Lake of the Woods; for the free navigation of the St. John River; for the suppression of the slave trade, and for the extradition of criminals. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History_, Vol. vii; White, _The Ashburton Treaty_, in _Univ. Mag._, October, 1907; _The Ashburton Treaty: an Afterword_, in _Univ. Mag._, December, 1908; Houston, _Canadian Constitutional Documents_; Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_. =Assembly.= _See_ Legislative Assembly. =Assiniboia.= One of the provisional districts carved out of the North-West Territories, in 1882. Now included in the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, principally in the latter. =Assiniboin Indians.= From _assini_ the Cree name for a stone and _bwan_ a native name of the Sioux—or Stone-Sioux. A tribe of the Siouan family; first mentioned in the Jesuit _Relation_ of 1640. They separated from the parent stock early in the seventeenth century, and moved north and north-west to the region about Lake Winnipeg. Later they spread over the country west of Lake Winnipeg, to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains. La Vérendrye was the first traveller to visit them and describe their manners and customs. Their population was estimated at 8,000 in 1829. One-half this number perished in the smallpox epidemic in 1836. They are now settled on reservations in Alberta, and in Montana. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Assiniboine.= Mountain peak in Rockies. About thirty miles by trail south of Banff. Known as the “Canadian Matterhorn.” Height, 11,860 feet. Named by Dr. G. M. Dawson in 1884 after the tribe of Indians who hunt in the Rockies. First climbed by Sir James Outram in 1901. =Bib.=: Outram, _In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies_. =Assiniboine River.= Discovered by La Vérendrye in 1736. Fort Rouge was built at the mouth of the river in that year, as well as Fort La Reine, near the present city of Portage la Prairie. From the latter fort, two years later, La Vérendrye set forth on his memorable journey to the Mandan Indians on the Missouri. Before the close of the century, both the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company had trading establishments at various points on the river. First named Rivière St. Charles; afterwards Rivière des Assiliboilles, and Stone Indian River; finally settling in present form. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Assiniboine River and its Forts_ (R. S. C., 1892); Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Hind, _Canadian Red River and Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Expeditions_. =Association of Canadian Refugees.= Organized by William Lyon Mackenzie in 1839, with the purpose of securing the independence of Canada. Meeting held at Rochester, N.Y., and a confidential circular was issued. John Montgomery elected president, and Mackenzie, secretary. Nothing much else was done. =Astor, John Jacob= (1763-1848). Born in Waldorf, Germany. Came to America in 1783 and embarked in the fur trade. Founder of Astor Fur Company. He was closely associated with the Canadian fur trade for some years, had a warehouse in Montreal, and had intimate business and social relations with the traders of the North West Company. Later, he became a most aggressive and resourceful rival of the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company. He founded the South West Company in 1808, which later bought out the Mackinac Company. The Pacific Fur Company was also due to his enterprise, and later the American Fur Company. Alexander Ross, of the North West Company, says of Astor and his ambitious plans: “He was to have annihilated the South Company, rivalled the North West Company, extinguished the Hudson’s Bay Company, driven the Russians into the Frozen Ocean, and with the resources of China to have enriched America.” =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Astoria.= On the Columbia River, near its mouth. Established by Pacific Fur Company, 1811. Turned over to the North West Company, 1813, and renamed Fort George. The scene of Washington Irving’s delightful narrative _Astoria_. The fort stood on the banks of the Columbia River, near its mouth. =Bib.=: Franchère, _Voyage to the North-West Coast of America_; Cox, _Adventures on the Columbia River_; Ross, _Adventures of First Settlers on Columbia River_; _Henry-Thompson Journals_, ed. by Coues; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Bradbury, _Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810, and 1811_. =Astorians.= Name applied to members of the two expeditions fitted out by John Jacob Astor, to found trading establishments at the mouth of the Columbia. One party sailed around the Horn in the _Tonquin_; the other went overland by way of the Missouri and the Columbia. _See also_ Pacific Fur Company; _Tonquin_. =Athabaska.= One of the provisional districts formed out of the North-West Territories in 1882; area about 122,000 square miles. Now divided between the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, forming the northern half of each. =Athabaska.= Rocky Mountain peak. Name is Algonquin for “place where there are seeds,” originally applied to delta of Athabaska river. In the Freshfield group, north of Rocky Mountain Park. Height, 11,900 feet. First climbed by J. K. Collie and H. Woolley in 1898. =Bib.=: Stutfield and Collie, _Climbs and Explorations in the Canadian Rockies_. =Athabaska Lake.= A Cree name meaning “muddy plain,” applied originally to the delta formed by the Peace river and the Athabaska where they enter the lake. Known at one time as Lake of the Hills. First discovered by Peter Pond, about 1778. Philip Turnor, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, surveyed and mapped the lake between 1790 and 1792. Both Peter Fidler and David Thompson reached the lake by way of the Reindeer river and lake, Wollaston lake and Black river, the latter in 1796, the former probably a few years later. In 1788 the first trading post on the lake was built by Roderick McKenzie of the North West Company, and named Fort Chipewyan. It was afterwards moved to the north side of the lake. Still maintained by the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Athabaska Pass.= Discovered by David Thompson of the North West Company, in January, 1811. There is some evidence that it may have been discovered by William Henry, of the same Company, a year or two earlier, acting under Thompson’s instructions. The pass was used for half a century or more by the traders as a route from the Athabaska to the Columbia. Among the famous travellers who used it were Gabriel Franchère, Ross Cox and Alexander Ross, whose books are among the classics of fur trade literature; Father De Smet, the missionary; David Douglas, the botanist, after whom the Douglas fir was named; and Paul Kane, the painter of Indian pictures. =Bib.=: Burpee, _On the Old Athabaska Trail_. =Athabaska River.= Rises in the watershed range of the Rocky Mountains, close to the head waters of the north branch of the North Saskatchewan, and after a course of 765 miles empties into Athabaska Lake. Discovered, in 1778, by Peter Pond, who built a fur trading post on its banks. Known also at different times as Elk river and Rivière a la Biche. =Bib.=: Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Aube-Rivière, François Louis de Pourroy de l’.= Appointed bishop of Quebec, August 16th, 1739. Arrived at Quebec, August 12th, 1740, and died of fever on the twentieth of the same month. =Aubert de Gaspé, Philippe= (1786-1871). A French-Canadian writer, whose works are invaluable for the light they throw on the manners and customs of the French in Canada about the time of the Conquest. =Bib.=: Works: _Les Anciens Canadiens_, translated into English by Mrs. Pennie, and by C. G. D. Roberts; _Mémoires_. For biog., _see_ Casgrain, _Biographies Canadiennes_; Roy, _Etude sur “Les Anciens Canadiens”_ (R. S. C., 1906). =Aubert de la Chesnaye, Charles= (1630-1702). Born at Amiens. Came to Canada, 1655. Chief Clerk of the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, 1665. Engaged in the fur trade at Cataraqui, 1674. In 1677 obtained a grant of Ile Dupas. In 1679 made a visit to Paris, and in 1683 back again at Cataraqui. In 1696 prepared an important memoir on the commerce of the colony. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Aulneau, Jean-Pierre= (1705-1736). Jesuit missionary, with La Vérendrye in his western explorations. Murdered by Sioux on an island in the Lake of the Woods, May, 1736. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Avaugour, Pierre Dubois, Baron d’.= Governor of New France, 1661-1663, succeeding D’Argenson. He was at variance with the Jesuits as to the existing liquor laws, which he thought too severe. His is described as the only sober description of the great earthquake of 1663. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Axel Heiberg Island.= In Arctic archipelago, extreme north, west of Ellesmere Island. Named by Sverdrup after one of the patrons of the expedition of 1898-1902. =Aylesworth, Allen Bristol= (1854-). Born in Newburg, Ontario. Educated at Newburg High School and at the University of Toronto; studied law and called to the bar of Ontario, 1878; practised his profession in Toronto; appointed one of the British commissioners in connection with the settlement of the Alaska boundary, 1903; elected to the House of Commons, 1905; postmaster-general and minister of labour, 1905; minister of justice, 1906; British agent in connection with the Fisheries case before the Hague Tribunal, 1910. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Aylmer, Matthew, Baron= (1842-1923). Born in Melbourne, Quebec. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Served with the 7th Royal Fusiliers in the Mediterranean and Canada. Saw service in the Fenian Raids, 1866 and 1870. Became adjutant-general of Canada, 1896; Inspector-general of Canadian forces, 1906. Major-general, 1907. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Aylmer, Matthew Whitworth, Baron= (1775-1850). Entered the army, 1787; served in the West Indies, in Holland, and in the Peninsula under Wellington. Reached the full rank of general, 1825; and in 1830 became governor-general of Canada; returned to England, 1835. He was not on very friendly terms with Papineau and his associates, and was bitterly attacked in the Ninety-Two Resolutions. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Aylwin, Thomas Cushing= (1806-1871). Born in Quebec city. Studied law and called to the bar, 1828. First entered public life, 1841, as member for Portneuf. He was opposed to the union of the provinces. After filling the office of solicitor-general in two administrations, raised to the bench, 1848. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Baby, James= (1762-1833). Born at Detroit. Educated at Quebec Seminary, and in 1784 travelled in Europe. On his return the following year engaged in the fur trade at Detroit. On the formation of the province of Upper Canada in 1791, appointed a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. Simcoe made him lieutenant for the county of Kent and judge of the Court of Common Pleas. Commanded the 1st Regiment of Kent militia in the War of 1812. In 1815 succeeded McGill as inspector-general of accounts for Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Daniel, _Nos Gloires Nationales_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Baby, Louis François Georges= (1834-1906). Born in Montreal. Studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1857; made a Q. C., 1873. Represented Joliette in Dominion House, 1872-1880; minister of inland revenue, 1878-1880. Appointed puisne judge of Superior Court, 1880; transferred to Queen’s Bench, 1881. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Back, Sir George= (1796-1878). Entered the navy as midshipman in 1808; accompanied Franklin on his Arctic expeditions of 1818, 1819-1822, and 1824-1827. Promoted lieutenant, 1822, and commander, 1827. In 1833-1835, led an expedition through what is now northern Canada, to the shores of the Arctic, to ascertain the fate of Captain Ross. The expedition resulted in the exploration of Great Fish River, which was renamed Back River in honour of the explorer. In 1836 explored the Arctic coast, between Regent Inlet and Cape Turnagain. Twice granted the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society; knighted, 1839; promoted admiral, 1857. =Bib.=: Works: _Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition_; _Narrative of Expedition in H. M. S. Terror_. For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Badgley, William= (1801-1888). Born in Montreal. Studied law and called to the bar, 1823. Member of the Legislative Assembly, 1847-1855; member of the Executive Council for Lower Canada, 1847-1848; appointed attorney-general. Judge of the Superior Court of Lower Canada, 1855-1863; assistant judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench for Quebec, 1863-1864; puisne judge of the same Court, 1866-1874. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Baffin, William.= Born in London about 1584. Made a voyage of discovery to Greenland in 1612. Three years later sailed as pilot of the _Discovery_ in search of the North-West Passage, traced the coast of Hudson Strait and the western side of Fox Channel as far as Frozen Strait. He was satisfied as a result of this voyage of 1615 that the North-West Passage was not to be found by way of Hudson Bay. In 1616 discovered and made a chart of Smith’s Sound and explored the bay afterwards associated with his name. Killed at the siege of Ormuz, 1622. _See also_ Bylot. =Bib.=: _Voyages of William Baffin_, ed. by Markham. =Baffin Island.= The great island that lies north of Hudson Strait. Named, like the bay between Greenland and Baffin Island, after William Baffin the explorer and navigator. Fox Land and Cockburn Land occupy respectively the south and north ends of the island. Bib.: _Atlas of Canada_; White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Bagot, Sir Charles= (1781-1843). Born in England. Educated at Rugby and Oxford; entered Parliament, 1807, becoming under-secretary for foreign affairs. Minister plenipotentiary to France, 1814; and to the United States, 1815-1820. Privy councillor, 1815; ambassador to St. Petersburg, 1820; and to the Hague, 1824. Governor-general of Canada, 1841-1843. His term of office embraced the very important period immediately following the Union of Upper and Lower Canada and the adoption of the principles of responsible government. Died in Kingston soon after retiring from office. =Bib.=: Richardson, _Eight Years in Canada_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_ and _Can. Por._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Baie de Chaleur.= In west coast of Gulf of St. Lawrence, on boundary between Quebec and New Brunswick. Discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1534, described in his narrative, and so named because he found it as warm there as in sunny Spain. =Bain, James= (1842-1908). Born in London, England. Came to Canada with his parents at an early age; educated at the Toronto Academy and the Toronto Grammar School. Spent some years in London engaged in the publishing business. Returned to Canada, 1882; appointed chief librarian of Toronto Public Library, 1883, and built it up into a very strong reference library, particularly rich in Canadian history. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men._; ed. Alexander Henry’s _Travels and Adventures_. =Baldoon.= A settlement near Lake St. Clair in Upper Canada, made by Lord Selkirk, 1803, and named after one of his own estates. Some of the Highland settlers he had brought out to Prince Edward Island subsequently removed to Baldoon. Situated in a swampy district, the settlement did not thrive, and the War of 1812 added its hardships to those of fever and ague. =Baldoon Street.= Built by Selkirk settlers, from Baldoon to Chatham on the River Thames, early in nineteenth century. =Baldwin, Robert= (1804-1858). Born and educated at York, he studied law and was called to the bar in 1825. Politically he was a Moderate Reformer, temperamentally opposed to unconstitutional measures, the dominant idea in his political programme being the adoption of responsible government. Entered public life in 1829, when he was elected to represent York in the Assembly of Upper Canada. Defeated following year. About this time he became closely associated with Francis Hincks. In 1836 appointed a member of the Executive Council by Sir Francis Bond Head. Finding his views hopelessly at variance with those of the governor, he resigned the same year. Baldwin was a consistent reformer, but had no sympathy with the Rebellion of 1837-1838, or with the extreme views of William Lyon Mackenzie and his associates. Appointed by Sydenham solicitor-general of Upper Canada, 1840, in the new Legislature of the United Provinces, and made an executive councillor the following year. Finding the governor-general had no intention of granting self-government, he promptly resigned. With Hincks he entered into an alliance with the moderate party in Lower Canada to work for responsible government. In 1842 on a reconstruction of the government, he became attorney-general for Upper Canada, in what was afterwards known as the Baldwin-LaFontaine administration. Among the important measures introduced this year, was his bill to create a non-sectarian University of Toronto. In 1843 the ministry resigned on the vexed question of ministerial responsibility, and Baldwin returned for a time to the practice of law in Toronto. Here he headed an agitation against the governor, Metcalfe, which led to the formation of the Reform Association, whose main plank was the application of the principles of the constitution of the mother country to Canadian affairs. In 1844 re-elected for York, and moved vote of censure against the governor-general for having violated the principles of the constitution by governing without a ministry. Two years later he made a political tour of the western part of Upper Canada, and in the election of 1847 was again elected for York. The Reform party having swept the country, the second Baldwin-LaFontaine ministry was formed, which remained in power from 1848 to 1851, when Baldwin finally retired from public life. Among the measures for which he was mainly responsible was what is known as the Baldwin Act, which laid the foundation of Ontario’s form of municipal government. It was the culmination of Baldwin’s long fight for responsible government. He also put through the bill for a non-sectarian university which he had first introduced some years before. Baldwin was also largely responsible for certain Acts revising the judicial system of Upper Canada. Although he had opposed the Rebellion, Baldwin supported in the legislature both the Amnesty Act and the Rebellion Losses Bill. After his retirement from public life, he was offered the chief-justiceship of Common Pleas for Upper Canada, and was also nominated for a seat on the Legislative Council, but failing health compelled him to decline both offers. Summing up the joint work of Baldwin and his great French-Canadian colleague LaFontaine, Professor Leacock says: “To find a real basis of political union between French and British Canada, to substitute for the strife of unreconciled races the fellow-citizenship of two great people, and set up in the foremost of British colonies an example of self-government that should prove the lasting basis of empire—this was the completed work by which they had amply earned the rest of eventide after the day of toil.” =Bib.=: Baldwin, _Correspondence_ (Toronto Public Library MSS); Davin, _The Irishman in Canada_; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Can. Por._; and _Last Forty Years_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Hincks, _Political History of Canada_. =Baldwin, William Warren.= Father of Robert Baldwin. Born in Ireland. Came to Canada 1798, and finally settled in York, now known as Toronto, where he practised medicine. He subsequently opened a classical school; and later engaged in legal practice. President of the Constitutional Reform Society, 1836. Represented Norfolk in the Legislature of Upper Canada. Member of Legislative Council, 1843. Died, 1844. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Scadding, _Toronto of Old_. =Bank of Montreal.= The first bank in Canada, founded in 1817. Began with a paid-up capital of $350,000. In 1925 capital $29,906,000, with a reserve of the same amount. Over 600 branches. It has counted among its presidents such eminent Canadians as John Molson, Peter McGill, Lord Mount Stephen and Lord Strathcona. Closely associated with the financing of such great enterprises as the Canadian Pacific Railway. Absorbed the Ontario Bank, Bank of British North America, the Merchants Bank, and Molson’s Bank. =Bib.=: _Centenary of the Bank of Montreal_, 1817-1917. =Bank of Nova Scotia.= Established, 1832. Authorized stock, £100,000. In 1925 $10,000,000, with a reserve of $19,500,000. Absorbed a number of other banks in Nova Scotia and elsewhere. Branches throughout Canada and the West Indies, as well as in parts of South America. =Bib.=: _History of the Bank of Nova Scotia._ =Bank of Upper Canada.= Established, 1823, with a capital of $41,364, which had increased in 1859 to $3,126,250. Its headquarters were in Toronto. After a long, prosperous career the bank stopped payment in 1866, the chief cause being the collapse in real estate in Canada West in 1857-1858. =Bib.=: _See_ Banking. =Banking.= The first bank established in Canada was the Bank of Montreal, which dates from the year 1817. The Bank of Quebec was established in 1818; and the Bank of Canada the same year. All three were chartered in 1822. A Banking Act was passed in 1841, providing a uniform system of banking. The Act of 1850 prohibited banks other than those incorporated by Parliament or royal charter from issuing notes. It also provided for a deposit with the government to be held as a guarantee; also for bank statistics. Other provisions designed to place banking on a more secure footing were incorporated in the Act of 1871. Further banking legislation was passed in 1881 and in 1890. The tendency in recent years has been to consolidate the banking business of the country in a few powerful banks with many branches. _See also_ under names of individual banks. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_; Shortt, _Early History of Canadian Banking_; _History of Canadian Currency, Banking and Exchange_; Breckenridge, _Canadian Banking System_; Hague, _Banking and Commerce_; _Historical Sketch of Canadian Banking_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 1; Walker, _History of Banking in Canada_. =Banks Island.= Westernmost island of the Arctic Archipelago. Named by Parry in 1820 after Sir Joseph Banks (1744-1820), president of the Royal Society for forty-two years. His name was also given to an island in Hecate Strait, coast of British Columbia. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Banner.= Newspaper, published at Toronto. Founded in 1883 by Peter and George Brown. Fought for the principles of responsible government. Name subsequently changed to the _Globe_. _See_ Globe. =Baptist Church.= Like several other religious denominations in Canada, it had its origin in Nova Scotia. Some Baptists were living in Lunenburg as early as 1753. In 1800 the first Baptist Association was formed at Granville, Nova Scotia, and by 1850 there were Baptist Associations in many parts of the province. In 1828 the Nova Scotia Baptist Educational Society was established. First established in Fredericton, N.B., 1813. The first church was built in Montreal, 1830; and in 1834 the Baptist Seminary of New Brunswick was founded at Fredericton. In 1852 the Baptist Missionary Society of Canada was established. Since then the Baptists have grown rapidly in all the provinces, and several Baptist colleges and institutions have been established, notably Acadia and McMaster Universities (_q.v._). The Baptist Church was organized in British Columbia in 1877. Strength in Canada by the census of 1921, 421,731. =Bib.=: Wells, _History of the Baptist Denomination in Canada_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 3; Hill, _Forty Years with the Baptist Ministers and Churches of the Maritime Provinces of Canada_. =Baranof, Alexander Andrevitch= (1747-1819). Governor of Russian America. Had been manager of a glass factory in Irkutsk, Siberia; grew tired of the monotonous though profitable business and engaged in the fur trade of eastern Siberia. Appointed governor of the principal Russian trading company in America, 1790. Nine years later, the different companies were united, and Baranof moved his headquarters from Kodiak to New Archangel (Sitka), where he built a strong fort, with a shipyard, foundry, churches and hospitals. Even a library and picture-gallery were afterwards added to this little outpost of Russian civilization. The Russian-American Fur Company established trading posts at different points, and came into indirect contact with the North West Company, and later into more direct relations with the Hudson’s Bay Company. Eventually the immense territory they occupied, including the long coastal strip afterwards known as the Panhandle, was sold to the United States, and Canada lost the coast north of Portland Canal. In 1818 Baranof sailed for home, and died at sea on the voyage. =Bib.=: Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_. =Barclay, Robert H.= Born in Scotland. Took part in the battle of Trafalgar. Sent to Canada, and commander of British naval force on Lake Erie in 1813. On September 10th, 1813, defeated by the American fleet under Perry. Subsequently court-martialled, but acquitted. His defeat was due not to his own incapacity but to the fact that he was distinctly inferior in men, guns and equipment to the Americans, for which conditions not he but his superior officers were to blame. Died 1837. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Cyc. Am. Biog_.; Lucas, _Canadian War of_ 1812. _See also_ War of 1812. =Barclay, Thomas= (1753-1830). Born in New York. A graduate of Columbia College, and studied law under John Jay. In 1775 served in the British army during the American Revolution, and in 1777 became major. At the end of the war moved to Nova Scotia; entered the House of Assembly, and for some time Speaker. Appointed adjutant-general of militia; served as a commissioner under Jay’s Treaty; appointed consul-general at New York for the Northern and Eastern states. Commissioner under fourth and fifth articles of the Treaty of Ghent. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog_.; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Barker, William George= (1894-). Went overseas with 1st C.M. Rifles, 1915. Transferred to Royal Air Force same year. Officially credited with fifty-two enemy machines. Decorated with _Victoria Cross_, D.S.O. with one Bar, Military Cross with two Bars, Italian Silver Medal for Valour, French Croix de Guerre. Promoted Captain, Major and Lieutenant-Colonel. Served in France and Italy. =Barkley, Charles William= (1759-1832). Served in the East India Company; sailed on a trading voyage for sea-otter skins to the North-West Coast, 1787. Brought his bride with him, the first white woman on the North-West Coast. Discovered and named Juan de Fuca Strait the same year, and carried his cargo of furs to China. In 1792 made another voyage to the North-West Coast, again accompanied by his wife, who kept interesting journals of both voyages. Died at North Crescent, Hartford. Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island, discovered and named by him. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Baronets of Nova Scotia.= An order created by James I, in 1625, for the purpose of “advancing the plantation of Nova Scotia.” The scheme, which King James had deeply at heart, was designed to assist Sir William Alexander in his ambitious plans of colonization in the New World, by offering a special inducement to men of position in Scotland to take tracts of land in Nova Scotia, and to bring out numbers of colonists to settle upon them. _See also_ Stirling. =Bib.=: Duncan, _Royal Province of New Scotland and her Baronets_; Bourinot, _Builders of Nova Scotia_; Patterson, _Sir William Alexander_ (R. S. C., 1892); Mackenzie, _Baronets of Nova Scotia_ (R. S. C., 1901); _Royal Letters, Charters and Tracts Relating to the Colonisation of Nova Scotia and the Institution of the Order of Knights Baronet of Nova Scotia_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =Barré, Isaac= (1726-1802). Born in Ireland. Served under Wolfe against Rochefort in 1757, and at Quebec in 1759, being at Wolfe’s side when he fell. Entered Parliament, 1761, and a member until 1790. In 1763-1764 adjutant-general and governor of Stirling; in 1764-1768, vice-treasurer of Ireland and a privy councillor; in 1782, treasurer of the navy. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Barren Grounds.= The region of northern Canada, lying between the Mackenzie River and Hudson Bay, and from the northern timber-line to the Arctic. First visited by Samuel Hearne in 1770-1772. Later explorers who traversed portions of the country are Franklin, in 1821; Back, in 1833; Dease and Simpson, in 1839; Richardson, in 1848; and Anderson, in 1855. Within more recent years, Warburton Pike, J. B. Tyrrell, J. W. Tyrrell, D. T. Hanbury and Caspar Whitney have explored parts of the Barren Grounds. =Bib.=: Hearne, _Journey to the Northern Ocean_; Franklin, _Narrative_; Back, _Arctic Land Expedition_; Simpson, _North Coasts of America_; Richardson, _Arctic Searching Expedition_; Anderson, _Descent of Great Fish River_, in _Royal Geog. Soc. Journal_, 1856 and 1857; Pike, _Barren Grounds_; Tyrrell, _Across the Sub-Arctics_; Hanbury, _Northland of Canada_; Whitney, _On Snowshoes to the Barren Grounds_. =Barrie on Lake Simcoe. Town of Ontario.= Named after Commodore Robert Barrie, who was stationed at Kingston during the war of 1812-1814, and for some years thereafter. In 1823 he is mentioned as acting commissioner of the navy at Kingston, and in 1828 made an official visit to York in H. M. Schooner _Cockburn_. Sir John Franklin visited Barrie in 1819 on his way overland to the Arctic. =Barron, Colin.= Corporal, 3rd Battalion, C.E.F. Awarded the _Victoria Cross_ for conspicuous bravery at Passchendaele Ridge, November 6th, 1917. He rushed enemy machine-guns single-handed, killed four of the crew and captured the remainder. Then turned one of the guns on the retiring enemy, his action producing far-reaching results and enabling the advance to be continued. =Barter=. This primitive means of exchange was in use in the early days of New France. Men bartered a lot of ground for two cows and a pair of stockings, or an ox for a quantity of grain. Similar conditions prevailed in the pioneer days of Upper Canada, and in Western Canada. Barter was also the basis of the fur trade—goods for furs, but here a form of currency was afterwards introduced, the unit being the assumed value of a beaver skin, represented by metal or other tokens. Both the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North-West Company used copper tokens, which are now very rare. Only seven of the N. W. C. Beaver tokens are known to exist. _Plus_ was a term expressing the monetary unit of the fur trade and represented one good beaver skin. See Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_, I, 7. _See also_ Currency. =Barthe, J. G.= Took part in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Afterwards became editor of _L’Avenir du Canada_. Member for Yamaska in Canadian Assembly, 1841-1844. =Basques.= A pre-Aryan race, occupying the border-land between France and Spain. Assertions have repeatedly been made that they made voyages to America, and discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, before Cartier, and even before Cabot, but these have never been substantiated. All the evidence goes to show that they frequented the Newfoundland fisheries in the sixteenth century, but not earlier. =Bib.=: Dawson, _The St. Lawrence Basin_; Reade, _The Basques in North America_ (R. S. C., 1888); Howley, _Old Basque Tombstones at Placentia_. =Bathurst, Henry, third Earl= (1762-1834). Succeeded to the title, 1794. Entered Parliament, 1793; president of the board of trade, 1807; foreign secretary, 1809; and secretary for war and the colonies, 1812. Directed Britain’s colonial policy during the important administrations of Prevost, Sherbrooke and Dalhousie, in Lower Canada, and of Brock, Gore and Maitland, in Upper Canada. Lord president of the Council, 1828-1830; one of the original members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 1833. As colonial secretary he was involved in the Clergy Reserves question. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; _Courts and Cabinets of George IV._ =Bathurst Island.= One of the Arctic Archipelago. North of Melville Sound. Discovered by Parry in 1819. Named after the Earl of Bathurst, then Secretary for War and the Colonies. =Battle of the Plains.= _See_ Plains of Abraham. =Battleford.= A town on the North Saskatchewan, at the mouth of the Battle River. Founded in 1875; incorporated as a town in 1904. In the Rebellion of 1885, it was threatened by Poundmaker’s warriors, and relieved by Otter’s Column. The Battle of Cut Knife Hill was fought about thirty-five miles from Battleford. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1885. =Battles.= _See_ Amiens; Batoche; Beaver Dam; Bourlon Wood; Cambrai; Chateauguay; Cook’s Mills; Crysler’s Farm; Cut Knife Hill; Drocourt-Quéant; Duck Lake; Eccles Hill; Festubert; Fish Creek; Fort George; Frenchman’s Creek; Givenchy; Hill Seventy; Israel’s Poort; Lacolle; Lake George; Lens; Loos; Lundy’s Lane; Mafeking; Monongahela; Odelltown; Paardeberg; Passchendaele; Plains of Abraham; Poplar Grove; Queenston Heights; St. Eloi; Ste. Foy; St. Julien; Sanctuary Wood; Seven Oaks; Somme; Thames; Ticonderoga; Vimy Ridge; Windmill Point; Ypres. =Bay of Quinte.= _See_ Quinte, Bay of. =Bayfield, Henry Wolsey= (1795-1885). Born in Hull, England. Entered the navy, 1806. Had a distinguished career in the navy, and served in Canadian waters, 1814. Subsequently assisted in the survey of the upper St. Lawrence, and appointed Admiralty surveyor, 1817. During his tenure of office surveyed Lakes Erie, Huron, and Superior, with their connecting waters, and almost the whole eastern coast of Canada, including Labrador. Made vice-admiral, 1856, and admiral, 1867. Resided for fourteen years in Quebec, when he removed to Charlottetown. Received the thanks of the Parliament of Canada for his services, 1854. Died in Charlottetown. =Baynes, Edward.= Born in England. Served in the West Indies, at the Cape, in the East Indies, and in Malta. From 1794 to 1806 aide-de-camp to Sir James Craig, and in 1807 adjutant-general of the forces in Canada. In the War of 1812 served on the Niagara frontier. Died, 1829. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Edgar, _General Brock_. =Béarn Regiment.= Established, 1595, and served with distinction in a number of European campaigns. Landed at Quebec, June, 1755, with the regiment of Guienne and a portion of the Languedoc battalion, and added to its laurels at Fort Frontenac, Niagara, Oswego, Carillon, Fort William Henry, and Ticonderoga. In 1759, on the Plains of Abraham, it occupied the place of honour, having been stationed by Montcalm in the centre of his line. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_. =Beauharnois, Charles de la Boische, Marquis de= (1670-1749). Entered French navy, 1686, and rose to the rank of admiral in 1748. In 1726 appointed governor of New France, which position he held until 1747. Took a deep interest in Western exploration, and was a firm friend of La Vérendrye. Reputed to be a natural son of Louis XIV. After his return to France he was made lieutenant-general of naval forces. The first husband of the Empress Josephine was descended from his family. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_; Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903). =Beauharnois, François de= (1665-1746). Born in France. Became intendant of New France in 1702 and held the position until 1705. In 1707 granted the barony of Beauville. Appointed intendant de l’armée navale, 1706; intendant of marines, 1710; intendant générale des armées navales, 1739. =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903). =Beauport.= A village two miles below Quebec. In the Siege of Quebec, 1759, it was the headquarters of the intendant and commissary of stores. Defended by an intrenched camp. In the panic following the Battle of the Plains and the death of Montcalm, the camp was abandoned with all its stores of food and equipment. =Beauséjour.= A fort built by the French in 1750-1751, on Chignecto Bay, near Beaubassin, one of the principal Acadian settlements, and three miles from the British Fort Lawrence. A little tidal stream, the Missaguash, ran between—nominally marking the dividing line between British and French territory. The fort was captured by the British under Monckton, in 1755, and renamed Fort Cumberland. The ruins, still in a fair state of preservation in part, are looked after by the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _Fight with France_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_; Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Beaven, Robert.= Born, 1836. Went to British Columbia and engaged in gold-mining. Worked for Confederation and was secretary of Confederate League. Sat for Victoria in British Columbia Legislature, 1871-1894. Chief commissioner of lands and works, 1872; minister of finance and agriculture, 1878; premier, 1882, resigned, 1883. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Beaver.= First steamer on the Pacific, 1835. Built in Great Britain. Her machinery was installed after she arrived at Fort Vancouver. She sailed up and down the north-west coast of North America for forty-three years, and was finally wrecked at the entrance to Burrard Inlet in 1888. =Bib.=: McCain, _History of the S.S. Beaver_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Beaverbrook, Sir Max Aitken, Baron= (1879-). Born in Vaughan, Ontario. Engaged for some years in the promotion of large industrial organizations in Canada. Went to England and was elected to the Imperial Parliament for Ashton-under-Lyne, and became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. During the war was attached to the Canadian Expeditionary Force as “eye-witness” with rank of lieutenant-colonel, and general representative of the Dominion government with Canadian troops at the front. Prepared first two volumes of _Canada in Flanders_, a semi-official Canadian history of the war. A trustee of the Imperial War Museum, and largely instrumental in securing for Canada material for both a war museum and a very comprehensive collection of war pictures. Minister of information in the British government during the war. Created a baronet, 1916, and a baron, 1917. =Beaver Club.= Founded in Montreal in 1775 by the partners of the North West Company. It opened with nineteen members, and at one time the registry showed ninety-three members, with eleven honorary members. Among them were such famous fur traders and explorers as Alexander Mackenzie and his cousin Roderick, the three Frobishers, Alexander Henry and his nephew of the same name, Simon McTavish, James Finlay, Simon Fraser and John Stuart. The motto of the club was “Fortitude in Distress.” No one was admitted who had not made a journey to the North-West and wintered there. The club entertained many distinguished guests, including Sir John Franklin, Lord Selkirk, Washington Irving, and the Earl of Dalhousie. Disbanded in 1824 after the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. An effort to revive it in 1827 proved unsuccessful. =Bib.=: Hetherington, _Canada’s First Social Club_, in _Univ. Mag._, April, 1910; Read, _Masters of the Wilderness_; Burpee, _The Beaver Club_, in Annual Report of Can. Hist. Assn., 1924. =Beaver Dam, Battle of.= In War of 1812. FitzGibbon commanded a detachment of the 49th Regiment, about fifty men, with several hundred Indians. Boerstler, with a party of 600 men, advanced from Fort George by way of Queenston to surprise him, but was ambushed by a body of Indians. FitzGibbon, who had been warned of the approach of Boerstler by Laura Secord, advanced with his men of the 49th, made very clever and effective use of his Indians who kept firing on the enemy from different points, and demanded the surrender of the Americans, who, believing themselves surrounded by a superior force, capitulated. The engagement took place June 26th, 1813. _See also_ War of 1812; FitzGibbon; Laura Secord. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Hannay, _War of 1812_; FitzGibbon, _A Veteran of 1812_; Curzon, _Laura Secord, the Heroine of 1812_; Cruikshank, _The Fight in the Beechwoods_; Thompson, _Jubilee History of Thorold_. =Bédard, Elzéar.= For some years a member of the Assembly of Lower Canada. Moved the celebrated Ninety-Two Resolutions, 1837. Puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1837; suspended, but afterwards reinstated. Died, 1849. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Bédard, Pierre Stanislas= (1762-1829). Educated at the Seminary of Quebec; studied law, and appointed advocate, 1790. Elected for Northumberland to the first Legislature of Lower Canada, 1792. In 1806, with a number of other French Canadians in the Assembly, founded _Le Canadien_, to represent the views of the popular party. Sir James Craig, the governor, considered him a dangerous revolutionist. In 1810 the paper was seized, and, although he claimed liberty of the press, Bédard and his associates were arrested on a charge of treasonable practices. Released the following year. In 1812 appointed judge of the District Court of Three Rivers. Retired in 1829 on account of ill health. =Bib.=: Parent, _Pierre Bédard et Ses Deux Fils_ in _Journal d’Instruction Publique_, 1859; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; De Gaspé, _Memoires_; Dionne, _Pierre Bédard et Ses Fils_; Dionne, _Pierre Bédard et Son Temps_ (R. S. C., 1898). =Beechey, Frederick William= (1796-1856). A lieutenant in Buchan’s voyage to Spitzbergen, 1818, and Parry’s first voyage to the Arctic, 1819-1820. Sailed as commander of the _Blossom_ by Bering Strait to Point Barrow, 1825-1828, discovering Arctic coast between Icy Cape and Point Barrow. Became president of the Royal Geographical Society, 1856. _Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering Strait_; =Bib.=: White, _Place Names, Northern Canada_. =Beer, Henry= (1835-1886). Born in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Elected to the Assembly, 1870; a member of the ministry, 1872; Speaker of the Assembly, 1877; mayor of Charlottetown, 1885-1886. =Begbie, Sir Matthew Baillie= (1819-1894). Born in Edinburgh; educated at Cambridge; and called to the English bar in 1844. Judge of the colony of British Columbia and judge of the Vice-admiralty Court, 1858-1870. He made a notable journey to the Upper Fraser in 1859. Established a reputation among the unruly elements of the Gold Rush for fearlessness and unflinching justice. Chief-justice of British Columbia, 1870-1894, and also judge of the Admiralty district of British Columbia, 1891-1894. Knighted, 1875. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of British Columbia_; Nicolls, _Sir Matthew Baillie Begbie_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Begg, Alexander.= Two historians of this name, or rather these names, have added to our knowledge of the Canadian West. The first was born in Scotland in 1825, came to Canada and engaged in journalism. In 1869 collector of customs at Fort Garry and accompanied William McDougall to Red River that year, and in later years acted as immigration commissioner, first, for Ontario and, later, for British Columbia. Published in 1894 the _History of British Columbia_. The second was born in Quebec in 1840. In 1867 he became a pioneer in opening up trade between Eastern Canada and Manitoba. Took an active part in the movement to secure representative institutions for the western colony. In 1878 became sergeant-at-arms of the Manitoba Legislature, and from 1878 to 1884 deputy provincial treasurer. Afterwards general immigration agent for the Canadian Pacific railway. Author of _The Creation of Manitoba_; _A Story of Saskatchewan_; _Ten Years in Winnipeg_; _History of the North-West_. =Bib.=: For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Bégin, Louis Nazaire= (1840-1925). Born in Lévis, P.Q. Professor of ecclesiastical history Laval University, 1868-1884. Bishop of Chicoutimi, 1888-1891. Coadjutor to Cardinal Taschereau, 1891-1898. Archbishop of Quebec, 1898. Cardinal, 1914. =Begon, Michel, Sieur de la Picardiére= (1674-1740). Filled the office of inspector-general of marines in France, 1707-1710. In the latter year appointed intendant of Canada, but did not arrive in Quebec until 1712. Returned to France, 1726, and for some years acted as intendant of justice in Normandy. =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903). =Belcher, Sir Edward= (1799-1877). Entered the navy in 1812. From 1836 to 1842 he was engaged in exploring the western coast of America. Sent out in 1852 as commander of the expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. Between that year and 1854 Melville Island was examined and all the land north and north-west of it, including Prince Patrick Island, on which cairns were found left by McClintock; also Wellington Channel. A party was sent to relieve McClure. The ships were abandoned in the ice about longitude 101°. =Bib.=: _Last of the Arctic Voyages_; Smith, _Arctic Expeditions_. =Belcher, Jonathan= (1711-1776). Second son of Governor Belcher of Massachusetts. Educated at Harvard University, Cambridge, and in England; called to the English bar. Appointed chief-justice of Nova Scotia, 1754. President of the Council of Nova Scotia and administrator of the government, 1760. Chiefly instrumental in securing for Nova Scotia a representative Assembly. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Bell, Alexander Graham= (1847-1922). Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh University and London University; came to Canada in 1870. Professor of physiology in Boston University, 1872. Patented his invention of the telephone, 1876; and also invented the photophone, induction balance, telephone probe, and graphophone. Made his first experiments with the telephone at Brantford, Ont. In 1898 appointed regent of the Smithsonian Institution. In 1909-1910 engaged in aeroplane experiments. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Who’s Who_, 1910; _Addresses before Canadian Club of Ottawa_, 1910. =Belleau, Sir Narcisse= (1808-1894). Born in the city of Quebec and educated there. In 1852 a member of the Legislative Council, and in 1857-1862 Speaker. Mayor of Quebec, 1860, when King Edward VIII, as Prince of Wales, visited Canada, and knighted on the occasion. In 1862 appointed minister of agriculture in the Cartier-Macdonald ministry; and in 1865 premier and receiver-general in a coalition government. Appointed lieutenant-governor of the province of Quebec, 1867; resigned in 1873. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Belle Isle, Strait of.= Between Newfoundland and the mainland. Named probably after Belle-Ile-en-Mer, an island in the Atlantic off the coast of France. Jacques Cartier was, so far as is known, the discoverer of the Straits, having sailed through in 1534 and again in 1535 and 1541. =Belleville.= A very picturesque town of Ontario on the Bay of Quinté. Founded by Captain Myers, in 1790. Incorporated as a town in 1834, as a city, 1877. There was an open riot in this Loyalist town, in 1849, over the Rebellion Losses Bill. =Bellew, Edward Donald.= Captain, 7th Battalion, C.E.F. Awarded the _Victoria Cross_ for most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty. At Keerselaere, in the Ypres Salient, April 24th, 1915, he held up the enemy’s attack with a machine-gun. When his ammunition failed, and the enemy rushed the position, he smashed his machine-gun with a rifle, and, fighting to the last, was taken prisoner. =Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett= (1846-1923). Born in London, England. Educated there, and came to Canada, 1866. Founder and first president of the Canadian Society of Artists, Montreal, 1867; director of Alma College, 1881; member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Artists, 1888; director of the Toronto Art School, 1889-1891. President of the Ontario Society of Artists. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Belmont, François Vachon de.= Came to Canada from France in 1680, and joined the Seminary of St. Sulpice at Montreal, of which he was superior, 1698-1732. Died the latter year. Left a _History of Canada_, which was published in the first series of Historical Documents of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec. =Bering, Vitus= (1681-1741). Born at Horsens, Denmark. Joined the Russian navy in 1704; and in 1725 sent by Peter the Great to explore the waters east of Kamchatka and examine the American coast. After a three-years’ journey overland, reached the eastern shore of Siberia, built vessels there, and in 1728 followed the coast north to the Arctic, proving that Asia and America were not united. In 1733 set out again, on the long overland journey, hampered with a huge retinue, and it was not until 1741 that his ships were ready at Petropaulovsk. Sailed to the east, reached and explored the American coast, and was wrecked on what was afterwards known as Bering Island, where he died, December 8th, 1741. =Bib.=: Lauridsen, _Vitus Bering_; Muller, _Voyages from Asia to America_; Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_; Golder, _Bering’s Voyages_. =Bering Sea Question.= Arose out of a dispute as to the seal-fisheries of Bering Sea. Several Canadian sealers were seized by the United States in 1886, on the plea that these waters constituted a _mare clausum_, or closed sea. Similar seizures were made in 1887 and 1889. Finally the British and United States governments agreed to submit the question to arbitration. The commission met at Paris in 1893. Lord Hannen and Sir John Thompson represented British interests; the United States was represented by Judge Harlan and Senator Morgan. The other arbitrators were Marquis Visconti Venosta of Italy, Gregora W. Gram of Sweden, and Baron de Courcel of Belgium, who presided. The decision was in favour of Great Britain, and contrary to the claim of the United States to jurisdiction over the waters of Bering Sea and the seals visiting the coasts and islands of Alaska. Regulations were provided for the better protection of the fisheries; and the United States was required to compensate the Canadian sealers for the unlawful seizure of their vessels. =Bib.=: _Report of Bering Sea Commission_. =Berkeley, George Cranfield= (1753-1818). Entered the navy, 1766; accompanied Cook in survey of coast of Newfoundland and Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1766-1769; and was on the _Victory_ at Ushant, 1778. In 1786 surveyor-general of ordnance, 1786; and vice-admiral on the Halifax station, 1805-1807, during which time occurred the affair between the _Chesapeake_ and the _Leopard_. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Berlin.= _See_ Kitchener. =Berlin Decrees.= Issued by Napoleon, November, 1806, to the following effect: The British Isles were in a state of blockade; intercourse with them was prohibited; all British subjects within French authority were to be held as prisoners of war; all British property, private and public, was declared to be prize of war; also merchandise from Britain; merchants whose property had been captured by British cruisers were to be indemnified from the product of such seizures; no British ships were to be admitted into any port of France, or her allies; every vessel eluding this rule was to be confiscated. The object of the decrees was to close the continent against British commerce. The British government retaliated by issuing an order-in-council, refusing to neutrals the right of trading from one hostile port to another. =Bib.=: _Dict. Eng. Hist._; Green, _Short History of the English People_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_. =Bermuda.= This group of islands in mid-Atlantic was discovered about the beginning of the sixteenth century, and its settlement dates from the early part of the next century. It has for a very long time been associated in many ways with Canada and particularly with Nova Scotia. Bermuda is the first stop in the steamship route between Halifax and the West Indies. Halifax and Bermuda were connected by cable in 1890. From 1825 to 1839 Bermuda ecclesiastically came under the jurisdiction of the Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia. From time to time unofficial proposals have been put forward for the annexation of these islands either to Nova Scotia or to Canada, but the Bermudians have preferred to paddle their own canoe. Bermuda is included in the last trade agreement between Canada and the West Indies. =Bib.=: Lefroy, _Memorials of Bermuda_; Ogilvy, _Bermuda: past and present_; Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_. =Bernard, Hewitt= (1825-1893). Entered the Canadian public service, 1858; deputy minister of justice, 1867; resigned, 1876. Acted as confidential secretary to the Quebec Conference on Confederation, 1866, and as secretary to the Confederation delegates in London the following year. In 1872 created I. C.; and the same year made C. M. G. In 1878 appointed assistant commissioner to France and Spain to negotiate commercial treaties. Aide-de-camp to Lord Monck, 1868, and to Lord Stanley, 1888. =Bib.=: Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_. =Bernier, Joseph Elzéar= (1852-). Went to sea, and became master of a brigantine at seventeen. Has given particular study to Arctic exploration, and lectured on subject in Europe and America. Planned a Canadian Polar expedition, but Peary’s discovery put an end to it. Has made several voyages to the Arctic Seas on behalf of Canadian government, for purposes of exploration and to take formal possession for the Dominion of Arctic Islands. _See also_ Arctic Archipelago. =Bib.=: _Report of Dominion Government Expedition to Arctic Islands 1906-1907_. =Bernières, Henri de= (1635-1700). Born in France. Came to Canada with Laval in 1659. Curé of Quebec, 1660-1687; and grand-vicar of the bishop of Quebec. First superior of the Seminary of Quebec, 1663, holding that position till 1688 and from 1693 to 1697. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites; Gosselin, _Henri de Bernières_. =Berthier, Alexandre= (1638-1709). Born in France. Came to Canada in 1665; and in 1666 commandant at Fort St. Jean. Led expeditions against the Iroquois. In 1672 granted the seigniory of Berthier in Bellechasse County, Quebec. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_. =Bethune, Alexander Neil= (1800-1879). Born in Glengarry, Ontario. In 1823 ordained deacon, and in 1824, priest. In 1847 archdeacon of York (Toronto), and in 1867 consecrated coadjutor-bishop of Toronto; succeeded to the bishopric on the death of Bishop Strachan. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Mockridge, _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. =Bethune, John= (1751-1815). Born in Scotland. Emigrated in his early years to South Carolina, and was chaplain of the loyal militia. Taken prisoner at the battle of Cross Creek, in 1776. Afterwards chaplain to 84th Regiment. In 1786 resided in Montreal; minister of the Presbyterian Church there; afterwards appointed to a mission in Glengarry. He was the first Presbyterian minister in Upper Canada. Died at Williamstown. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Macdonell, _Sketches Illustrating the Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada_. =Biard, Pierre= (1565-1622). Came to Port Royal in 1611, with Massé—the first of their order in New France. The relations of the Jesuits with Poutrincourt and his son Biencourt were far from cordial; little or no progress was made with the conversion of the Micmacs; and in 1613 Biard sailed with Massé for Mount Desert, with an expedition sent out by Madame de Guercheville. They had hardly begun the new settlement, when Argall swooped down, seized their ship, plundered their property, and carried Biard and some of his companions prisoners to Virginia. Argall brought the Jesuit back with him to Acadia the same year; the vessel in which he sailed was carried out to sea, and after a series of adventures Biard finally reached France and remained there. =Bib.=: Biard, _Relation_; Carayon, _Première Mission des Jesuites au Canada_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Bibaud, Michel= (1782-1857). An early French-Canadian historian. Educated at the College of St. Raphael. =Bib.=: Works: _Epitres, Satires, Chansons Epigrammes, et autre Pièces de Vers; Histoire du Canada et des Canadiens sous la Domination Anglaise_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Bidwell, Marshall Spring= (1799-1872). Born in New England. Came to Canada with his father, 1812, and practised law. In 1824-1835 a member of the Upper Canada Assembly; in 1829 elected Speaker of the House, and re-elected, 1835. One of the leaders of the popular party of Upper Canada. His outspoken sympathy with the Rebellion of 1837-1838 resulted in his banishment. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Davin, _The Irishman in Canada_. =Biencourt de Poutrincourt, Charles= (1583-1638?). Son of Jean de Biencourt. Accompanied his father to Port Royal in 1605. Returned to France in 1610; made vice-admiral in the seas of New France, and, somewhat unwillingly, brought with him to Acadia in 1611 the Jesuits Biard and Massé. While absent from Port Royal, the fort was attacked and burnt by Argall in 1613. Biencourt partially rebuilt Port Royal, and was still there in 1618. Returned to France some time before 1621, and appointed director of the Royal Academy of Paris, which position he held up to the time of his death. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Patterson, _Last Days of Charles de Biencourt_ (R. S. C., 1896). =Biencourt de Poutrincourt, Jean de, Baron de Saint Just= (1557-1615). Had won distinction as a soldier in the service of France; and in 1604 sailed with De Monts and Champlain to Acadia. Was so charmed with Port Royal that he determined to make it his home. De Monts made him a grant of the lands about Annapolis Basin, which the king confirmed. Went back to France and brought out his family to the new settlement. Accompanied Champlain in his exploration of the Bay of Fundy and the North Atlantic coast. Jesuit missionaries were sent out to Port Royal, whom Poutrincourt, although a good Roman Catholic, found far from congenial. Their relations became more and more strained, and when Poutrincourt sailed to France in 1613, the Jesuits succeeded in having him thrown into prison. Regained his liberty and returned to Acadia, but found Port Royal in ashes. Returned to France, and fell in the attack on Méry. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_. _See also_ Lescarbot; Champlain; De Monts. =Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne, sieur de= (1680-1768). Son of Charles Le Moyne, and brother of Iberville. Joined war party against Schenectady in 1689. Accompanied Iberville to Hudson Bay in 1697, and took part in the capture of Fort Nelson and the defeat of the English fleet. The following year sailed with his brother to the mouth of the Mississippi, where they laid the foundations of the colony of Louisiana. After the death of Iberville, became governor of the colony, and remained there for thirty-five years. Founded the city of New Orleans, and laboured unceasingly to advance the interests of Louisiana. Retired to France, and died in Paris. =Bib.=: King, _Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville_; Reed, _The First Great Canadian_; Margry, _Découvertes des Français_. _See also_ Iberville. =Big Bear.= An Indian chief who with his braves took part on the rebel side in the Saskatchewan Rebellion of 1885. Responsible for the massacre at Frog Lake (_q.v._). Attacked Fort Pitt and took the Hudson’s Bay Company’s agent and his family prisoners. Managed to elude General Strange, but finally gave himself up to the Mounted Police. Tried but pardoned. =Bigot, François.= Born at Bordeaux, January 30th, 1703; son of Louis-Amable Bigot. Through his influence at court, obtained several lucrative offices in New France, which he turned to his own personal advantage. Arrived at Louisbourg in 1739. After the capture of Louisbourg in 1745, returned to France, where serious charges of misappropriating public funds had been brought against him, but his influence at court was still powerful enough to extricate him from this scrape, and to secure him the office of intendant of New France, 1748. Sailed for Quebec and arrived the same year. Able but unscrupulous, he elaborated a system of peculation, by which every branch of the public service was laid under tribute to enrich himself and his creatures, helping thereby to bring about the final loss of the colony. Returned to France after the conquest of Canada; thrown into the Bastille, and released, only to be banished from France. =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903); Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Billings, Elkanah= (1820-1876). Born in township of Gloucester, Ontario. Studied law, called to the bar, 1845, and practised in Ottawa. Appointed paleontologist of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1856, and in the same year established the _Canadian Naturalist_. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Ami, _Brief Biographical Sketch of Elkanah Billings_. =Billopp, Christopher= (1737-1827). Commanded a corps of Loyalists in the American Revolution, raised in the vicinity of New York. His extensive property was confiscated. Lord Howe met Franklin, Adams and Rutledge, a Committee of Congress, at Billopp House, in an attempt to adjust the difficulties between the mother country and the colonies. Billopp went to Nova Scotia in 1783, and thence to New Brunswick, where he became a member of the Assembly and of the Council. Died at St. John. =Bishop, William Avery= (1894-). Educated at the Royal Military College. Went overseas with 7th Canadian Mounted Rifles as lieutenant. Joined Royal Flying Corps, 1915. Promoted captain, 1917; major, 1917; lieutenant-colonel, 1918. Awarded Military Cross, 1917; D.S.O., 1917; _Victoria Cross_, 1917; Bar to D.S.O., 1917; Distinguished Flying Cross, 1918; Legion of Honour, 1918; Croix de Guerre with Palm, 1918. Officially credited with seventy-two German machines destroyed. Lectured on aerial warfare, 1919-1920. =Bib.=: _Winged Warfare_. =Bishops of New France.= François de Laval-Montmorency, 1674-1688; Jean Baptiste de la Croix-Chevrière de Saint-Vallier, 1688-1727; Louis François de Mornay, 1727-1733; Pierre-Herman Dosquet, 1733-1739; François Louis Pourroy de L’Auberivière, 1739-1740; Henri-Marie Dubreuil de Pontbriand, 1741-1760. =Black, John= (1817-1879). Born in Scotland. Went to the Red River Settlement as legal adviser to Adam Thorn, recorder of Rupert’s Land, 1839. Subsequently entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company and rose to the position of chief trader. Went back to Scotland, 1852. Spent some time in Australia, and returned to the Red River Settlement as recorder of Rupert’s Land, 1862. Appointed a delegate to Ottawa to present the views of the settlers on the taking over of the country by the Dominion government, 1870. Proceeded to Scotland, where he died. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Manitoba_. =Black, John= (1818-1882). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to America with his parents and studied for a time at Delaware Academy at Delhi, New York. Came to Canada and completed his theological course at Knox College, Toronto. Ordained to the ministry of the Presbyterian Church and proceeded to the Red River Settlement, 1851. Remained in charge of the church at Kildonan until his death. =Bib.=: Bryce, _John Black: The Apostle of the Red River_. =Black, William= (1760-1834). Born in England. In 1775 came to Canada and became a Wesleyan Methodist preacher. Founded the Wesleyan Church in Nova Scotia, and became general superintendent of British American Wesleyan missions. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Maclean, _William Black_. =Black, William.= President of the New Brunswick Assembly in 1831. Married a daughter of Christopher Billopp (_q.v._). A member of the Legislative Council of New Brunswick and of the Executive Council. Resigned, 1843. =Blackader, Hugh W.= (1808-1863). Descended from Loyalist stock. Began to learn the trade of printer at the age of twelve. Acquired an interest in the _Acadian Recorder_, 1837, and continued to publish the paper until his death. Closely identified with the Reform movement and a strong supporter of Joseph Howe. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Blackfoot Indians.= A Western confederacy, of Siksika stock. First described in the journal of Anthony Hendry, 1754-1755, and again by Matthew Cocking, 1772-1773. They were then known to the Crees as the Archithinue. Cocking also gives the following for the five tribes in the Confederacy: Powestic-Athinuewuck or Water-fall Indians; Mithco-Athinuewuck or Bloody Indians; Koskitow-Wathesitock or Black-footed Indians; Pegonow or Muddy-water Indians; and Sassewuck or Woody-country Indians. Their _habitat_ was then, and until comparatively recent times, in the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, on the upper waters of the Saskatchewan. They are now for the most part on reservations in Alberta. =Bib.=: Petitot, _Traditions Indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest_; Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_; _Hendry Journal_ (R. S. C., 1908); _Cocking Journal_ (R. S. C., 1909); Franklin, _Polar Sea_; Catlin, _North American Indians_; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Blair, Adam Johnston Fergusson= (1815-1867). Member of the Legislative Assembly of Canada, 1848-1857; appointed to the Legislative Council, 1860; receiver-general, 1863; member of the Executive Council and provincial secretary, 1863-1864; president of the Executive Council, 1866. Appointed president of the Privy Council and member of the first Dominion Cabinet, 1867. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Blair, Andrew George= (1844-1907). Born in Fredericton, New Brunswick. Educated there, and called to the bar, 1866. In 1878 member of the New Brunswick Assembly for York; in 1879 leader of the opposition; and in 1883 premier of the province. In 1896 resigned and became minister of railways and canals in the Dominion government, under Laurier, retiring in 1903. In February, 1904, chairman of the Railway Commission of Canada, resigning in October of the same year. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Rose,_ Cyc. Can. Biog._; _Who’s Who_, 1906. =Blake, Edward= (1833-1912). Born in Adelaide, Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and University of Toronto. Called to the bar of Ontario, 1859, and became its acknowledged leader. From 1867 to 1872 a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario; and premier, 1871-1872. From 1867 to 1891 member of the Dominion House of Commons. In 1873 a member of Alexander Mackenzie’s Dominion ministry; in 1875-1877 minister of justice and attorney-general; and 1877-1878 president of the Council. In 1874 he made a brilliant and startling speech at Elora advocating the federation of the Empire, the reorganization of the Senate, compulsory voting, extension of the franchise and representation of minorities. In imperial matters his point of view was that Canada should take her share of the burdens of Empire, but only when she had a share in moulding the policies of the Empire. From 1878 to 1887 leader of the Liberal opposition in the House of Commons. Attacked the plans for the Canadian Pacific Railway as a ruinous project. Supported Costigan’s Home Rule proposal in Canadian Parliament. Supported a motion that the death sentence on Louis Riel should be commuted. He was strongly opposed to the policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States, advocated by Edward Farrer, and refused to be a candidate in the election of 1891. In 1892 went to Ireland and elected member for South Longford in the British House of Commons; retired, 1907. He was, says O. D. Skelton, the most complex and baffling character in Canadian political history; reserved, moody, too independent and original-minded to wear any party’s harness easily, and too self-absorbed for team-play; in Parliament its most masterful and overwhelming logician. Sir Wilfrid Laurier said of him: “Blake was the most powerful intellectual force in Canadian political history. He had an extraordinary mental organization, a grasp that covered the whole and searched out each smallest detail. He was first and foremost the great advocate, a tremendous dialectician, analysing and cross analysing to the last point, major points and minor points, utterly exhaustive. But he was no mere man of words. He would have proved Canada’s most constructive statesman had he held office. Without any of the lesser arts, he cast a spell over every man in Parliament.” =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Who’s Who_, 1910; Dent, _Can. Por._, and _Last Forty Years_; Ewan, _Hon. Edward Blake_; Taché, _Men._ =Blake, William Hume= (1809-1870). Born in Ireland. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and emigrated to Canada in his youth. During the Rebellion of 1837, paymaster of the Royal Foresters. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1838. A member of the Legislative Assembly for East York, 1847, and solicitor-general in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, 1848-1849. Appointed to the Bench, 1849. In the debate on the Rebellion Losses Bill feeling rose so high that John A. Macdonald sent a challenge to Blake, for which he was promptly taken into custody by the sergeant-at-arms. Blake was one of the leading figures in the fight for responsible government in Upper Canada. In 1850 Chancellor of Upper Canada, retiring March, 1862. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._, and _Last Forty Years_; Read, _Lives of the Judges_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Blanshard, Richard= (d. 1894). Appointed governor of Vancouver Island by Earl Grey; left England, 1849, and reached Victoria in March of the following year by way of Panama. The Hudson’s Bay Company at that time controlled the situation. The governor, without salary or residence or any staff or effective support of any kind from the home government, but with a will of his own, soon got into open antagonism with the Company, and being powerless to assert his authority, sent in his resignation in 1850, and in 1851 returned to England, leaving a provisional government consisting of Douglas, Cooper and Tod to carry on until the intentions of the home government should be known. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Begg, _History of British Columbia_. =Bliss, Daniel= (1740-1806). Born in Concord, Mass. Educated at Harvard University, graduating in 1774. In 1778 proscribed as a Loyalist, and served with the British army as commissary. At the end of the war, moved to New Brunswick; appointed a member of the provincial Council, and later chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Bliss, John Murray= (1771-1834). Born in Massachusetts. Son of Daniel. Came to New Brunswick in 1786; called to the bar; and elected to the House of Assembly for the county of York. Appointed to the bench in 1816; became a member of the king’s Council; and in 1824 administrator of the province for one year. Subsequently a judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Bliss, Jonathan= (1742-1822). Born in Springfield, Mass. Educated at Harvard University. A member of the General Court of Massachusetts, 1768. Proscribed in 1778. Emigrated to New Brunswick in 1783. In 1785 elected a member of the provincial Legislature and appointed attorney-general. From 1809 to 1822 chief-justice. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Blowers, Sampson Salter.= Born in Boston. Imprisoned as a Loyalist, 1778. On his release went to Halifax. In 1785 became attorney-general and Speaker of the House of Assembly. In 1797 chief-justice of the Supreme Court. Ex-President Adams of the United States paid him a visit in 1840. Died, 1842. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Boer War.= _See_ South African War. =Boishébert, Louis Henri Dechamps, Sieur de.= Born, 1679. Married the daughter of Ramezay, governor of Montreal and administrator of the Colony, in 1721. In charge at Detroit, 1730, and later placed in charge of Indian affairs throughout Canada. In 1754 he was in command in Acadia, and served there throughout the French and Indian war, 1754-1763. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Bompas, William Carpenter= (1853-1906). Born in London, England. Ordained deacon, 1859; priest, 1865; came to Canada latter year and assigned to the Mackenzie River district. In 1874 consecrated bishop of Athabaska. In 1884 transferred to see of Mackenzie River, and in 1891 to that of Selkirk. Author of a number of primers in the Athabaskan and Algonquian languages, as well as in Eskimo. =Bib.=: _Diocese of Mackenzie River_; Cody, _An Apostle of the North_; Machray, _Archbishop Machray_; Mockridge, _Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. For his native primers, see Pilling, _Bibliography of Athabaskan Languages_. =Bond, William Bennett= (1815-1906). Born in Truro, England. At an early age went to Newfoundland. Removed to Quebec, 1840; the same year admitted deacon, and ordained priest, 1841. For some time engaged as a travelling missionary; assistant to the rector of St. George’s Church, Montreal, 1848; rector 1862; archdeacon of Hochelaga, 1871; dean of Montreal, 1874. In 1879 consecrated bishop of Montreal; in 1901 archbishop; and in 1904 primate of all Canada. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Who’s Who, 1905; Mockridge, _Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. =Bonne, Captain de.= Born in France, and before coming to Canada served in the regiment of Condé. At the siege of Quebec, 1759, in command of the Quebec and Three Rivers militia, and took part in the battle of the Plains and the battle of Ste. Foy. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_. =Bonnécamps, Joseph Pierre de= (1707-1790). Born in France. Entered the Jesuit order, and came to Canada in 1741, when he was appointed instructor of hydrography at the Seminary of Quebec. Held that position until the fall of Quebec in 1759. In 1765-1766 laboured among the French refugees on the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. =Bonnycastle, Sir Richard Henry= (1791-1848). Born in England. Served in Canada in 1812, and engaged in the capture of Fort Castine. During the Rebellion of 1837-1838 commanded the engineers in Canada West, and defended Kingston in 1838. Knighted for distinguished service, 1837. Afterwards commander of engineers in Newfoundland. =Bib.=: _The Canadas in 1841_; _Canada and the Canadians in 1846_; _Canada as It was, Is and May Be_. For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Booth, John Rudolphus= (1826-1925). Born in Shefford County, Quebec. Started a small shingle mill at Ottawa in 1857, and eventually developed it into an enormous industry. Acquired vast timber limits. A man of indomitable courage and resourcefulness, he met disasters that would have daunted most men without complaint or loss of spirit. When he needed a railway to carry his raw material and the products of his mills, he built it himself. Five hundred miles of his railways were acquired by the Grand Trunk in 1905. He has been described as “the unconquerable pioneer, the nation builder, the man whose courage, genius and imagination tamed the wilderness, reared mighty industries, and did more than any other man of his time to build up his own community.” =Boothia Peninsula.= Between McClintock Channel and the Gulf of Boothia, Arctic coast. The Magnetic Pole is on it. Named by John Ross, 1830, after Sir Felix Booth (1775-1850), Sheriff of London, who promoted Ross’ expedition. Explored by Ross, and by Rae in 1847 and 1854. The Gulf, also named after Booth, was visited by Parry in 1822, and later by Ross and Rae. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Borden, Sir Frederick William= (1847-1917). Studied medicine and practised for a time. Entered politics and represented King’s County. N.S., 1874-1882 and 1887-1911. Became minister of militia and defence in the Laurier government, 1896. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Borden, Sir Robert Laird= (1854-). Born in Grand Pré, N.S. Studied law with Sir Robert Weatherbe (_q.v._), called to the bar, 1878, and practised at Kentville and Halifax. Appointed Q.C., 1890. In 1896 elected for the city and county of Halifax to the Dominion Parliament, and for Carleton county, 1905. In 1901 succeeded Sir Charles Tupper as leader of the Conservative Party. Prime Minister, 1911. Formed Union government of Conservatives and Liberals, 1917. Member of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, 1917 and 1918. One of the Canadian representatives at the Peace Conference in Paris, 1919, and took a very active part in its deliberations, as well as in the framing of the constitution of the League of Nations. A member of the British Economics Committee to suggest policies and formulate machinery for the Supreme Economic Council of the Peace Conference. Returned to Canada, and in September moved the approval of the Treaty of Peace by the Dominion Parliament. Resigned as Prime Minister, 1920, owing to ill health. Since his retirement from public life, he has given a good deal of time to lectures and public addresses on international law and international relations. =Bib.=: _Canadian Constitutional Studies_; Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Who’s Who_. =Boscawen, Edward= (1711-1761). Born in England. Served at Porto Bello, 1739-1740; at Cartagena, 1741; and in the West Indies, 1747. Commanded on the North American station between 1755 and 1757, and in 1758 commander-in-chief of the fleet at the siege of Louisbourg. In 1759 defeated the French in Lagos Bay, and in 1760 commanded the fleet in Quiberon Bay. =Bib.=: Wood, _Logs of the Conquest of Canada_; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ _See also_ Louisbourg. =Botsford, Bliss= (1813-1890). Born at Sackville, New Brunswick. Educated at King’s College, Fredericton; called to the bar, 1838, and practised at Moncton until 1870. A member of the New Brunswick Assembly, with brief intervals, from 1851 to 1870. In 1865 surveyor-general in the Smith ministry, and a member of the Executive Council, of which he was Speaker from 1867 to 1870. From 1870 to 1890 judge of the County Court. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Boucher de Boucherville, Sir Charles Eugene= (1822-1915). Descended from following. Elected to Assembly, 1861. Appointed to Legislative Council of Quebec, 1867, of which he became Speaker. Premier of Quebec, 1874, and again, 1891. Appointed to Senate of Canada, 1879. =Boucher de Grosbois et de Boucherville, Pierre= (1622-1717). Came to Canada in 1634 with his father; served as a soldier of the little garrison of Quebec in 1641. Four years later settled at Three Rivers, and having made himself familiar with several Indian languages, employed as interpreter. For nearly a quarter of a century served the town of his adoption in various capacities, civil and military. Filled the office of governor of Three Rivers, with short intervals, from 1652 to 1667. Visited France in 1661-1662, received by Louis XIV, and given a patent of nobility, and on his return to Canada brought out a number of colonists. In 1667 retired to his seigniory of Boucherville. Left a brief but interesting history of New France, written in 1663, while he was still governor of Three Rivers, and published the following year. =Bib.=: _Histoire Véritable et Naturelle des Mœurs et Productions du Pays de la Nouvelle France_. Paris, 1664. Reprinted, 1849, 1882, 1883, 1896. The last is in the _Trans._ of the Royal Society for that year, and was edited by Benjamin Sulte, with biographical and bibliographical notes. =Bouchette, Joseph= (1774-1841). Entered the naval service, 1791; in command of the forces on Lake Ontario; and served in the Royal Canadian volunteers. In 1813 on active service; and in 1814-1816 in England, where he published his topographical and geographical description of Canada. Employed as surveyor-general in delimiting the boundary between Canada and the United States, 1817-1818. =Bib.=: _Topographical Description of the Province of Lower Canada_; _British Dominions in North America_. =Bouchette, Robert Shore Milnes.= Took sides with Papineau in 1837, was taken prisoner at Moore’s Corners, imprisoned in Montreal, and exiled to Bermuda. His defence of those who took part in the Rebellion will be found in DeCelles’ _Papineau, Cartier_. Afterward Commissioner of Customs at Ottawa. =Bougainville, Louis Antoine, Comte de= (1729-1811). Born in Paris. Educated for his father’s profession of notary; and soon obtained recognition as an advocate in the Parliament of Paris. As a student displayed a remarkable talent for mathematics, and at the age of twenty-two wrote the first volume of a treatise on the Integral Calculus. His mathematical work recognized by the Royal Society in electing him to a fellowship. Joined the army in 1755, and the next year came to Canada as Montcalm’s aide-de-camp. Accompanied him on the Oswego campaign of 1756 and that of Lake George, 1757. Wounded at Ticonderoga the following year. Sent to France to secure aid, where he was promoted colonel but failed in his mission. Returned in April, 1759, bringing news of the approach of the English fleet. Played an important part in the siege of Quebec, commanded the Grenadiers on the Beauport shore, charged with the protection of the country west of Quebec, blamed for failure to reinforce the post at the Foulon (Wolfe’s Cove), held his position at Cap Rouge, while remainder of French army retreated. Wrote an elaborate journal of the campaign, much of which appears to have been incorporated in Montcalm’s _Journal_, published by Abbé Casgrain. Returned to France in 1761, and, after serving in Germany, joined the navy. From 1766 to 1769 made a voyage around the world; served in the West Indies during the Revolutionary War, and commanded the van of the French fleet in the action off Chesapeake Bay. Retired from active service, 1790; nominated by Napoleon to the Senate, and raised to the nobility. =Bib.=: Works: _Traité du Calcul Intégral_; _Voyage autour du Monde_; _Journal de l’Expédition d’Amérique, 1756-1758_ in _Rapport de l’Archiviste de Québec, 1923-1924_; _Essai Historique sur les Navigations Anciennes et Modernes_ (Acad. des Sciences Morales et Pol., Vol. I); _Notice Historique sur les Sauvages de l’Amérique Septentrionale_ (_ibid._, Vol. III). His letters are printed in Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; and his manuscript journals are in the Canadian Archives. _See also_ De Kerallain, _La Jeunesse de Bougainville_; Michaud, _Biog. Univ._; Larousse, _Grande Dict. Univ._; Casgrain, _Montcalm et Lévis_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Hart, _The Fall of New France, 1755-1760_; Casgrain, _Wolfe, Montcalm_. His portrait is in Doughty’s _Siege of Quebec_. =Boulton, D’Arcy.= Born in England. Came to Canada, 1797, and settled at York, 1803. Called to the bar of Upper Canada by special Act of the Legislature, 1803; solicitor-general, 1805. While on his way to England, 1810, captured by a French privateer, and remained a prisoner in France until 1814. Appointed judge of Assize, 1818. Died in York about 1830. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_; Scadding, _Toronto of Old_. =Boulton, Henry John.= Son of D’Arcy Boulton; born in England, 1790. Studied law and called to the English bar. Emigrated to Canada, 1816, and practised in Upper Canada. In 1818 appointed solicitor-general; attorney-general, 1829; elected to the Assembly for Niagara; removed from attorney-generalship by colonial secretary on account of his independent votes in Assembly, 1833; proceeded to England to vindicate his actions; appointed chief-justice of Newfoundland, 1833; removed from office, 1838, and returned to Canada. Represented town of Niagara in Assembly, 1841-1844, and Norfolk County, 1848-1851. =Bib.=: _Short Sketch of Upper Canada_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Boundary Questions.= _See_ Alaska; Oregon; North West Angle; Maine; Labrador; Ontario; Manitoba. =Bib.=: _Treaties and Agreements relating to Boundaries between Canada and the United States_. =Bouquet, Henry= (1719-1766). Born in Switzerland. Served in Holland, Sardinia, and with the Prince of Orange. Was Captain-commandant of the Swiss Guards at the Hague, 1748. Entered the British army; came to America in 1754 with Haldimand and the “Royal Americans;” and held a leading command for several years in the French and Indian wars. Stationed in South Carolina, and in 1758 marched with General Forbes against Fort Pitt. In command there until 1762, and the following year returned with a relief expedition to raise the siege. After a severe battle at Bushy Run he spent the winter of 1763-1764 organizing an expedition into the Indian territory. He penetrated to the Delaware towns and made a treaty of peace. Promoted brigadier, and received the thanks of the King for his services. His letters (Bouquet Papers in the British Museum—copies in Public Archives of Canada), throw interesting sidelights on affairs in the Colonies. Died at Pensacola, Florida. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_ and _Conspiracy of Pontiac_; _Canadian Archives Report_, 1889. _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Bourassa, Henri= (1868-). Born in Montreal, son of Napoleon Bourassa (_q.v._), and grandson of Papineau (q.v.). Elected to House of Commons, 1896. Resigned, 1899, as a protest against Canada’s participation in South African War. Re-elected, 1900; 1904. Resigned, 1907; elected Quebec Legislature, 1908; Commons, 1925. He is the leader, and was one of the founders, of the political group known as Nationalists, whose creed may perhaps be given as Canada First, Last and All the Time. Has been for many years the editor of _Le Devoir_, a Montreal newspaper. =Bib.=: _Grande Bretagne et Canada: Questions Actuelle_; _La Patriotisme Canadien-Française_; _The Reciprocity Agreement from a Nationalist Standpoint_; _The Spectre of Annexation_; _The Imperial Question_; _Hier, Aujourd’hui, Demain_. =Bourassa, Napoleon= (1827-1916). Studied art in Florence and Rome, and on his return to Canada devoted himself to painting and architecture, particularly church architecture. Became vice-president of the Royal Canadian Academy. One of the founders of _La Revue Canadienne_, and the author of a number of volumes of essays, fiction and books of travel. =Bib.=: _Jacques et Marie_; _Nos Grand Mères_. =Bourdon, Jean= (1602-1668). Born in Normandy. Came to Canada, 1634. Engaged for some years as a civil engineer and land surveyor; sent on several embassies to the Iroquois; and in 1657 made a voyage towards Hudson Bay, but prevented by ice from entering the Strait. Mentioned as being at Quebec in 1665. =Bourgeoys, Marguerite= (1620-1700). Born at Troyes, in Champagne. Entered the convent of the Congregation of Notre Dame at the age of twenty, and while there decided to devote her life to the colony of New France. Arrived in Quebec in September, 1653, and went on immediately to the new settlement of Montreal. In 1657 opened the first school, in a stable granted her by Maisonneuve. In the same year built a wooden chapel in Montreal. Founded the Congrégation de Notre Dame de Montreal in 1659, and in 1686 built the convent. In 1675, with funds obtained from France, built the church of Bonsecours. Abbé Verreau says of her work as an educationalist: “She taught young women to become what they ought to be, full of moral force, of modesty, of courage in the face of the dangers in the midst of which they lived. If the French Canadians have possessed a certain character for politeness and urbanity, they owe it in a great measure to the work of Marguerite Bourgeoys.” =Bib.=: Ransonet, _Vie de la Sœur Bourgeoys_; Faillon, _Vie de la Sœur Bourgeoys_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_ and _Old Régime_; Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_. =Bourget, Ignace= (1799-1885). Born at Point Lévis, Quebec. Ordained in 1822; vicar-general of Montreal, 1836; coadjutor-bishop of the diocese, 1837; bishop of Montreal, 1840, and created the first cathedral chapter of that city. Founded several religious orders, colleges, and asylums, among others, in 1864, the institution for the deaf and dumb, Montreal. In 1862 created a Roman count and assistant at the Pontifical Throne. In 1876 archbishop of Martianopolis, _in partibus_. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Bourinot, Sir John George= (1837-1902). Born in Sydney, Nova Scotia. Educated at Trinity University, Toronto. Chief official reporter to the Nova Scotia Assembly, 1861-1867, and in 1880 appointed Clerk of the Dominion House of Commons. For many years honorary secretary of the Royal Society of Canada. Historian and an authority on parliamentary government. =Bib.=: Works: _Canada under British Rule_; _Federal Government in Canada_; _How Canada is Governed_; _Manual of Constitutional History of Canada_; _Parliamentary Procedure and Government in Canada_; _Canada_; _Builders of Nova Scotia_. For biog., _see_ Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Bourlamaque, François Charles de, Chevalier de.= Born in France. Sent in 1756 with Montcalm to Canada as third in command and colonel of engineers. Accompanied Montcalm on his campaigns of 1756, 1757 and 1758. In charge of Ticonderoga in 1759; evacuated the fort and fell back on Ile-aux-Noix. Joined army of Lévis on march against Quebec, and occupied positions at Lorette and Ste. Foy. Promoted brigadier-general. Wounded in battle of Ste. Foy. “There are,” says Professor Wrong, “not wanting indications that, next to Montcalm himself, the most efficient of the soldiers who served on the French side during the war was Bourlamaque.” Returned to France, and sent as governor to Guadaloupe, where he died in 1794. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Wrong, _The Fall of Canada_. =Bourlon Wood, Battle of.= September 27th, 1918. This was part of the greater battle for the possession of Cambrai (_q.v._). The Canadians fought their way across the Canal du Nord, and started on the dash for Bourlon Wood, which commanded Cambrai, and the possession of which was of vital importance. This the Germans thoroughly understood, and the advance of the Canadians was fiercely contested. Nevertheless before noon the wood was taken, and the 12th Brigade had pushed through and taken the town of Bourlon. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. _See also_ Cambrai. =Bouteroue, Claude de.= Born in France. Came to Canada to act as intendant during the absence of Talon from 1668 to 1670. Returned to France, 1671, and died there, 1680. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_. =Bow River Pass.= Through the Bow Range of the Rocky Mountains, from the head waters of Bow River to the Little Fork of the Saskatchewan. Visited by W. D. Wilcox in 1896; Professor Collie in 1897; and Mrs. Schäffer in 1907. =Bowell, Sir Mackenzie= (1823-1917). Born in England. Came to Canada with his parents, 1833, and engaged in journalistic work. In 1867 elected to the Dominion House of Commons for North Hastings. In 1878 appointed minister of customs, holding that office until 1891; minister of militia, 1892; and minister of trade and commerce, 1892-1894. In 1894 succeeded Sir John Thompson as premier, and resigned office in 1896. Created a K. C. M. G., 1895. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Bowen, Edward= (1780-1866). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada in 1797; studied law and called to the bar in 1803. From 1809 to 1812 represented Sorel in the Assembly; and in the latter year appointed to the Court of King’s Bench. In 1821 became a member of the Legislative Council, and in 1835 elected Speaker. In 1849 chief-justice of the Superior Court for Lower Canada. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._ =Boyd, John= (1828-1893). Born in Ireland. Emigrated to New Brunswick, and engaged in business at St. John. In 1880 called to the Senate, and on September 22nd, 1893, succeeded Sir S. L. Tilley as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Boyle, Joseph= (1867-1923). Born in Toronto. Went to the Klondyke in the early days of the gold rush and made a fortune. When the war broke out in 1914, he organized a machine-gun battery and took it overseas. Served in France, and in 1916 was sent by the War Office to Russia with the military transport commission. The story of his adventures and exploits during the war reads more like an improbable romance than sober history. He was instrumental in saving the Dowager Empress of Russia and members of her family from the Bolsheviks, and in reclaiming the Roumanian crown jewels and other treasures which had been sent to Moscow early in the war. After the armistice he became food controller for Roumania and organized a relief campaign. Colonel Boyle had been decorated with the D.S.O., Legion of Honour, and various Russian and Roumanian orders. =Braddock, Edward= (1695-1755). Born in Scotland. Entered the army, 1710, and in 1743 major of the Coldstreams. Served in the expedition to L’Orient, 1746; and under the Prince of Orange in Holland, 1746-1748. Colonel of the 14th Foot at Gibraltar, 1753. In 1755 general and commander-in-chief in British North America; and on July 9th, 1755, commanded the British expedition against Fort Duquesne, where, ambushed by the French and Indians, he was defeated and mortally wounded. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _The Fight with France_; Sargent, _History of an Expedition against Fort Duquesne, 1755, under Maj.-Gen. Edward Braddock_. =Bradstreet, John.= Born in England, and came out to the New England colonies. Distinguished himself at the siege of Louisbourg in 1745. In the French and Indian wars he was given command of a force of _voyageurs_, and with their aid defended Oswego and captured Fort Frontenac, 1758. Promoted colonel in 1762, he was sent to punish the western Indians, but carried out his commission without much success. Became major-general in 1772. Died at Detroit in 1774. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Brandon House.= Built by the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1794, on the head waters of the Assiniboine River, about seventeen miles below the present city of Brandon. The buildings were burnt about 1814, and the post abandoned. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Brant, Joseph= (1742-1807). A Mohawk Indian chief, whose native name was Thayendanegea. Educated at an Indian school in Connecticut. Visited England in 1775. In the Revolutionary War sided with the British and rendered valuable service. Revisited England after the war. Received by Washington at Philadelphia as an Indian emissary in 1792. The following year he took part in the conference between representatives of the tribes, of the United States and of Canada, with a view to settling the vexed question of the Indians and their lands. Brant’s cautious diplomacy alienated the Indians and created distrust in the mind of Simcoe. On the other hand he had been highly esteemed by Haldimand, on whose recommendation the King had made him Colonel of Indians. Translated the Book of Common Prayer and St. Mark’s Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (London, 1787). =Bib.=: Stone, _Life of Brant_; Cruikshank, _Joseph Brant in the American Revolution_; Eggleston, _Brant and Red Jacket_; Ke-che-ah-gah-me-qua, _Life of Brant_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Wood, _War Chief of the Six Nations_. =Brant, Molly.= Sister of Joseph Brant. Regarded by the Indians, with whom she had great influence, as the widow of Sir William Johnson (_q.v._). Settled in a house at Carleton Island and granted a pension for services in helping to keep her tribesmen loyal. =Brantford.= City of Ontario, on the Grand River. Named after Joseph Brant, the Mohawk chieftain. Founded about 1820. Surveyed for a village, 1830; town in 1847; incorporated as a city in 1877. =Bras D’or Lakes.= In Cape Breton. Connected with the sea by two channels known as the Great and the Little Bras D’or, and by the St. Peter’s Canal. The name is a modern corruption of the old French name Labrador. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Cape Breton_ (R. S. C., 1891). =Brébeuf, Jean de= (1593-1649). Born of a noble family of Normandy. Came to Canada, 1625; spent the winter of 1625-1626 among the Algonquins. In the latter year, after a long and difficult journey by way of the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing, reached the villages of the Hurons, on Georgian Bay, where he established the first mission. Returned to Quebec in 1629, and in 1634 re-established the Huron mission. In 1640 made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a mission among the intractable Neutral Nation, north of Lake Erie. Returned to the Huron mission, where, in 1649, he was captured by the Iroquois, and burned at the stake with unmentionable cruelties. His skull is preserved in the Hotel-Dieu at Quebec. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Ragueneau, _Relation des Hurons_, 1649; Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Breda, Treaty of.= Signed between England and France, 1667. Brought to a close the disastrous war with the Dutch. By its terms Nova Scotia was handed over to France. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_. =Brenton, James.= United Empire Loyalist. Brother of Sir Jahleel Brenton, rear-admiral in the Royal Navy. Emigrated from Rhode Island to Halifax during the Revolution. Became a judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia and a member of the Executive Council. Appointed judge of the Vice-Admiralty Court, 1800. Died at Halifax, 1806. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Brererton, Alexander.= Corporal, 8th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During an attack east of Amiens, August 9th, 1908, when a line of enemy machine-guns suddenly opened fire on his platoon, he sprang forward on his own initiative and reached one of the hostile machine-gun posts, killed two of the crew and forced nine others to surrender. His splendid example inspired his platoon to capture the five remaining posts. =Bressani, Joseph= (1612-1672). Born in Rome, and entered the Society of Jesus in 1626. Studied at Rome and Clermont, and sailed for Canada, 1642. After spending a couple of years at Quebec and Three Rivers, he set out for Huronia, but was captured by the Iroquois above Three Rivers and carried off to their villages. There they subjected him to indescribable tortures, but without actually killing him. Finally, the Dutch ransomed him and carried him to New Amsterdam (New York), where he wrote a minute account of his experiences with the Iroquois. He sailed for Holland, the ship was chased by Turkish _corsairs_, but he reached Europe, had an interview with Pope Innocent X, and finally again sailed for Canada, spent some time among the Hurons, came down twice to Quebec seeking help, and finally in 1650 met Ragueneau with the remnant of the Hurons on his way down the river. The same year he returned to Europe, and died in Florence. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Brest.= A legendary town supposed to be somewhere on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This myth originated in 1608, in a little book published in Lyons, France, purporting to describe the writer’s experiences in New France. He describes Brest as “the principal town of the whole country, well provisioned, large and strongly fortified, peopled by about fifty thousand men.” This was, of course, pure romance, but it was taken seriously, and Brest continued to figure even in serious books of history down to the end of the nineteenth century. =Bib.=: Grenfell, _Labrador_; Dawson, _Brest on the Quebec Labrador_ (R. S. C., 1905). =Briand, Jean Olivier= (1715-1794). Born in France. Ordained priest, 1739; came to Canada, 1741; canon of Quebec Cathedral until 1760. In 1766 appointed bishop of Quebec, and resigned, 1784. Rebuilt the cathedral and palace, destroyed during the siege of Quebec, 1759. He was an energetic and effective administrator, and warmly supported the British cause during the American Revolution and the Invasion of 1775-1776. =Brillant, John.= Lieutenant, 22nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ He led his company in an attack east of Meharicourt, August 8th and 9th, 1918, with absolute fearlessness and extraordinary ability and initiative. Although repeatedly wounded, he led his men again and again against enemy positions, including a machine-gun nest where one hundred and fifty men and fifteen machine-guns were captured. In rushing a field gun, he fell unconscious from exhaustion and loss of blood. =Brinley, George.= A Boston merchant, who left the country during the Revolution. He was appointed commissary-general of His Majesty’s forces in British North America in 1799. Died in Halifax, 1809. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =British American League.= Formed in Montreal in 1849 as a reply to the Annexation Manifesto. Branches organized throughout the country. Largely due to the inspiration of John A. Macdonald. Confederation one of its principal objects; a national fiscal policy another. _See_ Annexation. =Bib.=: Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Allin, _The British North American League, 1849_, in Ontario Historical Society _Papers and Records_, vol. xiii. =British Colonist.= Newspaper established in Victoria, British Columbia, by Amor de Cosmos, in 1858. Still survives. =British Columbia.= Area, 355,855 square miles. Population by census of 1921, 524,582. Her Majesty Queen Victoria was consulted regarding the naming of the province, and on July 24th, 1858, recommended the name it still bears. Vancouver Island became a crown colony in 1849; ten years later the mainland was organized as a separate colony; in 1866 island and mainland became one; and in 1871 the colony became a province of the Dominion of Canada. The early history of the colony closely identified with that of the Hudson’s Bay Company. One of the outstanding events was the gold rush of 1858-1860, which gave an enormous impetus to the development of the colony, particularly in the matters of civil government and transportation. The entry of the colony into the Dominion brought with it the building of Canada’s first transcontinental railway, the Canadian Pacific. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of British Columbia_; Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_; Macdonald, _British Columbia and Vancouver Island_; Macfie, _Vancouver Island and British Columbia_; Morice, _The History of the Northern Interior of British Columbia_; Herring, _Among the People of British Columbia_; Fitzgerald, _The Hudson’s Bay Company and Vancouver Island_; Mayne, _Four Years in British Columbia_; Baillie-Grohman, _Sport and Life in Western America and British Columbia_; Métin, _La Colombie Britannique_; _Indians of British Columbia_ (R. S. C., 1888); Langevin, _Report on British Columbia_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Scholefield and Howey, _British Columbia_. =British Columbia Archives.= Established, 1898, by R. E. Gosnell, then provincial librarian, and built up by E. O. S. Scholefield, who succeeded him, 1910, as archivist and provincial librarian. Published a number of journals and other documents relating to the early history of British Columbia and the North-West Coast. =British North America Act.= The constitution of the Dominion; the Act by which the scattered colonies of British North America were united in one Confederation. Drafted at the Quebec Conference, 1864; discussed and passed in the form of resolutions, in the Legislature of Canada, 1865; put in final shape at the Westminster Conference, 1866; passed by the Imperial Parliament, and proclaimed, 1867. The essential feature of this Act, and that which distinguishes it most clearly from the Constitution of the United States, is the provision that all matters not specifically assigned to the provinces belong to the Dominion, the reverse being the case under the United States Constitution. Broadly speaking, the Act gives the Dominion exclusive jurisdiction over the regulation of trade and commerce, the postal service, customs and inland revenue, military and naval service, navigation and shipping, currency and coinage, banking, weights and measures, patents and copyrights, naturalization, Indians. To the provinces it gives exclusive jurisdiction over direct taxation, management and sale of public lands, timber, provincial prisons, hospitals, asylums, etc., municipal institutions, administration of justice, education. _See_ Confederation: Charlottetown Conference; Quebec Conference; Anti-Confederation Movement. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Constitution of Canada_; Houston, _Constitutional Documents_; Doutre, _Constitution of Canada_; Munro, _Constitution of Canada_; Ashley, _Constitutional History of Canada_; Gooch, _Manual of the Constitution of Canada_; Howland, _The New Empire_; _Confederation Debates_, 1865; Pope, _Confederation Documents_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Kennedy, _The Constitution of Canada_. =British Whig.= Newspaper established at Kingston, Ontario, in 1834, by Dr. E. J. Barker. Still survives, and edited up to a few years ago by the grandson of the founder. =Brock. Sir Isaac= (1769-1812). Born in the island of Guernsey. Entered the army at the age of fifteen. In 1791 raised an independent company, gazetted captain, and exchanged into the 49th. Next two years quartered in West Indies. Returned home on sick leave. Major in 49th in 1795, and senior lieutenant-colonel two years later. Took part in expedition to Holland under Sir Ralph Abercromby. Second in command of land forces in Baltic expedition, 1801. Next year ordered to Canada. Revealed promptness and decision in putting down mutiny at Fort George. In command at Fort George, 1803-1804. Recommended establishment of corps of veterans who, after their term of service, should be given land and furnished with farming implements and rations for a certain period, to offset influence of the disloyal element. In 1805 quartered in Quebec, and promoted to colonel. Returned to England on leave, and made a report to the Duke of York, then commander-in-chief, designed to improve the efficiency of the army in Canada. Some of his recommendations afterwards carried out. Returned to Canada, 1806. Succeeded to command of the troops in both provinces. Strengthened the fortifications at Quebec. Ordered the building of vessels for service on the lakes. In 1807 he had the volunteers called out for training. He had faith in the loyalty of the French Canadians. Advocated raising a volunteer corps among the Scottish settlers in Glengarry. In 1808 left Quebec to take command in Montreal. Appointed brigadier-general. He was anxious for service in Europe, but the critical situation in America made it impossible to spare him. He himself felt that war with the United States was inevitable. In 1810 sent to Upper Canada, and made his headquarters at Fort George. Anxious to prevent war between the Indians and the United States. Promoted major-general, 1811. He chafed over being condemned to inactivity in Canada while splendid opportunities of service in Europe were being lost. Appointed president and administrator of Upper Canada during Gore’s absence, 1811. In December, 1811, in view of a probable American invasion, he sent a plan of campaign to Prevost. Recommended an aggressive policy, the taking of Detroit and Michilimackinac, and the strengthening of the naval forces on the lakes. In January, 1812, the long hoped for permission to return to England for service in Spain arrived, but the situation in America was now so grave that he felt compelled to refuse. Carried out a scheme of specially trained flank companies in the militia. Brock’s position embarrassed in 1812 by failure of the home government to send either men or money; also by hostile influences in the Upper Canadian Assembly. He placed Major-General Shaw in command of the communications between Kingston and Cornwall, and himself took charge of the western district Niagara to Amherstburg. Realized importance of securing the support of the Indian tribes. He found himself in need of military supplies of every kind. Also the lack of _specie_ had to be met by the issue of special bank notes. June 26th, he learned of the declaration of war, and immediately made his headquarters at Fort George, detailed his little force along the frontier, and sent instructions to capture Michilimackinac. Issued a tactful general order to the militia, and, despite the overwhelming odds against him, kept up the courage of his men. To Hull’s boastful proclamation he replied: “Our enemies have said that they can subdue the country by a proclamation. It is our part to prove to them that they are sadly mistaken.” And in opening the extra session of the Legislature he said: “By unanimity and despatch in our counsels and vigour in our operations we may teach the enemy this lesson, that a country defended by free men enthusiastically devoted to the cause of their king and constitution, can never be conquered.” Then turning from words to deeds, he proved his words true, provided the free men were led by a great general. Proroguing the Legislature, he proceeded at once to the western frontier, where he met Tecumseh for the first time. Organizing all his available men into three brigades, he decided to attack Detroit, to which Hull had retreated. August 16th, Hull surrendered Detroit, and with it the territory of Michigan. Brock was received in triumph at York, but his success was largely nullified by the ill-advised armistice Prevost had arranged with Dearborn. Brock must sit still while the Americans strengthened their position all along the frontier. He had at least the satisfaction of knowing that the commander-in-chief appreciated his “singular judgment, firmness, skill and courage.” October 13th saw his final triumph, the battle of Queenston Heights. He died as he would have wished, leading his men, as Wolfe had done before him, in the hour of victory. _See also_ War of 1812-1814; Detroit; Queenston Heights. =Bib.=: Tupper, _Life and Correspondence of Sir Isaac Brock_; Read, _Life of Brock_; Nursey, _Isaac Brock_; Edgar, _General Brock_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Marquis, _Brock_; Eayrs, _Brock_. =Brockville.= Chief town of Leeds County, Ontario, on left bank of St. Lawrence. Formerly known as Elizabethtown. Founded, 1785. Incorporated as a town, 1832. Raided by a detachment of troops from Ogdensburg in 1813. The town assumed its present name in 1812 before the death of Brock. =Brodeur, Louis Philippe= (1862-1924). Edited _Le Soir_, Montreal, 1896. Represented Rouville in House of Commons, 1891-1911; Speaker of the House, 1901-1904; minister of inland revenue, 1904; minister of marine and fisheries, 1906; minister of naval affairs, 1910. Appointed to Supreme Court of Canada, 1911. Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1923. =Brooke, Frances= (1724-1789). Wife of a garrison chaplain. Accompanied him to Quebec about 1760. Wrote there two novels of garrison life—the first novels written in Canada. =Bib.=: _The History of Lady Julia Mandeville_, 1763; _History of Emily Montague_, 1769. =Broughton, William Robert= (1762-1821). Born in England. Entered the navy, 1774, and served on the American station until 1778. In 1792 explored and surveyed the Columbia River for a hundred miles from its mouth; and in 1794 surveyed the north-west coast of America. Served in Lord Gambier’s expedition, 1809; at Mauritius, 1810, and at Java, 1811. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Brouillan, De.= Born in France. Governor of Placentia, Newfoundland, 1690. Made a chevalier of St. Louis, 1698. In 1701 commandant in Acadia, and governor of that colony, 1702-1705. Died the latter year. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_. =Brown, George= (1818-1880). Born at Alloa, Scotland. From his father he inherited his Liberalism and his hatred of slavery. Came to America with his father in 1838, and was associated with him in journalism in New York. In 1843 removed to Toronto, where he established the _Banner_, afterwards to be better known as the _Globe_. In its columns he began the fight for responsible government that occupied most of his energies for many years. In its first number he said: “The battle which the Reformers of Canada will fight is not the battle of a party, but the battle of constitutional right against the undue interference of executive power.” Joined Baldwin and others in the Toronto Reform Association, 1844. Supported Elgin in the matter of the Rebellion Losses Bill, 1849. Defeated in Haldimand by William Lyon Mackenzie. He had supported Baldwin, but when Hincks came into power he took issue with the government on the question of the secularization of the clergy reserves. Elected for Kent in 1851, on a platform that called for the separation of Church and State, secularization of the clergy reserves, establishment of a system of national schools, the extension of the franchise, and the improvement of transportation facilities. Rose to a commanding position in the Assembly by virtue of his industry and force of character. He rapidly became the apostle of Upper Canada as against Lower Canada. In 1854 defeated Malcolm Cameron in Lambton. Formed an alliance with the Quebec _Rouges_. Advocated representation by population. Elected for Toronto in 1857. The following year formed an administration. Defeated in the house, the government at once resigned. A strong advocate of Confederation. Defeated in East Toronto in 1861. Re-elected, and proposed a federation scheme of government either for Canada alone, or for all the British North American provinces. Became a member of the coalition government in 1864. Took an active part in the negotiations looking toward Confederation. Opposed an elective Senate. He was well satisfied with the results of the Quebec Conference. Became a convert to the Intercolonial Railway scheme. Made a strong speech in the legislature in support of Confederation. Supported the renewal of the reciprocity treaty, but objected to the way it had been handled, and resigned from ministry 1865. Urged the acquisition of the North West Territories from the Hudson’s Bay Company. In a public speech he said: “It is my fervent aspiration and belief that some here to-night may live to see the day when the British American flag shall proudly wave from Labrador to Vancouver Island and from our own Niagara to the shores of Hudson Bay.” In 1874 sent to Washington by the Mackenzie government to negotiate a reciprocity treaty. A draft treaty was prepared, but was thrown out by the United States Senate. Opposed the programme of the Canada First party the same year. He had been appointed to the Senate in 1873, but about this time decided to retire from public life and devote his energies entirely to journalism. Shot by George Bennett, an employee of the _Globe_ who had been discharged for intemperance. Died May 10th, 1880. He was, says John Lewis, “true to the principles that were the standards of his political conduct, to government by the people, to free institutions, to religious liberty and equality, to the unity and progress of the Confederation of which he was one of the builders.” _See also_ Responsible Government; Confederation; Reciprocity; _Globe_. =Bib.=: Lewis, _George Brown_; Mackenzie, _Life and Speeches of the Hon. George Brown_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Brown, Harry.= Private, 10th Battalion, C. E. F. Won the _Victoria Cross_ at Hill 70, near Loos, August 16th, 1917. He saved the loss of an important position by carrying a message back through an intense barrage to the support lines. He was so badly wounded that he died in the dressing station a few hours later. =Brown, John Gordon= (1827-1896). Brother of George Brown. Born in Scotland. Educated in Edinburgh and New York. In 1844 engaged on the Toronto _Globe_; in 1851 editor, and in 1880 managing director. In 1882 retired from the _Globe_; appointed registrar of the Surrogate Court of Toronto, 1883. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Brown, Peter= (1784-1863). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to New York in 1838; was owner and editor of the _British Chronicle_. Removed to Toronto, 1843, and founded the _Banner_, a Free-Church Presbyterian organ. In 1844 with his son, George Brown, established the Toronto _Globe_, and contributed to it for some years. Both before and after his emigration to America he was an enthusiastic supporter of the anti-slavery movement. =Bib.=: _The Fame and Glory of England Vindicated_. For biog. _see Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Brown, Thomas Storrow.= Associated with Papineau in the insurrection in Lower Canada. Led the _Patriotes_ at St. Charles. Charged with cowardice, he defended his action in a letter to Wolfred Nelson (_q.v._). Escaped to United States. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Brûlé, Etienne.= A famous _coureur de bois_ who accompanied Champlain on his exploration of the Ottawa, in 1615, and subsequently made extensive explorations in the country of the Hurons and the Iroquois (1615-1618). He reached the Susquehanna river; coasted along the north shore of Lake Huron; and there is evidence that a few years later he reached Lake Superior. In 1628 he came down to Quebec with a party of Hurons, and, for some unexplained reason, deserted to the English and piloted Kirke’s vessels up the St. Lawrence to Quebec. Treacherously murdered near the present town of Penetanguishene by a party of Hurons in 1632. =Bib.=: Champlain, _Voyages_; Sagard, _Voyage du Pays des Hurons_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Butterfield, _History of Brûlé’s Discoveries and Explorations_; Sulte, _Etienne Brûlé_ (R. S. C., 1907); Tremblay, _Sépulture d’Etienne Brûlé_ (R. S. C., 1915). =Bruyas, James.= Born in France. Came to Canada in 1666, and was sent as a missionary to the Iroquois. Remained there as Superior of the missions until 1679, and at Caughnawaga until 1691. In 1693 he succeeded Dablon as General Superior, and remained in that office until 1699. His good judgment and wide knowledge of the Iroquois made him invaluable to Frontenac and succeeding governors in their relations with the Indians. He was sent to Boston as an envoy of the governor of Quebec to arrange details of peace after the treaty of Ryswick; and in 1700 to the Iroquois to make a treaty. Died at Quebec in 1712. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Bryce, George= (1844-). Born at Mount Pleasant near Brantford, Ontario. Educated at Toronto University and Knox College. Took part in the skirmish at Ridgeway during the Fenian Raids. In 1871 removed to Manitoba and organized Manitoba College. Professor of English literature in Manitoba College, 1871-1909; and head of the faculty of science and lecturer in biology in Manitoba University, 1891-1904. Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, 1902-1903. President of the Royal Society of Canada, 1909-1910. =Bib.=: Works: _Manitoba_; _Short History of the Canadian People_; _Apostle of Red River_; _Hudson’s Bay Company_; _Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; _Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men._; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Brymner, Douglas= (1823-1902). Born in Scotland. Came to Canada, 1857. For some time editor of the _Presbyterian_, and associate editor of the Montreal _Daily Herald_. In 1872 appointed Dominion Archivist, and held the position up to the time of his death, laying the foundations of the present splendid collection of manuscript material bearing on the history of Canada. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Buade, Louis de.= _See_ Frontenac. =Buchanan, Isaac= (1810-1883). Born in Scotland. In 1833 emigrated to Canada and entered into business life. A Moderate Reformer. Strongly opposed the Rebellion of 1837. Elected for York to the first Parliament of Canada. Severely attacked Robert Baldwin in his _Five Letters against the Baldwin Faction_. In 1864 appointed president of the Council in the Taché-Macdonald ministry, retiring the same year. From 1878 to 1883 a Dominion arbitrator. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Buck, William= (1751-1832). Born at Hebron, Connecticut. A United Empire Loyalist. Early in the Revolutionary War made his way through the wilderness to Montreal, where he was given an ensign’s commission in the King’s Rangers. Served seven years. Twice taken prisoner and escaped. After the war removed to Upper Canada and settled on the site of Brockville, receiving a grant from the Crown. His was the first house in what became the town of Brockville. In 1800 elected to represent his county in the Assembly of Upper Canada. =Bib.=: McDonald, _The United Empire Loyalists of the old Johnstown District_ (Ont. Hist. Soc. Papers, xii). =Bulkeley, Richard.= Came to Nova Scotia with Governor Cornwallis, 1749. Appointed secretary of the province, 1759, and continued to hold office under thirteen successive governors, until 1793. Member of the Council of Nova Scotia, 1759. Administrator of Nova Scotia, 1791; judge of the Admiralty Court; brigadier-general of militia. Died, 1800. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Buller, Charles= (1806-1848). Born in Calcutta. Entered Parliament in 1830; and called to the bar, 1831. In 1838 secretary to Lord Durham and accompanied him on his momentous mission to Canada. He shared Durham’s views on colonial self-government, and is believed to have made material contributions to Durham’s Report. Advocated responsible government for Canada in the British Parliament. In 1846 judge advocate-general, and in 1847 chief poor law commissioner. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Strachey, _Charles Buller_; Bradshaw, _Self-Government in Canada_. =Bulletin des Recherches Historiques.= Edited by Pierre-Georges Roy, Quebec. A monthly review, established 1895. In 1923 it became the official organ of the Bureau of Archives of the province of Quebec. =Bulyea, George Headley Vickers.= Born in Gagetown, New Brunswick. Educated at University of New Brunswick. For a time principal of the Sunbury County Grammar School. Removed to Qu’Appelle, North-West Territories, 1883. Elected to the North-West-Council, 1894; special representative to the Yukon, 1896; commissioner of agriculture and public works in the Territorial government; appointed first lieutenant-governor of Alberta, 1905; reappointed in 1910. =Bib.=: _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Bureau des Archives de la Province de Quebec.= Established, 1920. Pierre-Georges Roy (_q.v._) first archivist. In addition to an annual report containing printed documents, facsimiles, calendars, etc., the Bureau is bringing out a general index to the _Bulletin des Recherches Historiques, 1895-1925_. =Burgoyne, John= (1723-1792). Born in England. Educated at Westminster, and entered the army in 1740. In 1775 served in New England; second in command, 1776, and lieutenant-general, 1777. In the latter year succeeded General Carleton as commander-in-chief of the forces in Canada. After several successful engagements with the Americans, hopelessly defeated at Saratoga in October, 1777. In 1782 commander-in-chief in Ireland. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Burlington Bay Canal.= An open cut across a sand-bar at the entrance of Burlington Bay, designed to enable vessels to reach the city of Hamilton from the lake. It was authorized by the Legislature, 1823, and completed, 1832. Enlarged, 1841. =Burns, Robert Easton= (1805-1863). Born in Niagara. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1827. Practised at Niagara, St. Catharines, and Hamilton. Appointed judge of the Niagara District, 1836; judge of the Home District, 1844; judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1850. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Burpee, Isaac= (1825-1885). Born at Sheffield, New Brunswick, of Huguenot and Puritan stock; his great-grandfather settled in New Brunswick in 1763. He moved to St. John, 1848. Represented City of St. John in Dominion Parliament, 1872-1885; minister of customs in the Mackenzie government, 1873-1878. Died in New York. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ =Burr, Aaron= (1756-1836). Born in New Jersey. In 1775 served in the Revolutionary army, and accompanied Arnold on his expedition to Quebec. In 1791 elected to the Senate, and in 1801 vice-president of the United States. In 1804 killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Jenkinson, _Aaron Burr_; Todd, _The True Aaron Burr_. =Burstall, Sir Henry Edward= (1870-). Born at Quebec. Educated Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, and the Royal Military College. Served with First Contingent in South Africa, 1899-1900, and with South African Constabulary, 1901-1904, including actions at Paardeberg, Poplar Grove, Driefontein, etc. Appointed to command of Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, 1907; and of Royal Canadian Artillery, 1911; Inspector of Horse, Field and Heavy Artillery, 1911; command of Royal School of Artillery, Quebec, 1911. Went overseas in 1914 as officer commanding Division Artillery with rank of lieutenant-colonel. Promoted, brigadier-general, 1915, and major-general, 1916. Commanded Canadian artillery at Ypres, Festubert and Givenchy, and later battles. Commanded a division in 1917, and in the battle of Amiens had command of the extreme left. =Burton, Sir Francis.= Lieutenant-governor of Lower Canada, and acting governor during the absence of Dalhousie in 1825. He attempted to meet the views of the Assembly as to the budget, but his action was repudiated by Dalhousie. =Bib.=: DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Burton, Sir George William.= Born at Sandwich, England, 1818; son of Admiral George Guy Burton. Came to Canada, 1836. Practised law in Hamilton and for many years city solicitor. In 1874 appointed a judge of the Court of Appeals of Ontario, and in 1897 made chief-justice. Knighted, 1897. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Burton, Napier Christie= (1759-1835). United Empire Loyalist. Served through the Revolutionary War. Taken prisoner in the siege of Yorktown. After the war promoted to lieutenant-colonel and served in Flanders. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1799. Represented Beverley in the British Parliament to 1806. Promoted lieutenant-general, 1805, and general, 1814. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Burton, Ralph.= Served in the siege of Quebec. On July 29th, 1759, in command of thirteen companies of Grenadiers, and on September 2nd wounded at the battle of Montmorency. Commanded the reserve in the battle of the Plains. Wolfe’s last order was to Burton, to seize the bridge over the St. Charles and cut off the retreat. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec after the capture of the city. He took part in the battle of Ste. Foy the following year. Served with his regiment in the siege of Havana. Returned to Canada in 1763. Governor of Three Rivers, and later of Montreal. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_. =Bury, William Coutts Keppel, Viscount= (1832-1894). Private secretary to Lord John Russell, 1850. Superintendent-general for Indian Affairs for Canada, 1854-1856. In 1855 negotiated a treaty with the Indians for the purpose of opening the Saugeen reserve to settlement. Left his numerous family names tagged to townships, villages and natural features of the district. Succeeded his father as seventh Earl of Albemarle. Under-secretary of war, 1887-1880. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Buteux, Jacques= (1600-1652). Born in France. In 1634 sent as a missionary to Canada, and arrived at the new settlement of Three Rivers in September. Worked among the Indians there for several years. Superior of the missions from 1639 to 1642, and from 1647 to 1652. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Butler, John.= Born in Connecticut. In 1759 served under Sir William Johnson in the Niagara campaign, and in 1760 in the Montreal expedition. During the Revolution served on the British side in New York and in Canada as commander of Butler’s Rangers. He has been charged with gross cruelty, particularly in the conduct of the raid on Wyoming. The evidence seems to show that there was cruelty on both sides. After the war he took up land on the Niagara peninsula. Appointed superintendent of Indian affairs. Died in Niagara in 1794. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; McIlwraith, _Haldimand_; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Button, Sir Thomas.= Sailed from England for Hudson Bay in April, 1612. His letter of instructions from Henry, Prince of Wales, contained minute directions as to the best means of making the North-West Passage, and King James gave him a Letter of Credence addressed to the Emperor of Japan, so confident was the expectation that Button would find the long-sought passage. Sailing through Hudson Straits, he crossed the Bay and sailed down its western coast to the mouth of the Nelson river, where he wintered. In the spring of 1613 he turned north again and followed the coast up to Chesterfield Inlet and almost to Wager Bay. He then returned through the Straits and sailed home. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =By, John= (1781-1836). Born in England. Entered the army in 1799. In 1802 came to Canada; returned to England in 1811; and served in the Peninsular War. In 1826 again came to Canada, and engaged on important military and engineering works until 1832. Constructed the Rideau Canal from Bytown (Ottawa) to Kingston, the first steamer passing through in the spring of 1832. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, _Trans._, vol. 1. =Byles, Mather= (1706-1788). Born in Boston. Graduated from Harvard, 1725. Denounced as a Loyalist in 1777. Imprisoned and sentenced to banishment, but the sentence was never carried out. He was a scholar and a famous wit. His son of the same names (1734-1814) went to Halifax in 1776, settled in St. John, N.B., became first rector of Trinity Church, and chaplain of the province, and died in St. John. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Bylot, Robert.= Sailed with Henry Hudson on the _Discovery_ in 1610, and returned with the mutineers to England. Took part in two later voyages to the north-west before he sailed with Baffin (_q.v._) to Hudson Strait in 1615. =Bib.=: Rundall, _Voyages Toward the North-West_. =Byng of Vimy, Baron= (1862-). Saw active service in the Soudan, South Africa and Egypt. Commanded Third Division in France, Ninth Corps at the Dardanelles, the Canadian Corps in France, and finally the Third British Army. Promoted general. Appointed governor-general of Canada, 1921. He had won the respect and admiration of the Canadian troops in France, and his appointment was universally popular in Canada. In a public address he expressed his views as to the attitude of a governor-general: “Loyalty to the King, political impartiality, and unbounded faith in whatever government may be in power, are the three qualities I am bound to exemplify in carrying out the duties of governor-general.” =Bytown.= Former name of the city of Ottawa. In 1858 the rival towns of Quebec, Montreal, Kingston and Toronto all clamoring for the right to be the capital of Canada, the matter was referred to the Queen who, on the recommendation of Sir Edmund Head, passed them all by and chose Bytown. _See also_ Ottawa. =Bib.=: Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, _Trans._, vol. 1. =Cables.= The first submarine cables in America were those laid between New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, 1851; and between Cape Breton and Newfoundland, 1856. Newfoundland was connected with Ireland by cable in 1858. In 1902 the Pacific Cable was laid, between Canada and New Zealand and Australia. _See also_ Gisborne; Fleming. =Bib.=: Bright, _Submarine Telegraphs_; Johnson, _The All Red Line_. =Cabot, John.= Probably a native of Genoa. Became a citizen of Venice, March 28th, 1476, and at that time had been a resident of the city for fifteen years. Went to England, and in 1497, under the direct authority of Henry VII, sailed to the westward on a voyage of discovery. Landed on the shores of America, but his exact landfall has been a moot point. It is now generally believed that it was the easternmost cape of Cape Breton. The following year sailed again, but there is no record that he ever returned from this second voyage. =Bib.=: Beazley, John and Sebastian Cabot; Dawson, _The Voyages of the Cabots_ (R. S. C., 1894, 1896, 1897); Deane, _Voyages of the Cabots_, in Winsor, _Nar. & Cr. Hist. of America_, vol. 3; Harrisse, _John Cabot, the Discoverer of North America_; Weare, _Cabot’s Discovery of North America_; Ober, _John and Sebastian Cabot_. =Cabot, Sebastian= (1477?-1557?). Son of John Cabot. His share in the discovery of North America has been the subject of much controversy. From having once been regarded as the sole discoverer, it is now considered doubtful that he had anything to do with the voyages of 1497 and 1498. He was in the service of Spain, and also of England, receiving from Edward VI the title of Grand Pilot of England. =Bib.=: Biddle, _Memoir of Sebastian Cabot_; Nicholls, _Life of Sebastian Cabot_; Tarducci, _John and Sebastian Cabot_. These are favourable to Sebastian’s claims. _See_ references under preceding entry for the other side of the controversy. =Cadet, Joseph Michel.= Began life as a butcher; won the confidence of the intendant Bigot, and as commissary-general seconded him in his infamous schemes for plundering the colony. _See_ Bigot. =Cadieux.= A French _coureur de bois_, whose tragic death forms the subject of one of the popular _chansons_ of Quebec. His reputed grave is at the foot of Grand Calumet Island, on the Ottawa. =Bib.=: Le Moine, _Legends of the St. Lawrence_; Bourinot, _The Ottawa Valley_ in the _Canadian Monthly_, January, 1875; Gagnon, _Chansons Populaires_. =Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe.= Came to Canada as an officer of the Carignan Regiment. Settled in Acadia. Losing his property there by English incursions, he moved to Quebec, 1691, and Frontenac gave him an appointment in the colonial troops. In 1694 appointed to the command of the post of Michilimackinac. In 1701 built a fort at Detroit, and remained in command there until 1710. From 1712-1715 governor of Louisiana. Subsequently appointed governor of Castel Sarassin, in Gascony, his native province. Died there October 16th, 1730. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; _Cadillac Papers_ (_Mich. Hist. Coll._, vol. 33); _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvi; Burton, _Sketch of the Life of Cadillac_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_; _Docs. relating to Col. Hist. of New York_, 1855. =Cadotte, Jean-Baptiste.= Pioneer fur trader in the west. When the French abandoned their fort at Sault Ste. Marie, Cadotte remained behind with his native wife and family. Alexander Henry found him there in 1762; in charge of the fort when Carver visited the place five years later. Died there in 1803. =Bib.=: Henry, _Travels and Adventures in Canada_; Carver, _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America_; Morice, _Dict._; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Caën, Emery de.= Nephew of Guillaume. Champlain left him in command of the little colony of Canada when he returned to France in 1624. Although a Calvinist, he was friendly to the Jesuits. In 1629, on his way down the river, his vessel was captured by Kirke. He returned to France, and came back to Canada in 1632 with an order from King Charles to Kirke to hand Quebec over to the French. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Quebec in Seventeenth Century_; Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =Caën, Guillaume de.= A Huguenot. Head of the trading company organized by Montmorency. Came out to Canada, where difficulties at once arose with Pont-Gravé and the old Company of Rouen and St. Malo, which Champlain managed to smooth over. De Caën made several voyages to France and back to Canada with men and supplies. In 1625 he brought out with him the Jesuits Lalement, Brébeuf and Massé. Kirke seized his goods in 1629, which led to a long and bitter controversy in which the French and English courts were involved. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Quebec in Seventeenth Century_; Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =Cahokia=. A French settlement on the upper Mississippi, opposite St. Louis and above Fort Chartres. A road connected it with Kaskaskia some miles lower down. It was the scene of Pontiac’s murder in 1769. Parkman described it as it still existed in his day. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_. =Cairns, Hugh.= Sergeant, 46th Battalion, C. E. F. _Victoria Cross._ On the 1st of November, 1918, before Valenciennes, when a machine gun opened on his platoon, he seized a Lewis gun and single-handed, in the face of direct fire, rushed the enemy post, disposed of the crew and captured the gun. Later he attacked another post, capturing eighteen of the enemy and two guns, and led a small party to outflank a nest of machine and field guns, capturing all the guns and about fifty men. Finally he was rushed by about twenty enemy, and, having already been severely wounded, collapsed from weakness and loss of blood. He died the following day. =Caldwell, Henry.= Commanded British militia in Quebec during siege by Montgomery. His home burnt by Arnold. =Bib.=: Lemoine, _The Hon. Henry Caldwell, L.C., at Quebec_. =Caldwell, Sir John, Bt.= Eldest son of Sir James Caldwell, the third baronet. Succeeded his father, 1784. Appointed receiver-general of Lower Canada, and found to have misappropriated the public funds. Made restoration afterwards of the greater part of the amount. Died in England, 1830. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Calgary.= A city of Alberta. Founded originally as a post of the North-West Mounted Police in 1875, and named Fort Brisebois; name changed to Fort Calgary following year. Incorporated as a town, 1884. =Callières, Louis-Hector de= (1646?-1703). Born at Cherbourg, son of Jacques de Callières, governor of Cherbourg. Entered the army, and became captain of the regiment of Navarre. In 1684 came to Canada as governor of Montreal; and in 1699 appointed governor-general of the colony. Author of a memorandum on the French claims in Hudson Bay. Commanded regular troops in attack on the Iroquois, 1687. Sent to France to represent situation of the colony. In 1690 he led eight hundred men from Montreal to Quebec to help defend Quebec from the attack of Phipps. Commanded the vanguard in the attack on the Onondagas in 1696. Died at Quebec. =Bib.=: Sulte, _La Famille de Callières_ (R. S. C, 1890); Parkman, _Half Century of Conflict_. =Cambrai, Battle of.= September 27th to October 9th, 1918. It had been determined that the Third and Fourth Armies were to make a concerted attack on the Canal du Nord and Cambrai, and the Canadians had the honour of being selected as the “spearhead.” Their business was to fight their way across the canal and capture Bourlon Wood (_q.v._). Having achieved that, as well as surmounting the formidable obstacle of the Canal du Nord, the next few days were spent in paving the way for the final assault on Cambrai. Five days’ fighting had resulted for the Canadians in the gain of much valuable ground, as well as seven thousand prisoners and over two hundred guns. After a short rest, they resumed the attack, and at one o’clock on the morning of the ninth had crossed the Scheldt, pressed on through some of the outlying villages, and “by the full dawn they had cleared the enemy out of the big triangle, twenty miles square, formed by the Sensée and the Scheldt.” The Germans had evacuated the city during the night. Canadian infantry and engineers took possession of the place, and were in time to prevent its destruction by fire. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Cameron, David.= Brought up as a draper; drifted to the West Indies, where he had charge of an estate; and thence to New Caledonia. In 1852 superintendent of the coal mines at Nanaimo. Nominated by Douglas as chief-justice of Vancouver Island, 1853, and the appointment confirmed by the colonial office the same year. Succeeded by Needham in 1858. Retired from the bench, 1864. Died at Belmont, Vancouver Island, 1872. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_. =Cameron, Sir Douglas Colin= (1854-1921). Represented Fort William in Ontario Legislature, 1902-1905. Unsuccessful candidate for Winnipeg, Dominion election, 1908. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1911. =Bib.=: _Who’s Who_. =Cameron, Duncan.= Son of a United Empire Loyalist; born at Schenectady, on the Mohawk. His father brought the family to Canada, and settled in Glengarry. The son entered the service of the North West Company in 1786, and was for many years in charge of the Nipigon district. In 1814 sent to Red River to oppose Selkirk’s plans, and succeeded in winning some of the colonists over to the side of the Nor’Westers. Took them to Upper Canada. In 1816, before the Seven Oaks affair, seized by Colin Robertson of the Hudson’s Bay Company, carried to York Factory, and sent to England, where he was promptly released. Returned to Canada, settled at Williamstown, and represented Glengarry from 1820 to 1824 in the Assembly of Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Manitoba and Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_. Cameron’s _Sketch of the Customs, etc., of the Natives in the Nipigon Country_, and _Nipigon Journal, 1804-1805_, are in Masson, vol. 2. =Cameron, John Hillyard= (1817-1876). Solicitor-general, Upper Canada, 1846-1848; represented Cornwall in Legislative Assembly, 1846-1847 and 1848-1851; Toronto, 1854; Peel, 1861-1866. Opposed Confederation. Proposed an appeal to the people. Represented Peel in first Dominion Parliament, 1867-1872; Cornwall, 1872-1874; and 1874-1876. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Cameron, Malcolm= (1808-1876). Elected to Assembly of Upper Canada for Lanark, 1836. A persistent opponent of Sir F. B. Head and the Family Compact. Appointed inspector of revenue, under Bagot. Held various offices in the LaFontaine-Baldwin and Hincks administrations. One of the Clear Grits. President of the Executive Council, 1851. Opposed George Brown in Kent and Lambton. Minister of agriculture, and in 1853 postmaster-general. He advocated complete secularization of the Clergy Reserves, and opposed Catholic Separate Schools. In 1863 resigned his seat to accept appointment as Queen’s Printer. Represented South Lanark in Dominion House, 1874-1876. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Cameron, Sir Matthew Crooks= (1822-1887). Born in Dundas, Ontario. Educated at the Home District Grammar School, Toronto, and at Upper Canada College; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1849. Sat in the Assembly for North Ontario, 1861-1863 and 1864-1867. Defeated in North Ontario for election to the House of Commons, 1867. Elected to the Ontario Assembly for East Toronto; provincial secretary, 1867-1871; commissioner of crown lands, 1871-1872; leader of the opposition in the Assembly, 1872-1876. Appointed judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1878; chief-justice of the Common Pleas Division of the High Court of Justice, 1884. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Camosun.= _See_ Victoria. =Campbell, Sir Alexander= (1821-1892). Studied law under John A. Macdonald, with whom he later formed a partnership; and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1843. Elected to the Legislative Council, 1858; and Speaker, 1863. Commissioner of crown lands, 1864-1866. A delegate to the Charlottetown Conference, and the Quebec Conference. Postmaster-general in first Dominion ministry, 1867-1873. In 1870 sent to England to confer with the Imperial government as to the proposed withdrawal of troops from Canada, the Fenian Raids, and other matters. In 1872 attempted to merge the two rival Canadian Pacific Railway syndicates. Minister of the interior, 1873; receiver-general, 1878-1879; postmaster-general, 1879-1880, 1880-1881, 1885-1887; minister of militia and defence, 1880; minister of justice, 1881-1885. In 1887 appointed lieutenant-governor of Ontario, an office which he retained up to the time of his death. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_. =Campbell, Sir Archibald= (1769-1843). Born in Scotland. Entered the army, 1787. Served throughout the Peninsular War, 1808-1814; in 1821 commanded a regiment in India; conducted the Burmese War; and 1826-1829, governor of British Burmah. From 1831 to 1837 lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. Came into conflict with the Assembly over the questions of crown lands, revenues and the Civil List bill. Dissolved the House in 1834. Opposed to political reform. Resigned, 1836. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Campbell, Sir Colin= (1776-1847). Served in India, 1801-1804, and afterwards in Denmark and the Peninsula; attached to Wellington’s staff at the battle of Waterloo; promoted major-general, 1825; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1834-1840. He managed to antagonize the popular party in the Assembly, and his removal was asked for at the instance of Joseph Howe. Governor of Ceylon, 1839-1847. =Bib.=: _Letters and Speeches_. For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._; Chisholm, _Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. _See also_ Joseph Howe. =Campbell, Frederick William.= Lieutenant, 1st Battalion, C. E. F. _Victoria Cross_. During the action at Givenchy, June 15th, 1915, he took two machine-guns over the parapet, arrived at the German first line with one gun, and held his position there under very heavy rifle, machine-gun and bomb fire, notwithstanding the fact that almost the whole of his detachment had been killed or wounded. Later he moved his gun forward to an exposed position and, by firing about one thousand rounds, succeeded in holding back the enemy’s counter-attack. Subsequently died from wounds. =Campbell, Robert= (1808-1894). A Perthshire Highlander by birth, he entered the service of Hudson’s Bay Company, 1832, and was sent to the Mackenzie River district, 1834. For the next eighteen years engaged in exploring the upper waters of the Liard and Yukon Rivers, and establishing the fur trade in this region. Built Fort Dease in 1838, and made his way to the Pacific by way of the Stikine. In 1842 he ascended the north branch of the Liard to Lake Frances, crossed the divide and reached the headwaters of the Pelly, a tributary of the Yukon. In 1843 he reached the junction of the Pelly and the Lewes, and five years later he built Fort Yukon at the forks, and descended the Yukon to the mouth of the Porcupine. In 1852 made a remarkable journey on snowshoes, from Fort Simpson to Crow-wing, Minnesota, about three thousand miles. Became a chief factor, 1867, and retired from the service of the Company, 1871. =Bib.=: _Discovery and Exploration of the Youcon River_. For biog., _see_ Bryce, _Sketch of the Life and Discoveries of Robert Campbell_ and _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Campbell, Stewart.= Leader of the Anti-Confederation party in Nova Scotia. Elected to the House of Commons for Guysborough in 1867. Afterwards supported Confederation. =Bib.=: Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Campbell, Lord William.= Youngest son of the fourth Duke of Argyle. Governor of Nova Scotia, 1766-1773. Last Royal governor of South Carolina, 1775-1778. Wounded in the attack on Charleston and died September, 1778. =Campbell, Sir William= (1758-1834). Born in Scotland. Enlisted as a private in a Highland regiment; came to America during the Revolutionary War; took part in the battle of Yorktown, 1781; after his release determined to remain in America. Studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia; practised his profession for nineteen years; elected to the Assembly of Cape Breton; became attorney-general. Appointed to a puisne judgeship in Upper Canada, 1811; chief-justice, 1825; retired, 1829; knighted, 1829. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Campbell, Major William.= Placed by Simcoe in command of the fort above the rapids of the Miami in 1794. When General Wayne appeared before the fort with a large force, he refused to abandon it. =Campobello.= An island, about eight miles long, in Passamaquoddy Bay, Bay of Fundy. Granted by Lord William Campbell, governor of Nova Scotia, about 1770, to Captain William Owen, father of Admiral Owen. Captain Owen named it partly as a complimentary punning on the name of the governor, and partly because it describes the fine appearance of the island. Under the Convention of 1817 this island, as well as Grand Manan and Deer Island, were assigned to Canada. The United States had claimed all three. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Canada.= Several theories as to origin of name. Probably derived from the Indian word _kanata_ meaning a village, but supposed by the French to refer to the country. Discovered by John Cabot in 1497. First settlement made by Jacques Cartier, in 1535, on the banks of the St. Charles. In 1608 Champlain founded the city of Quebec, almost on the spot where Jacques Cartier had wintered; the country ceded to Great Britain by France, by the treaty of Paris, 1763; civil government provided by Quebec Act, 1774; and a measure of responsible government by the Constitutional Act, 1791; invasion by Americans, 1775-1776; War of 1812; Rebellions of 1837-1838, in Upper and Lower Canada; union of Upper and Lower Canada, 1841; Confederation of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, 1867; Rupert’s Land acquired from the Hudson’s Bay Company, and Manitoba added to the Dominion, 1870; British Columbia, 1871; Prince Edward Island, 1873; provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta created, 1905. Present area, 3,729,665 square miles. At the time of its cession to England, Canada comprised the territory west to the Mississippi and south to the Ohio. By the Treaty of 1783 it was restricted to what was later known as Upper and Lower Canada, the boundary running through the Great Lakes except Michigan. Confederation added the Maritime Provinces except Prince Edward Island, and subsequently that province was added, and the immense territory west to the Pacific and north to the Arctic. By Imperial Acts of 1880 and 1895 the Arctic Islands were added to the Dominion insofar as Great Britain had a title to them. Population middle of seventeenth century less than one thousand; in 1670 about six thousand; in 1760 about 70,000; in 1806, Upper and Lower Canada, 320,000; in 1851, Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 2,313,000; in 1871 (first Dominion census), 3,485,761; in 1921, 8,788,483. _See also_ New France; Carrier, Jacques; Cabot, John; Champlain; Quebec Act; Constitutional Act; Union Act; Upper Canada; Lower Canada; Confederation; Arctic Islands; and under names of the various provinces. =Bib.=: Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Lucas and Egerton, _Historical Geography of Canada_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Parkman, _France and England in North America_; Tracy, _Tercentenary History of Canada_; Garneau, _Histoire du Canada_; Ferland, _Cours d’Histoire du Canada_; Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_; Bourinot, _Canada under British Rule_; Wrong, _Canada_; _Atlas of Canada_; Burpee, _Historical Atlas of Canada_. =Canada Act.= _See_ Constitutional Act. =Canada Company.= Founded in London, 1824, by John Galt, as a colonizing scheme. A large tract of land was purchased in what is now western Ontario. Dunlop, Talbot, Strickland, and other pioneers of Upper Canada were associated with Galt in the enterprise. The company is still in existence. _See also_ Galt, John; Dunlop, William; Talbot, Thomas. =Bib.=: Lizars, _In the Days of the Canada Company_; Strickland, _Twenty-seven Years in Canada West_; Galt, _Autobiography_; Jameson, _Winter Sketches_; Talbot, _Six Years in the Canadas_; McTaggart, _Three Years in Upper Canada_; Dunlop, _The Backwoodsman_. =Canada First Association.= Organized in 1874 by a group of men of whom Goldwin Smith was one. William A. Foster was a leading spirit. Others were Charles Mair, John Schultz, George T. Denison, J. C. Halliburton, and Henry J. Morgan. Its platform embraced British connection, closer trade relations with the British West Indies, an income franchise, the ballot and compulsory voting, a scheme for the representation of minorities, encouragement of immigration, reorganization of the Senate, an improved militia system, a revenue tariff that would encourage native industries, no property qualification for members of the House of Commons. Above all it aimed at the cultivation of a vigorous national Canadian spirit. =Bib.=: Lewis, _George Brown_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; _Canada First_; _A Memorial of the Late William A. Foster_; Denison, _The Struggle for Imperial Unity_. =Canada Trade Act.= Passed by Imperial Parliament in 1822, with the object of correcting the injustice to Upper Canada in the apportionment of duties collected. The Quebec Legislature had refused to re-enact the old Acts apportioning a share of duties to Upper Canada, and these Acts were now made permanent. Lower Canada was debarred from imposing new duties on imports by sea without the consent of Upper Canada and the approval of the Imperial Parliament. _See also_ Customs. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_. =Canada Year Books.= In November, 1866, a year-book was published at Montreal, edited by Arthur Harvey, of the Department of Finance, Ottawa. It was for the year 1867, and was introduced with these words: “In view of the approaching Confederation of the British Provinces in North America and the prospect of their extending their commercial relations with each other and with foreign parts, a handbook of common information respecting them seems to be required.” The Canada Year Book ceased publication with the volume for 1877. In 1878 Henry J. Morgan established the Dominion Annual Register and Review, which he edited and published up to 1887. In 1886 the Canadian government began publication of an official year book under the title _Statistical Abstract and Record of Canada_, later changed to _The Statistical Year Book of Canada_, and which still continues under the title of _The Canada Year Book_. It was edited first by George Johnson, subsequently by Archibald Blue, Ernest H. Godfrey, and S. A. Cudmore. =Canadian Alliance Society.= Founded at York in 1834, with James Lesslie as president and William Lyon Mackenzie as secretary. Among its objects were responsible government, abolition of the Legislative Council, more equable taxation of property, abolition of the law of primogeniture, separation of Church and State, secularization of the Clergy Reserves, cheap postage, improved libel and jury laws, non-interference of the Colonial Office in local provincial affairs. =Canadian Bank of Commerce.= Established in the year of Confederation, 1867. Head office in Toronto. Over 660 branches throughout Canada, and in Newfoundland, the West Indies, etc. Capital, $15,000,000, and Reserve, $15,000,000. Has absorbed the Bank of British Columbia, Eastern Townships Bank, Bank of Hamilton, and several others. Sir Edmund Walker, who had entered the service of the bank in 1868, became its president in 1907 and held that position up to the time of his death. =Bib.=: Ross, _History of the Canadian Bank of Commerce_. =Canadian Boat Songs.= Of two famous boat songs, one was written by Thomas Moore in 1804. The Irish poet had been appointed registrar of the Admiralty in Bermuda in 1803, but remained only a few months, and on his way home made a tour through eastern Canada in the course of which he wrote the poem beginning: “Faintly as tolls the evening chime, Our voices keep tune and our oars keep time.” The authorship of the other and more famous boat song has been a matter of controversy for many years, and it is not probable that it will ever be known definitely who wrote those haunting lines: “From the lone sheiling of the misty island Mountains divide us and a waste of seas— Yet still the blood is strong, the heart is Highland, And we in dreams behold the Hebrides.” The poem, which first appeared in “Noctes Ambrosianae” in _Blackwoods Magazine_, September, 1829, has been attributed to John Galt, James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Professor John Wilson (Christopher North), Sir Walter Scott, John Gibson Lockhart (Scott’s son-in-law), Hugh, Lord Eglinton, and William Dunlop. =Bib.=: Hervey, _The Lone Sheiling_; Fraser, _The Canadian Boat Song_. =Canadian Contingents in the Boer War= (1899-1902). Consisted of the Royal Canadian Infantry, Canadian Mounted Rifles, Royal Canadian Artillery, and Strathcona’s Horse. The first contingent, Which sailed for South Africa from Quebec, October 30th, 1899, numbered 1,141. The second contingent, which sailed from Halifax in January and February, 1900, mustered 1,320. These two contingents comprised the official Canadian contribution to the British forces in the war, but Lord Strathcona also raised a contingent at his own expense. This contingent, known as Strathcona’s Horse, sailed from Halifax in March, 1900, the force numbering 540 officers and men, and 599 horses. Over 3,000 Canadians therefore took part in the war against the Boers. Throughout the operations in South Africa, the Canadians signally distinguished themselves, particularly at the battle of Paardeberg on February 27th, 1900, when with the Gordon Highlanders and the Shropshires they led the final attack on Cronje’s position. _See_ Paardeberg; Mafeking; Poplar Grove; Israel’s Poort; Strathcona’s Horse. =Bib.=: Evans, _The Canadian Contingents_; Marquis, _Canada’s Sons on Kopje and Veldt_; Doyle, _The Great Boer War_. =Canadian Historical Association.= Developed in 1922 out of the Historic Landmarks Association of Canada, which itself had been organized in 1907 at a joint meeting of Sections I and II of the Royal Society of Canada. The immediate object of the parent organization had been to further the celebration of the Tercentenary of Quebec in 1908, and its wider purpose to encourage the preservation and marking of the historic landmarks of Canada. The objects of the present Association are to encourage historic research and public interest in history; to promote the preservation of historic sites, buildings, documents, etc.; and to publish historical studies and documents. The presidents have been Lawrence J. Burpee, 1922-1924; Hon. Thomas Chapais, 1925. =Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission.= Established 1907, the original members being Hon. Sydney Fisher, Archdeacon Armytage, Professor Shortt, Archdeacon Raymond, Professor Wrong, Professor Colby and Dr. Doughty. It was created for the purpose of advising the Dominion Archivist in the administration of the Public Archives. By selecting representative men from various parts of the country it was felt that the interests of the country as a whole and of the various provinces would be safeguarded. On the outbreak of the War the work of the Commission was interrupted. Since then individual members have been called upon from time to time for advice as to matters affecting their own parts of the Dominion. =Canadian Historical Review.= A quarterly, established in 1920, as a continuation in another form of the _Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada_ founded, 1896, by George M. Wrong (_q.v._) as an annual. Managing editor of the quarterly, W. S. Wallace. =Canadian History Society.= Organized in London, 1923, with the Duke of Connaught as president, the Dowager Countess of Minto as vice-president, and H. P. Biggar as secretary, for the discovery and preservation of new material bearing upon the history of Canada, particularly unpublished private papers and correspondence of families formerly connected with the public life of the country. Membership limited to descendants or representatives of such families. Branches formed in England, France and Canada. One of the activities is a series of biographies by competent scholars, to be prepared under the general editorship of John Buchan. =Canadian Institute.= Founded at Toronto, June 20th, 1849, by Sandford Fleming and Kivas Tully, with several other surveyors, civil engineers and architects practising in and about Toronto. A royal charter was granted November 4th, 1851, in which the objects of the society are declared to be “the encouragement and general advancement of the physical sciences, the arts and the manufactures,” etc. Among the early presidents were Sir W. E. Logan, Sir Henry Lefroy, Sir John Beverley Robinson, George W. Allan, W. H. Draper, Sir Daniel Wilson and Sir Oliver Mowat. With it was amalgamated in 1885 the Natural History Society of Toronto, founded in 1878 and incorporated in 1882. The publications of the Institute began with the _Canadian Journal, 1852_, and have been continued, as _Proceedings_, _Transactions_, etc., to the present time. =Bib.=: _The Canadian Journal_, 1852-1878; _Proceedings_, 1879-1890; _Transactions_, 1890. A semi-centennial memorial volume, published 1899, contains _Early Days of the Canadian Institute_ by Sir Sandford Fleming. =Canadian National Railways.= Authorized by Order-in-Council in 1918, and by Act of Parliament in 1919, as a collective title for the group of railways then brought under government ownership, the Canadian Government Railways, the National Transcontinental, the Grand Trunk Pacific, and the Canadian Northern. In 1919 the Grand Trunk System was also brought into the system of state-owned railways. Total mileage of the combined railways over 20,500 in 1925. The capital liability of the combined roads is $2,207,502,000. _See also_ Intercolonial; Grand Trunk; Grand Trunk Pacific; Canadian Northern. =Canadian Northern Railway.= The first link in this transcontinental railway dates back to 1896, when construction was commenced on the line from Gladstone towards Lake Winnipegosis. Assisted by the Manitoba government, the Canadian Northern secured the Manitoba lines of the Northern Pacific, and in 1902 completed its line from Winnipeg to Port Arthur. The system was extended east and west, and within a few years reached from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with numerous branches. Became part of Canadian National Railways in 1919. =Bib.=: _Historical Sketch of the Canadian Northern Railway_ in _Canadian Annual Review, 1906_; Hanna, _Trains of Recollection_; Skelton, _The Railway Builders_. =Canadian Pacific Railway.= The contract for construction of the railway was signed October 21st, 1880, the surveys having already been carried out under the direction of Sandford Fleming (_q.v._). Work was begun on the railway in May, 1881, and the last spike driven by Donald A. Smith (afterwards Lord Strathcona) (_q.v._) on November 7th, 1885. This was the culmination of a long movement for a transcontinental railway across Canada. George Johnson in his _Alphabet of First Things in Canada_ traces the evolution of the idea from the search for an overland route to the Pacific in the days of New France down to the various suggested transportation projects, first for a waggon road across the continent, then for a water thoroughfare, then for a combined water and rail route, then for a railway from Lake Superior to the Pacific, and finally for a transcontinental railway from Montreal to the Pacific. Under the terms of union, British Columbia had been promised, in 1870, railway connection with the east. The following year two companies were chartered, and these were finally merged in a third, which was to receive a heavy subsidy from the government for building the railway. The Pacific Scandal (_q.v._) followed, and the downfall of the Macdonald government. The Mackenzie government adopted the policy of government ownership, but on Macdonald’s return to power in 1878 he reverted to the original plan, and two years later the contract was signed for construction of the railway, the company receiving a Dominion subsidy of $25,000,000 and a land grant of 25,000,000 acres. Pessimistic views were held in many quarters as to the success of such a gigantic undertaking in a sparsely settled country but, although the early years of the road were extremely difficult, it ultimately more than realized the dreams of the men of vision who had stood behind it. The railway to-day has a mileage of 13,600, controls fleets of steamers on the Atlantic, Pacific and the Great Lakes, besides many other interests, and the capital of the company is $677,582,000. =Bib.=: Skelton, _The Railway Builders_; McLean, _National Highways Overland_ (in _Canada and its Provinces_); Hopkins, _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 2; Parkin, _The Great Dominion_; MacBeth, _Romance of the Canadian Pacific Railway_; Begg, _History of the North-West_; Fleming, _Reports on Canadian Pacific Railway_, 1874, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880; Johnson, _First Things in Canada_; Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_; Secretan, _Canada’s Great Highway_. =Canadian Representatives Abroad.= Nova Scotia appointed a representative in London in 1761; New Brunswick in 1786; Upper Canada in 1794; Lower Canada in 1812; British Columbia in 1857. For a short time after 1845 some of the colonies were represented in London by Crown Agents appointed by the Home government and paid by the colonies. In 1879 the Dominion government created the office of Canadian High Commissioner in London. Sir Alexander Galt was the first High Commissioner, 1879-1883; succeeded by Sir Charles Tupper, 1883-1896; Lord Strathcona, 1896-1914; Sir George H. Perley, 1914-1922; and Hon. P. C. Larkin, 1922. In 1882 an Agent or Commissioner for Canada in Paris was appointed, Hector Fabre occupying the office, 1882-1910, and being succeeded by Philippe Roy. Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and British Columbia are still represented in London by Agents-General. =Canadien.= A newspaper founded at Quebec in 1806. Became the organ of the French majority in the Assembly. Appealed to race prejudice. Demanded what were considered unconstitutional powers for the Assembly. It was seized and temporarily suppressed by Governor Craig in 1810, but his action was not approved by the Home authorities. _See_ Dionne, _Pierre Bédard et Son Temps_ (R. S. C., 1898). A newspaper with the same name was established in Montreal, to which Papineau, LaFontaine, Doutre, Parent, and other well-known French Canadians contributed. =Canals.= The earliest attempt at a canal in Canada, or in North America, was that at Lachine, early in the eighteenth century. (See Catalogue). Between 1779 and 1783, lock canals were built by the Royal Engineers, at the Coteau and the Cascades, on the St. Lawrence. In 1798 a boat canal was built at Sault Ste. Marie by the North West Company. A canal to connect the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain was advocated as early as 1775, by Silas Deane of Connecticut, but was not actually undertaken until 1831. The Welland Canal was commenced in 1824; and the Rideau Canal two years later. In 1841 the government made provision for the construction and improvement of canals. George Brown was a strong believer in artificial waterways. Papineau opposed them. The extension of the westerly canal system was approved by the Quebec Conference. Enlargement suggested by Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State of the United States, in 1874. These artificial waterways of Canada are controlled by the Department of Railways and Canals of the Dominion government. Altogether about $250,000,000 had been spent on canals, river channels and other improvement to waterways in Canada up to 1925. _See also_ Waterways; and under names of individual canals, Lachine; Rideau; Welland; Cornwall; Soulanges; Sault Ste. Marie; St. Peter’s; Richelieu; Ottawa; Trent; Murray; Williamsburg. =Bib.=: Keefer, _Canals of Canada_ (R. S. C., 1893); _Waterways of Canada_ (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, _Trans._, vol. 2); Kingsford, _Canadian Canals_; _Report of Royal Commission on Canals_, 1871; _Annual Reports on Railways and Canals_, Ottawa. =Canard River.= A small stream in Essex County, Ontario, falling into the Detroit River. The Americans were repulsed here in the War of 1812. =Canniff, William= (1830-1910). Educated Victoria College, and studied medicine at Toronto and New York. Admitted a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, 1855. Served in Crimean War. Practised at Belleville. Professor of Surgery, Victoria College. A surgeon in the American Civil War. Devoted many years to a study of the early history of Ontario or Upper Canada. =Bib.=: _A History of the Early Settlement of Upper Canada_; _The Medical Profession in Upper Canada_; _Fragments of the War of 1812-1814_. =Canso, Gut of.= The strait separating Cape Breton from the mainland of Nova Scotia. There have been several suggested derivations of the name, but the proper one would appear to be that of Dr. Rand, from the Indian word _Kamsok_ meaning “opposite the lofty cliffs.” The strait has at different times been known as Passage du Glas and Straits of Fronsac. The town of Canso was at one time known as Wilmot Town, in honour of Montague Wilmot, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia in 1765. =Bib.=: Brown, _Nova Scotia Place Names._ =Canterbury, John Henry Thomas Manners-Sutton, Viscount= (1814-1877). Born in England. Entered Parliament, 1841; home secretary from 1841 to 1846 in Peel’s ministry. From 1854 to 1861, lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick; in 1864-1866 governor of Trinidad; and in 1866-1873 governor of Victoria. His term of office in New Brunswick, like that of most of his predecessors, was made up largely of disagreements with the Assembly. The particular bone of contention in his case was a Prohibitory Law passed by the Assembly and which the governor thought so ill-advised that he dissolved the Legislature. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Cape Breton.= Champlain had named it Isle St. Laurent. An island at the eastern extremity of Nova Scotia, now forming part of that province. Discovered by John Cabot in 1497. First settlement made by the French in 1712. Town of Louisbourg built and strongly fortified. It was captured by Pepperell and Warren in 1745; restored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748; again captured by the British, under Amherst and Boscawen, 1758. Cape Breton was a separate colony of Great Britain, 1784-1820, with Sydney (founded 1785) as its capital. In 1820 it was incorporated with Nova Scotia. See also Louisbourg; Sydney; Nova Scotia. =Bib.=. Brown, _History of Cape Breton_; Bourinot, _Cape Breton and its Memorials_; Grant, _Cape Breton, Past and Present_. =Capital.= _See_ Seat of Government. =Card Money.= Circulated in Canada between 1685 and 1717, and again between 1729 and 1759. Jacques de Meulles, the intendant, because of the scarcity of _specie,_ conceived the idea of paying the troops in bills to be redeemed when the ships arrived from France, and, having nothing better adapted to his purpose, took playing cards cut into quarters, stamped them with a crowned _fleur de lis_, wrote on them their value, and had them signed by the clerk of the treasury and the intendant. Paper money was issued in Acadia in 1708. Scarcity of _specie_, and particularly of the smaller silver coins, after the conquest, again led to an unusual expedient. Some of the merchants in Canada issued small paper due bills good for future purchases at their stores. They were known as _bons_ from the fact that they were generally in French and read _bon pour_, etc.; and continued in use for many years, both in Upper and Lower Canada. _See also_ Currency. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Carheil, Etienne de= (1633-1726). A Breton, of noble birth. Came to Canada as a Jesuit missionary in 1666. After two years spent at Quebec, left in 1668 for his mission among the Cayugas. Spent a number of years there in a zealous but largely fruitless effort to convert the Indians to Christianity. In 1686 sent to the Hurons at Michilimackinac, and laboured among that tribe for many years. Finally in 1704 returned to Quebec, where he died. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_; _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites. =Cariboo Gold Rush.= The finding of gold in the bars of the Fraser river, British Columbia, in 1858, brought a swarm of miners from California. Exhausting the lower bars, they pushed on up-stream. In 1859 rich discoveries were made on the Quesnel, a branch of the Fraser; others followed; the fame of the new gold-fields spread over the world, and in 1860 the Cariboo rush brought adventurers from every quarter, by sea, and by caravan across the plains and through the mountains. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Cariboo Road.= A result of the gold rush. As long as the discoveries were confined to the lower Fraser the miners could get in by water, but with the rich strikes higher up-stream the transportation problem became acute. The miners themselves made a road from Harrison Lake to Lillouet in 1858. Between 1862 and 1865 the Royal Engineers built the Cariboo Road from Ashcroft to Barkerville, a practicable road having previously been constructed from Ashcroft down to navigable water on the Fraser. The road was 480 miles in length. The Canadian National Railway follows it rather closely for some distance. =Bib.=: Laut, _The Cariboo Trail_; Moberly, _History of Cariboo Wagon Road_. =Carignan-Salières.= The first regiment of regular troops sent to America from France. Raised in Savoy by the Prince of Carignan in 1644; employed for some years in the service of the king of France, and after the peace of the Pyrenees was regularly incorporated in the French army. Fought against the Turks in 1664, and ordered to America the following year. With the original regiment was incorporated the fragment of a regiment of Germans, the whole under the command of Colonel de Salières. The regiment served with distinction in Canada until 1668, when it was ordered home. A large number of officers and men, however, remained in the colony, where they were given generous grants of land. Some of the officers settled along the Richelieu river and became _seigneurs_. The regiment was reconstructed in France, and under the name of the Regiment of Lorraine existed until 1794. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; Susane, _Ancienne Infanterie Française_, vol. 5; Roy, _Le Régiment de Carignan_; Sulte, _Régiment de Carignan_. =Carleton, Sir Guy.= _See_ Dorchester. =Carleton, Thomas= (1736-1817). A nephew of Lord Dorchester. Served with Wolfe in 1755; quartermaster-general of the army in Canada, 1775; wounded in the naval battle on Lake Champlain, 1776. In 1778, when the United States were planning another invasion of Canada, he was sent to Lake Champlain, made a clean sweep of the settlements on both sides of the lake and destroyed all the provisions, penetrating beyond Ticonderoga. Appointed first lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1784. Opposed the Assembly in their efforts to secure political reforms. Granted a charter to Fredericton Academy. Returned to England in 1803. The colony was governed by administrators until 1817, when General Smyth was appointed governor. =Bib.=. _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_. =Carling, Sir John= (1828-1911). Born near London, Ont. Elected for London to Canadian Assembly, 1857. In 1867 elected both to the Ontario Legislature and the Dominion House of Commons, and sat in both for some time. Receiver-general in Cartier-Macdonald government, 1862. Commissioner of agriculture and public works in the first Ontario administration. Postmaster-general and later minister of agriculture in Dominion government. Was largely responsible for the establishment of the Agricultural College at Guelph, and the Experimental Farms of both the Dominion and Ontario. Called to the Senate, 1891, resigned, 1892, reappointed, 1896. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Carlton House.= Two forts of this name were founded by the Hudson’s Bay Company. One stood on the banks of the Saskatchewan, above the forks; the other on the upper waters of the Assiniboine. Both were established about the end of the eighteenth century. Alexander Ross describes the former in 1825 as next in extent and importance to Fort Edmonton, but insignificant for defensive purposes. =Carnarvon, Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, fourth Earl of= (1831-1890). Colonial secretary, 1866-1867, and as such presided over the Westminster Conference, and introduced the British North America Act; colonial secretary again, 1874-1878; chairman of Colonial Defence Commission, 1879-1882. Joined Imperial Federation League, 1884. =Bib.=: _Speeches on Canadian Affairs_; For biog. _see Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Caroline.= In December, 1837, William Lyon Mackenzie had set up a rebel government on Navy Island in the Niagara river. Most of his adherents were American sympathizers. They used a steamboat, the _Caroline_, to bring men and supplies from the United States’ side. Captain Drew, R.N., was sent with a party of volunteers to destroy the vessel. He found her at a wharf on the American shore, set fire to her and cut her adrift. In the skirmish, several men were killed. The incident for a time increased the ill-feeling between Americans and Canadians. _See also_ Navy Island; Rebellion of 1837-1838. =Bib.=: Drew and Wood, _The Burning of the Caroline_; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Lindsay, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Caron, Sir Joseph Philippe Réné Adolphe= (1843-1908). Son of the following. Born in Quebec. Studied law; entered public life in 1873 as member of Dominion House for Quebec County; elected for Rimouski, 1891. Minister of militia and defence, 1880-1892, which included the period, peculiarly difficult and embarrassing to a French Canadian minister, of the second Riel Rebellion. It is a curious coincidence that French-Canadian ministers were in charge of the militia department through both the Riel Rebellions. _See_ Cartier. Postmaster-general, 1892. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Caron, Réné Edouard= (1800-1876). Born in the parish of Ste. Anne, Lower Canada. Educated at the Seminary of Quebec and at St. Pierre College; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1826. Mayor of Quebec, 1833-1837; sat in Assembly, 1834-1836; appointed a member of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada by Lord Gosford, but did not take his seat. Member of the Legislative Council of Canada, 1841; Speaker, 1843-1847 and 1848-1853; member of the La Fontaine-Baldwin government and of the Hincks-Morin government; judge of the Superior Court of Quebec, 1853; afterwards judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench and judge of the Seigniorial Court. He is described as a man of good judgment, and of moderate political views. =Bib.=: Turcotte, _R. E. Caron_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_ and _Can. Por._ =Carroll Charles, of Carrollton= (1737-1832). Represented Maryland in the Congress at Philadelphia, 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independence. Afterwards elected to the Senate of Maryland, and the federal Senate. With his brother John, afterwards a Roman Catholic archbishop, he accompanied Benjamin Franklin (_q.v._) to Canada in 1776, in the unsuccessful effort to convert the Canadians to Republicanism. =Bib.=: _Journal during his visit to Canada in 1776, with Memoirs and Notes by Brantz Mayer_; and for biog., _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Carter, Sir Frederic Bowker Terrington= (1819-1900). Born in St. John’s, Newfoundland. Studied law and called to the bar of Newfoundland, 1842; appointed Q. C., 1859. Member of the Legislative Assembly, 1855-1878; Speaker, 1861-1865; premier, 1865-1870 and 1874-1878; knighted, 1878; chief-justice of Newfoundland, 1880. Represented Newfoundland at the Quebec Conference, 1864. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Morgan, _Can. Men._ =Carter, Sir James= (1805-1878). Born in England. Educated at Cambridge; called to the bar, 1832. In 1834 a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, and in 1851 chief-justice of the province, retiring on a pension in 1865. In 1859 knighted. Spent the latter part of his life in England. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Cartier, Sir Georges Étienne= (1814-1873). Born in St. Antoine, on the Richelieu. Educated at Montreal College. Carried away with the fiery eloquence of Papineau, he fought in the rebel ranks at St. Denis and St. Charles, fled to the American side of the border, and remained in exile at Burlington until the amnesty was proclaimed. Before this warlike episode, Cartier had begun to study law in Montreal. On his return he continued his preparation, called to the bar 1835, and in a few years was well established in a law practice. In 1849 he made his first appearance in public life, being elected to the Assembly for Verchères. In the Legislature he rapidly developed the qualities of leadership, and within four years of entering the Assembly had twice been offered a portfolio. In 1855 he became a member of the cabinet, and, with short intervals of opposition, remained in power for a quarter of a century. If he rose to the top it was not because he was surrounded by mediocrity, for among his contemporaries were such brilliant leaders as Cauchon, Sicotte, Chauveau and Loranger on his own side; Laflamme, Dessaules, Fournier, Doutre and the Dorions among the young Liberals. In 1855 also began that association with John A. Macdonald that was to last to the end of Cartier’s life. They were both members of the MacNab-Morin administration that year. No man in Canadian public life was more bitterly assailed, but like Mazarin and many another statesman, he rode serenely through the storm. He was essentially a constructive leader, and it was largely due to his sound mind and public spirit that many admirable Acts were added to the statute books on such broad questions as education, land tenure and the judiciary. Politically he was an autocrat. “I here confess,” he said on one occasion, “that in all important acts of my life, of my political career, I have not consulted anyone.” Cartier was far-sighted. For years he had seen that improved transportation facilities were the key to Canada’s future, and he missed no opportunity of urging the construction of railways and the deepening of waterways. But his statesmanship never revealed itself more clearly than in his association with the great movement for Confederation. As early as 1858, as leader of the government, he had incorporated in the Speech from the Throne a proposal for a conference of the different colonies to discuss terms of Union, and, with Galt and Rose, had gone to England to obtain the concurrence of the British government. That scheme fell through, but Cartier was again to the fore in the Conferences at Charlottetown and Quebec, and it was undoubtedly due to his immense influence with his fellow-countrymen and their confidence in his judgment and patriotism, that the French Canadians were persuaded to give their support to a plan which on the surface seemed to menace their institutions and their very identity. And on the other hand, it was mainly because, in the interests of French Canada, Cartier stood like a rock for a federal system that those who, like Macdonald, favoured a legislative union, had to give way. Cartier had been premier from 1858 to 1862. In the first Dominion government he took the portfolio of militia and defence, and in a large sense represented the interests of Quebec. In 1869 with William McDougall he negotiated the purchase from the Hudson’s Bay Company of Rupert’s Land. The following year this French-Canadian minister was given the awkward responsibility of suppressing a rebellion led by the French half-breed, Louis Riel. In 1871 he presented the Bill creating the Province of Manitoba, in which he had inserted a clause designed to protect the interests of the Roman Catholic minority. The following year his action in refusing to support disallowance of the New Brunswick school law which did away with separate schools, aroused a storm of protest throughout Quebec. After Confederation, from a variety of causes, Cartier’s influence in the province of Quebec diminished. He was defeated in Montreal, and although again returned to Parliament, never regained the influence he had once wielded over his countrymen. At a time when many in England were frankly recommending independence for Canada and the other great colonies, Cartier staunchly upheld the importance of British connection. Separation he looked upon as an act of suicidal folly. He also did much to bring about a better understanding between English and French-speaking Canadians. As a recognition of his great services in bringing about Confederation, Cartier was made a baronet. In 1872 he made his last appearance in Parliament, taking an important part in the debate on the Canadian Pacific Railway Bill and other matters. He sailed for England in September, and died in London. =Bib.=: _Speeches on the Militia Bill._ For biog., _see_ David, _Esquisse Biographique_; Turcotte, _Sir G. É. Cartier_; DeCelles, _Cartier_; Boyd, _Sir Georges Étienne-Cartier_; Sulte, _Sir G. É. Cartier, A Sketch_; DeCelles, _LaFontaine et Cartier_; Lavergne, _Georges-Étienne Cartier_. =Cartier, Jacques= (1491-1557). In 1534, sailing out of St. Malo, made his first voyage to the New World, entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence by way of the Straits of Belle Isle, landing on the Gaspé shore, and coasting around the eastern end of Anticosti, naming many bays, harbours and capes on the mainland and larger islands. Returned to France. The following year again sailed to the gulf, and entered the river St. Lawrence, exploring the coast as he went and adding further names to prominent landmarks. Continuing his voyage, passed the mouth of the Saguenay, and landed on the Island of Orleans, which he named Ile Bacchus. Brought his little ships into the St. Charles River, upon whose banks stood the Indian village of Stadacona. After exploring the St. Lawrence as far as the Indian town of Hochelaga (Montreal), returned to Stadacona, where he wintered. In the spring of 1536 sailed back to France, taking with him the Iroquois chief, Donnacona. In 1541, made a third voyage to Canada, in the course of which he explored the St. Lawrence as far as the second rapid above Hochelaga. Roberval was to have followed with a number of colonists, but did not actually sail until the spring of 1542. When he reached Newfoundland, he met Cartier on his way home. Roberval’s colony proved disastrous, and Cartier, there is reason to believe, undertook a fourth voyage to the New World to rescue the survivors. “Jacques Cartier,” says Professor Leacock, “as much, perhaps, as any man of his time, embodied in himself what was highest in the spirit of his age. He shows us the daring of the adventurer with nothing of the dark cruelty by which such daring was often disfigured. He brought to his task the simple faith of the Christian whose devout fear of God renders him fearless of the perils of sea and storm. The darkest hour of his adversity in that grim winter at Stadacona found him still undismayed. He came to these coasts to find a pathway to the empire of the East. He found, instead, a country vast and beautiful beyond his dreams. The enthusiasm of it entered into his soul. Asia was forgotten before the reality of Canada. Since Cartier’s day four centuries of history have hallowed the soil of Canada with memories and associations never to be forgotten. But patriotism can find no finer example than the instinctive admiration and love called forth in the heart of Jacques Cartier by the majestic beauty of the land of which he was the discoverer.” =Bib.=: For a complete list of the original editions of Cartier’s voyages, _see_ Harrisse, _Notes pour Servir_, etc. Tross, Paris, reprinted them as follows: D’Avezac, _Bref Récit et Succinte Narration de la Navigation Faite par le Capitaine Jacques Cartier aux Iles de Canada_, etc. (1863); Michelant et Ramé, _Voyage de Jacques Cartier au Canada en 1534_ (1865); Michelant et Ramé, _Relation Originale du Voyage de Jacques Cartier au Canada en 1534_ (1867). The first English version is that of Florio (1580). In 1600 Hakluyt included a more accurate translation in his _Principal Navigations_. H. B. Stephen’s essay, _Jacques Cartier and his Voyages to Canada_, is accompanied by a new translation of the voyages. The Cartier voyages are discussed in the _Trans._ R. S. C., by W. F. Ganong (1887), (1889); Paul de Cazes (1884), (1890); Abbé Verreau (1890), (1891), (1897); Archbishop Howley (1894); and in the Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. _Trans., Voyages de Découvertes au Canada_ (1843); Demazieres, _Notes sur Jacques Cartier_ (1862). _See also_ Pope, _Jacques Cartier_; Winsor, _Cartier to Frontenac_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Des Longrais, _Jacques Cartier_; Dionne, _La Nouvelle France de Cartier à Champlain_; Doughty’s “Beginnings of Canada” in _Canada and its Provinces_; Leacock, _Mariner of St. Malo_; Biggar, _Voyages of Jacques Cartier_. An exhaustive bibliography will be found in Baxter, _A Memoir of Jacques Cartier_. =Cartwright, Richard= (1765-1815). Born at Albany, New York. On the outbreak of hostilities with the mother country came with his parents to Upper Canada. For a time served as secretary to Colonel Butler of the Queen’s Rangers, and later engaged in business at Kingston in partnership with Robert Hamilton. Associated with John Strachan at Kingston, and influenced him to join the Church of England. Made judge of the Court of Common Pleas for the district, and on the formation of Upper Canada into a separate province, appointed to the Legislative Council. Simcoe had once branded him as a Republican, but afterwards acknowledged that he was a valuable member of his Council. Urged to accept a seat in the Executive Council, but repeatedly refused. Created lieutenant of the county of Frontenac by Simcoe, and during the War of 1812 served as colonel of the militia. Brock had a high opinion of his ability and character. Occupied a position of prominence in the political and business life of the province. The township of Cartwright, in the county of Durham, Ontario, was named after him in 1816. =Bib.=: Cartwright, _Life and Letters of Hon. Richard Cartwright_. =Cartwright, Sir Richard John= (1835-1912). Grandson of the preceding. Born at Kingston. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Entered public life, 1863, as member for Lennox and Addington, in the Canadian Assembly. Elected for Lennox to the first Dominion House of Commons; for Centre Huron, 1878-1882; for South Huron, 1883-1887; for South Oxford, 1887-1904. Minister of finance in Mackenzie Cabinet, 1873-1878, and the chief spokesman of the Liberal party while in Opposition on all fiscal questions. He was at one time strongly in favour of commercial union with the United States, and introduced the unrestricted reciprocity resolutions of 1888 and 1889. On the return of the Liberals to power, in 1896, became minister of trade and commerce. A delegate to Washington in 1897 to promote better trade relations between Canada and the United States. Represented Canada on the Joint High Commission at Quebec, 1898, and Washington, 1898-1899. Called to the Senate, 1904, and government leader of the Senate, 1909. In appearance and manner he remained the dignified statesman of an earlier generation. =Bib.=: Works: _Remarks on the Militia of Canada_; _Memories of Confederation_; _Reminiscences_. For biog., _see_ Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Carvell, Frank Broadstreet= (1862-1924). Born Bloomfield, New Brunswick. Educated Boston University. Studied law and called to the bar. K. C., 1907. Represented Carleton county, New Brunswick, in the New Brunswick Legislature, 1899-1900; and the same county in the Dominion House of Commons, 1904-1919. Minister of public works in Union government, 1917-1919. Chairman of the board of railway commissioners, 1919-1924. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Carver, Jonathan= (1732-1780). Born at Stillwater, New York. Joined the company of rangers raised by John Burk of Northfield, 1756-1757. After the treaty of Paris, 1763, conceived the idea of exploring the Western territory acquired by England. Between 1766 and 1768, travelled from Michilimackinac to the Mississippi, ascended the Minnesota River, and returned by way of Grand Portage, Lake Superior. Went to England, 1769, to secure government support for his plans of Western exploration, but failed. Died there, January 31st, 1780. Carver’s reliability and the authenticity of his narrative have long been the subject of controversy among historians of western America. Certainly as an original narrative his _Travels_ have only slight value. =Bib.=: _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, in the Years 1766, 1767, and 1768._ The best edition is the third, published at London, 1781. For a bib. of the various editions, and translations, _see_ Lee, _Bibliography of Carver’s Travels_ (Wisconsin State Hist. Soc. _Proc._, 1909). _See also_ Durrie, _Jonathan Carver and “Carver’s Grant”_ (Wisconsin Hist. Soc. _Coll._, vol. 6); Gregory, _Jonathan Carver: His Travels in the North-West_ (Parkman Club _Pub._, No. 5); Bourne, _Travels of Jonathan Carver_ in _Amer. Hist. Review_, 1906; Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_. =Casgrain, Henri Raymond= (1831-1904). After studying medicine, decided to enter the church, and was ordained a priest in 1856. In 1872, owing to an affection of the eyes, he was compelled to abandon the ministry, and thereafter devoted himself entirely to literature. His first work, _Légendes Canadiennes_, appeared in 1861; and this was followed by many other publications, in history, biography, and _belles-lettres_. One of the principal contributors to the _Soirées Canadiennes_, the _Foyer Canadien_, and other French-Canadian periodicals. A charter member of the Royal Society of Canada; elected president of that body in 1889. =Bib.=: Among his principal works are: _Histoire de la Mère Marie de l’Incarnation_; _Biographies Canadiennes_; _Un Pèlerinage au Pays d’Evangéline_; _Montcalm et Lévis_. For bib., _see_ R. S. C., 1894, 21. For biog., _see_ Routhier, _Éloge historique de H. R. Casgrain_ (R. S. C., 1904); Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Cass, Lewis= (1782-1866). Served under General Hull in War of 1812. Drew up Hull’s flamboyant proclamation to the people of Canada. Opposed surrender of Detroit. Afterwards governor of territory of Michigan. =Bib.=: Contributed to _Historical Sketches of Michigan_, 1834. For biog., _see_ McLaughlin, _Lewis Cass_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Cassels, Sir Walter Gibson Pringle= (1845-1923). Born Quebec. Called to the bar 1869. Q. C., 1883. A Bencher of the Law Society. Appointed judge of the Exchequer Court of Canada, 1908. =Castle of St. Louis.= _See_ Château St. Louis. =Catalogne, Gédéon de.= Employed for some years on military and other engineering works in Canada. In 1701 commenced a canal from Lachine to the Little River, with the object of providing a boat channel around the rapids. The work was abandoned, and resumed in 1717, but was again abandoned, owing to the cost of the rock cutting. Accompanied Denonville on his expedition against the Iroquois, in 1687. =Cataraqui.= Name derived from the Iroquois. A fort was built by the engineer Raudin in 1673, under Frontenac’s orders, the site having been selected by La Salle. The fort stood at the mouth of the Cataraqui, on the site of the present city of Kingston. Here Frontenac held a great Council with representatives of the five Iroquois nations, 1673. On Frontenac’s recommendation, Cataraqui was granted to La Salle as a _seigniory_, upon his repaying the amount the fort had cost the king. Fort Frontenac, as La Salle named it, became the base of his ambitious scheme of western explorations. In 1682 La Barre, who had succeeded Frontenac as governor, and was too small-minded a man to appreciate the importance of La Salle’s discoveries, seized the fort during the latter’s absence and turned it into a trading post for himself and his friends. The following year the king ordered it to be restored, and full reparation given to La Salle. Dongan having demanded the destruction of the fort as the price of peace, Denonville in 1689 ordered the garrison to blow up the walls, destroy the stores and return to Montreal. In 1695 Frontenac, who had returned to Canada, had the fort rebuilt and garrisoned. It remained in commission up to 1758, when it was captured and destroyed by the English. _See also_ Kingston; La Salle. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_, and _La Salle_; Machar, _Old Kingston_; Sulte, _Le Fort de Frontenac_ (R. S. C., 1901); Girouard, _L’Expédition du Marquis de Denonville_ (R. S. C., 1899). =Cathcart, Charles Murray, Earl= (1783-1859). Served in Holland, 1799; saw service through Peninsular War; fought at Waterloo; assumed title, 1843; succeeded General Jackson as commander-in-chief of the forces in British North America, 1845; administrator the same year, on the departure of Sir Charles Metcalfe; governor-general, 1846; succeeded by Lord Elgin, 1847. Cathcart was essentially a soldier, with a soldier’s point of view. He had been sent out to Canada because of the threatening position of the Oregon boundary dispute and the possibility of war with the United States, and that was his sole concern. He took no interest whatever in responsible government or any other problems of civil government, and was content to let his ministers run the country their own way. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Cauchon, Joseph Edouard= (1816-1885). Educated at the Séminaire de Québec; studied law and called to the bar, but turned immediately to journalism. Edited _Le Canadien_ for a time; and in 1842 established the _Journal de Québec_. Entered public life, 1844, as member for Montmorency, which county he represented continuously until 1872. Entered MacNab government, 1855, as commissioner of crown lands. Became commissioner of public works in Cartier-Macdonald ministry, 1861-1862. Speaker of the Senate, 1868-1872. Accepted presidency of the Council in Mackenzie administration, 1875-1877; minister of inland revenue, 1877. Resigned the same year to accept the lieutenant-governorship of Manitoba, 1877-1882. =Bib.=: Works: _Remarks on the North-West Territories_; _Étude sur l’Union Projectée des Provinces Britanniques_; _L’Union des Provinces de l’Amérique du Nord_. For biog., _see Revue Canadienne_, 1884; Dent, _Can. Por._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._ =Caughnawaga Indians.= A community of Iroquois, chiefly drawn from the Oneida and Mohawk, and speaking a modification of the Mohawk tongue. Having been converted by the Jesuit missionaries, they were induced to settle in 1668 at La Prairie, near Montreal. In 1676 they removed to Sault St. Louis, and the majority of their descendants have remained in that vicinity ever since. About 1755 a new settlement was formed at St. Regis, farther up the St. Lawrence. At the period of the Revolutionary War their sympathies were for a time obtained for the cause of the Americans. Many accompanied the fur traders to the west as hunters, and became familiar with the country both east and west of the Rocky Mountains. In the narratives of the fur trade they are referred to as Iroquois. =Bib.=: Colden, _Five Nations_; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Cayley, William.= Inspector-general, 1845-1848. Metcalfe was bitterly attacked for appointing what was described as “the clerk of a company of blacksmiths in Niagara” to such a responsible position. Again inspector-general, 1854-1858. By the Act of 1859, the office was changed to minister of finance. Cayley favoured the division of the Clergy Reserves among the various denominations. =Bib.=: _Finances and Trade of Canada._ For biog., _see_ Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Cayugas.= One of the tribes of the Iroquois confederacy. Parkman gives four forms of the name: Cayugas, Caiyoquos, Goiogoens, Gweugwehonoh. Their fighting strength is given in the _Relation_ of 1660 as 300. At this time, however, they had been weakened by continual warfare. The Cayuga villages stood on the shore of Cayuga Lake, and their territory extended from that lake to the Owasco, both included. The tribe lay between the Senecas on the west and the Onondagas on the east. By the beginning of the nineteenth century they had been crowded off their ancestral lands, and scattered abroad. Some seven hundred are now on the Six Nation reserve, in the Niagara peninsula. The remainder are for the most part in the western United States. _See also_ Iroquois; Senecas; Onondagas; Mohawks; Tuscaroras. =Bib.=: Pilling, _Iroquoian Languages_. =Céleron de Blainville, Jean Baptiste= (1664-1735). Born in Paris; came to Canada as a lieutenant in the troops; and died in Montreal. His son Pierre Joseph (1693-1760) led the troops against the Chickasaws in 1739; was commandant at Detroit, 1742-1743, and again, 1750-1754; at Niagara, 1744-1746; and at Crown Point, 1747-1749. Served as major on Montcalm’s staff, 1756-1759. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Census.= The first census in Canada seems to have been taken in 1640, when the inhabitants numbered 375, distributed as follows: married men, 64; married women (three born in Canada), 64; widower, 1; widows, 4; unmarried men, 35; boys (30 born in Canada), 58; girls (24 born in Canada), 48; nuns, 6; Jesuits, 29; others, 66. Benjamin Sulte found the population in 1650 to have been 705; and in 1663 about 2,500. The census of 1665 gives the total population as 3,251. The first census of the Dominion was taken in 1871, when the population was 3,635,024; the census of 1881 gave a total of 4,324,810; of 1891, 4,833,239; of 1901, 5,371,316; of 1911, 7,206,643; of 1921, 8,788,483. _See also_ Acadians. =Bib.=: _Census of Canada_, 1851, 1861, 1871, 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921. _See also_ Johnson, _First Things in Canada_; General Index, _Trans._ R. S. C., under _Census_; and _Canada Year Book_. =Chabanel, Noél.= Jesuit missionary in the Huron country, 1643. Had been a professor of rhetoric in France, before coming to Canada. When the Hurons were driven from their country by the Iroquois, in 1649, he was sent to help Garnier among the Petuns. Having been called to St. Joseph Island, in Matchadash Bay, to which the demoralized flock of the Jesuits had been removed, Chabanel reached the mission of St. Mathias, and continuing his journey was lost in the woods, where he fell a victim to one of his own Hurons, who afterwards confessed that he had murdered the missionary. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Chabot, J.= (1807-1860). Born at St. Charles, Bellechasse, Lower Canada. Studied law and practised in Quebec. Sat in the Assembly for Quebec, 1843-1850; for Bellechasse, 1851-1854; and for Quebec, 1854-1856. Became chief commissioner of public works, 1849, and again in 1852; government director of the Grand Trunk, 1854, and Seigniorial Tenure commissioner the same year. Voted against secularization of the Clergy Reserves. Appointed judge of the Superior Court of Lower Canada, 1856. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Chambly.= Fort, otherwise known as St. Louis, on the Richelieu. Built of palisades in 1665. Burnt by the Iroquois in 1702. Rebuilt of stone, 1709-1711; taken by the Americans under Montgomery in 1775. The interior buildings burnt in 1776. Restored the following year. Abandoned in 1850. Preserved now by the National Sites and Monuments Board as an historic memorial. =Chambly, Jacques de.= An officer of the Carignan Regiment; built Fort St. Louis 1665, and given its command. In 1672 the seigniory of Chambly granted to him. Succeeded De Grandfontaine as governor of Acadia. Made his headquarters at Pentagouet, a fortified post at the mouth of the Penobscot. In 1674 his fort was captured and he himself carried prisoner to Boston. Set at liberty and returned to France. In 1676 sent out again to Acadia, and remained at Port Royal until 1680, when he was transferred to Grenada in the West Indies, and later to Martinique, where he died. =Bib.=: Sulte, _Régiment de Carignan_ (R. S. C., 1902). =Champlain, Samuel= (1567?-1635). Born at Brouage. From his father who was a mariner he early learned to love the sea, and after a period of service in the army under Marshal d’Aumont he made a voyage to Spain in 1598, and from there with the Spanish fleet to the West Indies as captain of the _Saint Julien_. He saw service at Porto Rico and in Mexico the following year. Visited Cuba, and on his voyage back to Spain captured two English vessels. On his return to France in 1601 he was appointed geographer to the king. Two years later he sailed for Canada with Pont-Gravé, on behalf of the colonizing company of Aymar de Chastes. Arrived at Tadoussac toward the end of May, explored the Saguenay for some distance in the hope that it might prove to be the long-sought passage to Cathay, ascended the St. Lawrence to Sault St. Louis, returned and sailed around the coast of Gaspé, and was back in France in September. De Chastes had died during his absence, but Champlain was determined to carry on his plans for colonization and succeeded in interesting Henry IV. In 1604 he again sailed to the west, as geographer and historian of the expedition to Acadia commanded by de Monts. With them went Poutrincourt and Biencourt. Pont-Gravé sailed in another vessel. They sailed along the coast and into the Bay of Fundy, to Port Royal and up to Chignecto. On their way down the other side of the Bay they visited and named the St. John river, and wintered on St. Croix Island at the mouth of the river of the same name. Champlain continued down the coast, naming Mount Desert. The following June with de Monts he again explored the coast as far as Cape Cod. St. Croix having proved undesirable, the settlement was moved to Port Royal. In 1606 Champlain continued his explorations, and in 1607 returned to France. The next year he sailed for the St. Lawrence in the _Don de Dieu_, and laid the foundations of the city of Quebec, where he spent the winter. He had some trouble with the Indians and also was compelled to put down a mutiny among his own men. Scurvy proved an even more dangerous enemy. Sailed for France in 1609, having previously made an expedition up the St. Lawrence and the Richelieu to Lake Champlain, where he defeated a war party of Iroquois. In 1610 Champlain again sailed to Quebec with a number of artisans. In June he once more attacked and defeated the Iroquois on the Richelieu, and was back in France in September. Sailed for Canada in 1611, and ascended the St. Lawrence to and built a fort on the island of Ste. Hélène, in what is to-day the harbour of Montreal. Here he had information from the Indians as to the country beyond, which was to incite him to further explorations. On his return to France, he found that de Monts, who had sunk a great deal of money in the attempt to colonize Canada, had determined to abandon the enterprise. Champlain appealed to Louis XIII, who made the Prince de Condé viceroy of New France, and the explorer sailed again in 1613 as his lieutenant. In France Champlain had met a young man named Nicolas du Vignau who said that he had ascended the Ottawa to the Northern Sea. With him he set out in May and ascended the Ottawa to Allumette Island. From the Algonquin chief who lived there, Tessouat, he learned that Vignau was a liar and had never been beyond this spot. On this journey he lost his astrolabe, which was dug up by a farmer two hundred and fifty-six years afterward. Having returned to France, he again sailed to Canada in April, 1615, bringing with him several Récollet missionaries. In July, with Étienne Brûlé and a party of Indians, he ascended the Ottawa, crossed through Lake Nipissing, and descended French River to Georgian Bay, where he visited villages of the Huron Indians, where one of the Récollet, Father Le Caron, was already established. In August he set out with a war party of Hurons to attack the Iroquois. Their route was by way of Lake Simcoe and the Trent to the Bay of Quinte. Crossing the foot of Lake Ontario, they entered the Iroquois country. The expedition proved a failure, Champlain was wounded, and suffered severely on the retreat to the Huron villages. On his return to Quebec Champlain called a meeting of his Council to consider plans for the development of the colony. As a result of their deliberations he took Le Caron with him to France in an effort to secure funds for the Huron Mission. Nothing much came of that, but Champlain brought out with him to Quebec in 1617 one Louis Hébert, who materially helped him in building up the little settlement. Returning to France the following year, he again sailed in 1620. He had suffered many disappointments, but remained undismayed and more determined than ever to make New France worthy of its name. Not the least of his difficulties was to keep the peace between the rival fur trading companies of Rouen and De Caën, both too selfish to consider the best interests of the colony. This year he began the construction of the Château St. Louis at Quebec. In 1627 he became one of Richelieu’s Company of New France, or the Hundred Associates. The following year he had the mortification of learning that Kirke had captured the fleet on its way up the river with settlers and supplies, and in 1629 the greater humiliation of surrendering Quebec to the English captain. After its restoration he returned, and devoted the remaining years of his life to the welfare of the little town whose growth he had watched and fostered for more than a quarter of a century. _See also_ Quebec; Port Royal; de Monts; Pont-Gravé; Brûlé; Du Vignau. =Bib.=: Works: _Œuvres de Champlain_ (Laverdière), 1870; _Voyages_ (Laverdière), 1870; _Voyages_ (trans. by Otis, with memoir by Slafter), 1878-1882; Grant, _Voyages of Samuel de Champlain_; Bourne, _Champlain’s Voyages_; Biggar, _Works of Samuel de Champlain_; (Champlain Society, _in course of pub._). For bib. of the original editions, see Harrisse, _Notes pour servir_, etc. For biog., _see_ Gravier, _Vie de Samuel Champlain_; Sedgwick, _Samuel de Champlain_; Dix, _Champlain: the Founder of New France_; Verreau, _Samuel de Champlain_ (R. S. C., 1899); Dionne, _Champlain_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Colby, _Founder of New France_; Henley, _Samuel de Champlain_. =Champlain Lake.= Discovered by Samuel Champlain, July, 1609. Here took place the first hostile encounter between the French and the Iroquois. The French were the aggressors, and had bitter enough cause to remember the fact throughout the century. In 1666 the Sieur de la Motte built a fort on Ile La Motte, which was afterwards abandoned. Fort St. Frédéric was built at Crown Point, 1731. It was enlarged and strengthened in 1734, and again in 1742. Lake Champlain became the war thoroughfare, not merely between the Iroquois and French, but between New France and New England. Fort Carillon, also known as Ticonderoga, was built, 1755-1756. _See also_ Ticonderoga; Crown Point; Lake George; Dieskau; Sir William Johnson; Montcalm; Abercromby; Bourlamaque; Amherst; Ethan Allen; Carleton; Montgomery; Burgoyne. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Crockett, _History of Lake Champlain_; Smith, _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_; Reid, _Lake George and Lake Champlain_; Palmer, _History of Lake Champlain_. _See_ bib. note in Crockett. =Chandler, Edward Barron= (1800-1880). Elected to New Brunswick Assembly, 1827, for Westmoreland, which he represented until 1836, when called to Legislative Council. Sent to London in 1833 by the Assembly to lay its grievances before the colonial secretary. Their principal contention was that the revenue derived from the public domain should be controlled by the Legislature. Became executive councillor, 1844. Engaged in negotiations for Intercolonial Railway, 1850-1852; reciprocity, 1854; and Confederation, 1865. Favoured a federal rather than a legislative union. Succeeded Tilley as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1878. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Chansons of French Canada.= Most of the inimitable folk-songs of Quebec came in their original form from France, and have undergone more or less of a transformation in their new environment. A few originated in French Canada. They are part of the history of French Canada, and are peculiarly associated with the life of the _voyageur_ and the fur trader. Various attempts have been made to translate them into English, by G. T. Lanigan, William McLennan, Edward Sapir, E. W. Thomson, and others, with but indifferent success. Many of them are practically untranslatable. =Bib.=: Gagnon, _Chansons populaire_; Lanigan, _National Ballads of Canada_; McLennan, _Songs of Old Canada_; Burpee, _Songs of French Canada_; Wood, _Footnotes to Canadian Folk-Songs_ (R. S. C., 1896); Bourinot, _Songs of Forest and River_ in _Rose-Belford Monthly_, 1877; _French Songs of Old Canada_, pictured by W. Graham Robertson; Tiersot, _French Folk-Songs_; Barbeau and Sapir, _Folk Songs of French Canada_; Larue, _Chants populaires du Canada_. _Chapais, Jean Charles_ (1812-1885). Born in Rivière Ouelle, Quebec. Member of the Executive Council and commissioner of public works, 1864-1867. Delegate to the Quebec Conference. In 1867 privy councillor and minister of agriculture; and in 1869-1873 receiver-general. In 1868 called to the Senate. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Chapais, Joseph Amable Thomas= (1858-). Son of preceding. Educated at Laval University. Called to the bar, 1879. Edited _Le Courrier du Canada_ for some years after 1884. Appointed member of Legislative Council of Quebec, 1892, and elected Speaker, 1895; president of the Executive Council, 1896; and minister of colonization and mines, 1897. Appointed to the Senate of Canada, 1919. Professor of history at Laval University. President of the Royal Society of Canada, 1923-1924. =Bib.=: Works: _Jean Talon, Intendant de la Nouvelle France_; _Discours et Conférences_; _The Great Intendant_; _le Marquis de Montcalm_; _Cours d’histoire du Canada_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Chapleau, Sir Joseph Adolphe= (1840-1898). Studied law and called to the bar, 1861. Elected to Quebec Legislature, 1867, and successively solicitor-general and provincial secretary of the province. Premier of Quebec, 1879. Entered Dominion Cabinet, 1882, as secretary of state. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1892; knighted, 1896. =Bib.=: Works: _Léon XIII, Homme d’État_; _Question des Chemins de Fer._ For biog., _see J. A. Chapleau: Sa Biographie et Ses Discours_; Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Chapman, Henry Samuel= (1803-1881). Born in England. Came to Canada, 1823, and established at Montreal the _Daily Advertiser_, the first daily newspaper published in British America, 1833. Connected with several other newspapers. A strong supporter of the Reform party. Attempted to secure the support of Joseph Howe for the agitation in Lower Canada. Removed to England and called to the bar, 1840. Went to New Zealand, where he became a judge. Died in Dunedin, New Zealand. =Charbonnel, Armand François Marie de= (1802-1860). Born in France. Came to Canada in 1839. Roman Catholic bishop of Toronto, 1850-1860. Carried on a controversy with Ryerson over the public school question. Drafted a Separate School bill. Died at Lyons, France. =Charlevoix, Pierre-François-Xavier de= (1682-1761). First came to Canada in 1705, as an instructor in the Jesuits’ College at Quebec. Returned to France in 1709. It was at this time that he gathered the material for his _Histoire et Description Générale de la Nouvelle France_. Again visited Canada in 1720 by order of the French government to report as to the best route for an overland expedition in search of the Western Sea. In the course of this journey visited the missions and posts of what was then the extreme western frontier of New France, returning to France in 1723 by way of Mobile. His account of the history of New France and the character of the population in his day is of interest, as are his comments on the life and character of Champlain, Frontenac, Lescarbot and other Canadian statesmen and explorers. =Bib.=: Besides his _Histoire du Paraguay_ and _Histoire de l’Isle Espagnole ou de S. Dominique_, Charlevoix was the author of _La Vie de la Mère de l’Incarnation_ and of the first general history of Canada, _Histoire et Description Générale de la Nouvelle France_. His _Voyage dans l’Amerique Septentrionale_ was translated into English in 1756. Dr. J. G. Shea’s translation of the History was published at New York in 6 vols., 1866-1872; and reprinted by F. P. Harper, New York, in 6 vols. An abridged translation of Charlevoix’s Journal is found in vol. 3 of French, _Hist. Coll. of Louisiana_. For biog., _see_ J. E. Roy, _Essai sur Charlevoix_ (R. S. C., 1907). =Charlottetown.= Capital of Prince Edward Island. Originally founded by the French, about 1750, and then known as Port la Joie. In 1713 it was a fortified post, with a garrison of sixty soldiers. The population numbered 1,354 in 1752; and in 1758 it had been increased to over 4,000 by the arrival of a large number of Acadians from the mainland. It came under British rule in 1763, and received its present name about 1768. Incorporated as a town, 1855. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Prince Edward Island_. =Charlottetown Conference=, 1864. Suggested by Tupper. The original idea was to bring about a union of the Maritime provinces, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, and delegates were sent to Charlottetown from the Legislatures of the three provinces. During the meeting representatives arrived from the Legislature of Canada, with proposals for a wider federation. These proposals were discussed, and felt to be so important that it was finally decided to call a larger Conference at Quebec for fuller consideration. Delegates at Charlottetown: Nova Scotia—Charles Tupper, W. A. Henry, R. B. Dickey, A. G. Archibald, Jonathan McCully; New Brunswick—S. L. Tilley, W. H. Steeves, J. M. Johnson, E. B. Chandler, J. H. Gray; Prince Edward Island—E. Palmer, W. H. Pope, J. H. Gray, A. Coles, T. H. Haviland, E. Whalen, A. A. McDonald; Canada—John A. Macdonald, George Brown, G. E. Cartier, A. T. Galt, T. D. McGee, H. L. Langevin, Wm. McDougall, Alexander Campbell. _See_ Quebec Conference; Macdonald; Tupper. =Bib.=: Whelan, _Union of the British Provinces_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Charlton, John= (1829-1910). Born near Caledonia, New York, he studied law and engaged in newspaper work; came to Canada, 1849, farmed for a time and then went into the lumber business. Represented North Norfolk in the House of Commons for twenty-four years. Although a staunch Liberal, he voted with the Macdonald government on the Riel question; opposed the Jesuit Estates bill; and was responsible for the so-called Charlton Act and other social reform legislation. One of the founders of the Dominion Lord’s Day Alliance. Chairman of Ontario Royal Mining Commission, 1888. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Charny-Lauzon.= _See_ Lauzon-Charny. =Chartier de Lotbinière, Eustache Gaspard Michel.= Consulted in connection with the drafting and consideration of the Quebec Act. See _Con. Doc. 1759-91_. Elected Speaker of the Assembly, 1793. =Chartier de Lotbinière, René Louis.= A member of the Sovereign Council, 1677. Appointed by the king. The Sovereign Council was a species of superior court for the trial of both civil and criminal cases in New France. Also director of Company of the Colony. =Chastes, Aymar de.= Governor of Dieppe. Granted a charter for the colonization of Canada. He was closely associated with Champlain, and the famous Champlain manuscript found at Dieppe and printed first by the Hakluyt Society in English and afterwards by Abbé Laverdière of Quebec in French, was preserved in his family. Sent Pont-Gravé and Champlain to Canada in 1603. Died the same year. =Château de Ramezay.= On Notre Dame Street, Montreal. Originally built in 1705 by Claude de Ramezay, then governor of Montreal, as his residence. Here he held his little colonial court up to 1724. The château was sold to the Company of the Indies, 1745. The latter held it until 1763, when it was purchased by William Grant, who in turn sold it to the British government for two thousand guineas. It became the official residence of the governors under the British régime until 1849. At the time of the American invasion in 1775, the château was the headquarters of Montgomery, and the following year it was occupied by Benedict Arnold and Benjamin Franklin. Lord Metcalfe was the last resident governor. After 1849 the château was used for a time as government offices, and when the government was removed from Montreal, courts were held in it and it was also used for school purposes. In 1894 the city bought it from the Provincial government for the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, and the following year the Society established there its historical portrait gallery and museum. =Château Haldimand.= At Quebec. Consisted of an addition to the Château St. Louis, the foundation stone of which was laid on May 5th, 1784, by Haldimand. Named in Haldimand’s honour. Consisted principally of a large assembly room for use on state occasions. Afterwards used as a normal school in connection with Laval University, until 1892, when it was pulled down. The south-west wing of the Château Frontenac covers its site. =Château St. Louis.= At Quebec. Commenced by Governor de Montmagny, 1647, and completed by his successor, D’Ailleboust. Demolished, 1694, and rebuilt with new wing. Enlarged, 1723; and in 1808 renovated and again enlarged, by government of Lower Canada. Up to the close of French régime, it was the official residence of the governors of Canada; and after the cession, their British successors continued to occupy the building. It was destroyed by fire, 1834. The Château Frontenac hotel now stands immediately back of the site of the Château St. Louis, which occupied part of what is now Dufferin Terrace. _See_ Habitation de Québec. =Bib.=: Gagnon, _Le Fort et la Château St. Louis_; Doughty, _Fortress of Quebec_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Châteaufort, Marc Antoine Bras-de-fer de.= Acted as governor, 1635-1636, after the death of Champlain and until the arrival of De Montmagny. His instructions brought by Father le Jeune. =Châteauguay.= Battle in War of 1812-14, October 26th, 1813. The stream from which the battle took its name, rises in Franklin County, New York, and falls into the St. Lawrence a few miles above Caughnawaga. The scene of the battle was about six miles above the confluence of the English with Châteauguay River. Hampton was in command of the Americans and De Salaberry commanded the Canadian troops, with Colonel Macdonell in charge of the reserves. Although the former had an overwhelmingly superior force, the result of the battle was in favour of the Canadians; and the contemplated attack on Montreal was abandoned. The battle was won mainly by French-Canadian militia under a French-Canadian commander. _See also_ War of 1812; Salaberry. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Lighthall, _An Account of the Battle of Châteauguay_; Macdonell, _The Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_. =Chatham.= City of Kent county, Ontario. Site reserved for a town-plot by Governor Simcoe in 1795. Actual settlement dates from about 1834. Named after Chatham, England. Incorporated as a town in 1855, and as a city in 1895. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Chatham, William Pitt, first Earl of= (1708-1778). The “Great Commoner,” who brought England “to a height of prosperity and glory unknown to any former age.” He opposed with all his strength the vicious policy of colonial taxation. Was largely instrumental in the repeal of the Stamp Act. In May, 1774, he told the House of Commons that it was his determination “to stand for England and America.” He urged continually a conciliatory policy towards America, until it became apparent that the colonists would be satisfied with nothing less than independence. His broad outlook and unerring instinct in the choice of men were chiefly responsible for the triumphs of British policy at home and abroad. Sent Boscawen and Amherst to the capture of Louisbourg, and Wolfe and Saunders to victory at Quebec. =Bib.=: Almon, _Anecdotes and Speeches of Chatham_; Rosebery, _William Pitt_; Thackeray, _History of William Pitt_; Green, _William Pitt, Earl of Chatham_; _Correspondence of William Pitt with Colonial Governors_, ed. by Kimball. _See_ his letters and instructions to Wolfe, Saunders, and Amherst, in Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_, and Wood, _Logs of Conquest of Canada_. _See also_ Grant, _Colonial Policy of Chatham_. =Chaumonot, Joseph= (1611-1693). Born near Chatillon-sur-Seine. Came to Canada, 1639, with Madame de la Peltrie, Marie de l’Incarnation, and Fathers Vimont and Poncet. Accompanied Brébeuf as missionary to the Neutral Nation, whose country was along the north shore of Lake Erie, 1640. Found his task rather discouraging at first. “Never could I imagine,” he writes, “such hard-heartedness as there is in a savage. You cannot convert him unless you pay him for it.” He developed an unusual facility in picking up Indian languages, which was of immense assistance to him in his work. Sent to the Onondagas, 1655. Missionary in charge of the Hurons at Old Lorette, where, in 1674, he built the chapel in honour of Our Lady of Loretto. =Bib.=: Shea, _Vie de Chaumonot_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. Chaumonot’s Huron Grammar was translated into English and published in the Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. _Trans._, 1831. =Chaussegros de Léry, Gaspard= (1682-1756). Sent to Canada in 1716 to superintend the fortifications of Quebec, Montreal, and other places in the colony. Prepared a plan of the cathedral at Quebec in 1725; and of the fortifications at Quebec in 1730. Mentioned as having been at Fort St. Frédéric in 1742; made a plan of Detroit in 1750. =Bib.=: _Traité de Fortification_. =Chaussegros de Léry, Gaspard-Joseph.= Son of preceding. Also an engineer. Made a legislative councillor in 1774. =Chauveau, Pierre Joseph Olivier= (1820-1890). Born at Quebec. Educated at Quebec; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada. First entered public life, 1844, defeating John Neilson in Quebec County. Represented the same constituency in the Assembly until 1855. He was one of the leaders of the Opposition in 1847. Solicitor-general, in Hincks-Morin ministry, 1851; and provincial secretary, 1853. Voted against the secularization of the Clergy Reserves. In 1855 succeeded Dr. Meilleur as chief superintendent of education in Lower Canada. In 1867 elected to the Dominion Parliament, as well as to the Quebec House, and the same year formed a provincial ministry. DeCelles describes him as a man of “sterling honour and of very moderate views in politics.” Resigned, 1873, and the same year became Speaker of the Senate, retiring in 1874. Three years later sheriff of Montreal. =Bib.=: Works: _Charles Guérin, Roman de Mœurs Canadiennes_; _François-Xavier Garneau, Sa Vie et Ses Œuvres_; _L’Instruction Publique au Canada_; _Souvenirs et Légendes_. For biog., _see_ Dent, _Can. Por._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Chauvin, Pierre de, Sieur de Tonnetuit.= A Huguenot. Appointed captain of the garrison at Honfleur, 1589. Obtained trading monopoly for ten years in Canada. Made a trading voyage to Canada, 1600, bringing out a few colonists, whom he landed at Tadoussac. Sailed again the following year, with a larger fleet, but no colonists; and again in 1602. Died, 1603. Another Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de la Pierre, born at Dieppe, was left by Champlain in command of Quebec in 1609, while he and Pont-Gravé were in France. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_. =Chedabucto.= Near the Straits of Canso. Now known as Guysborough, Nova Scotia. In 1682 a company was formed in France for the establishment of an inshore fishery on the coasts of Acadia. They built a fort and fishing establishment at the head of Chedabucto Bay. Frontenac was there in 1689. In 1690 Phipps sent Captain Alden to capture Chedabucto. Montorgueil, who was in command, had a garrison of only fourteen men, and was compelled to surrender. =Chequamegon.= Bay on south side of Lake Superior. Radisson built a small post there in 1658. Jesuit mission established in the following decade. Du Lhut passed the bay on his way to the Sioux country in 1679. Le Sueur built a trading post on the bay in 1693. It stood on Madeline Island, and the site was marked by a tablet in 1925. It was abandoned in 1698, and in 1718 LeGardeur de Saint Pierre built a military post known as Fort La Pointe. A small French village grew up about it, and survived up to the cession of Canada. French fur traders were succeeded there by British traders, and these later by Americans. =Bib.=: Thwaites “Story of Chequamegon” in _Wis. Hist. Colls._, xiii. =Chesterfield Inlet.= On the north-west coast of Hudson Bay. Named about 1749 after the fifth Earl of Chesterfield (1694-1773), who had been secretary of state from 1746 to 1748, and author of the famous _Letters_. Explored by Tyrrell in 1893. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Chief Justices of Alberta.= Arthur Lewis Sifton, 1905-1910; Horace Harvey, 1910-1924; Horace Harvey (Appeal), 1924; W. C. Simmons (Trial), 1924. =Chief Justices of British Columbia.= Matthew Baillie Begbie, 1859-1894; Theodore Davis, 1895-1898; Angus John McColl, 1898-1905; Gordon Hunter (Supreme), 1905; James Alexander Macdonald (Appeal), 1909. =Chief Justices, Chancery Court, Ontario.= William Hume Blake, 1849-1862; Philip Michael Matthew Scott Vankoughnet, 1862-1869; John Godfrey Spragge, 1869-1881; Sir John Alexander Boyd, 1881. =Chief Justices, Common Pleas, Upper Canada and Ontario.= James Buchanan Macaulay, 1849-1856; William Henry Draper, 1856-1863; William Buell Richards, 1863-1868; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1868-1878; Adam Wilson, 1878-1884; Matthew Crooks Cameron, 1884-1887; Thomas Galt, 1887-1894; William Ralph Meredith, 1894-1912; Richard Martin Meredith, 1912-1925. All the Ontario Courts have now been abolished, and, under the Ontario Judicature Act, 1925, three new Courts are created—Appellate Division, Court No. 1; Appellate Division, Court No. 2; High Court Division; the three constituting the Supreme Court of Ontario. Of the first, Sir William Mulock is chief justice; of the second, F. R. Latchford; and of the third, R. M. Meredith. =Chief Justices, Court of Appeal, Ontario.= William Henry Draper, 1868-1877; Thomas Moss, 1877-1881; John Godfrey Spragge, 1881-1884; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1884-1897; George William Burton, 1897-1900; John Douglas Armour, 1900-1902; Charles Moss, 1902-1912; Sir William Ralph Meredith, 1912-1923; Sir William Mulock, 1923-1925. =Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Lower Canada.= Sir James Stuart, 1841-1849; Joseph Rémi Vallières de St-Réal, 1842-1847; Jean Roch Rolland, 1847-1849. =Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Montreal.= James Monk, 1794-1825; James Reid, 1825-1838; Michael O’Sullivan, 1838-1841. =Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Quebec.= William Osgoode, 1794-1802; John Elmsley, 1802-1805; Henry Alcock, 1805-1808; Jonathan Sewell, 1808-1838; James Stuart, 1838-1841. =Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Upper Canada and Ontario.= William Osgoode, 1791-1796; John Elmsley, 1796-1802; Henry Alcock, 1802-1806; Thomas Scott, 1806-1816; William Dummer Powell, 1816-1825; William Campbell, 1825-1829; John Beverley Robinson, 1829-1862; Archibald McLean, 1862-1863; William Henry Draper, 1863-1868; William Buell Richards, 1868-1875; Robert Alexander Harrison, 1875-1878; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1878-1884; Adam Wilson, 1884-1887; John Douglas Armour, 1887-1900; Sir William Glenholme Falconbridge, 1900-1920. =Chief Justices of Lower Canada.= William Osgoode, 1794-1824; James Reid, 1825-1830; Jonathan Sewell, 1830-1838. =Chief Justices of Manitoba.= Alexander Morris, 1872-1874; Edmund Burke Wood, 1874-1882; Lewis Wallbridge, 1882-1887; Thomas Wardlaw Taylor, 1887-1899; Albert Clements Killam, 1899-1903; Joseph Dubuc, 1903-1910; Hector Mansfield Howell, 1906-1910, (Appeal) 1910-1918; W. E. Perdue, 1918; Thomas Graham Mathers (King’s Bench), 1910. =Chief Justices of New Brunswick.= George Duncan Ludlow, 1784-1809; Jonathan Bliss, 1809-1822; John Saunders, 1822-1834; Ward Chipman, 1834-1850; James Carter, 1851-1865; Robert Parker, 1865; William Johnston Ritchie, 1865-1875; John Campbell Allen, 1875-1896; William Henry Tuck, 1896-1908; Frederick Eustache Parker, 1908-1914; Ezekiel McLeod (Appeal), 1914-1917; Sir J. D. Hazen, 1917; Pierre Armand Landry (King’s Bench), 1914-1924; J. H. Barry, 1924. =Chief Justices of the North-West Territories.= Thomas Horace McGuire, 1902-1903; Arthur Lewis Sifton, 1903-1905. =Chief Justices of Nova Scotia.= Jonathan Belcher, 1754-1776; Charles Morris, 1776-1778; Bryan Finucane, 1778-1885; Isaac Deschamps, 1785-1788; Jeremiah Pemberton, 1788-1791; Thomas Andrew Strange, 1791-1797; Sampson Salter Blowers, 1797-1833; Brenton Halliburton, 1833-1860; William Young, 1860-1881; James McDonald, 1881-1904; Sir Robert Linton Weatherbe, 1905-1907; Charles James Townsend, 1907-1918; R. E. Harris, 1918. =Chief Justices of Prince Edward Island.= John Duport, 1770-1776; Peter Stewart, 1776-1801; Thomas Cochrane, 1801-1802; Robert Thorpe, 1802-1807; Cesar Colclough, 1807-1813; Thomas Tremlett, 1813-1824; S. G. W. Archibald, 1824-1828; E. J. Jarvis, 1828-1852; Sir Robert Hodgson, 1853-1874; Edward Palmer, 1874-1889; Sir William Wilfred Sullivan, 1889-1917; J. A. Mathieson, 1917. =Chief Justices of Quebec.= William Gregory, 1764-1766; William Hey, 1766-1777; Peter Livius, 1777-1786; William Smith, 1786-1793. From 1778 to 1786 the functions of the office of chief justice were actually performed by a commission of three judges, Mabane, Dunn and Williams. =Chief Justices, Queen’s Bench, Lower Canada and Quebec.= Sir James Stuart, 1849-1853; Sir Louis Hypolite LaFontaine, 1853-1864; Jean François Joseph Duval, 1864-1874; Antoine Aimé Dorion, 1874-1891; Alexandre Lacoste, 1891-1907; Henri T. Taschereau, 1907-1909; Sir Louis Amable Jetté, 1909-1922; P. E. Lafontaine, 1922. =Chief Justices of Saskatchewan.= Edward Ludlow Wetmore, 1907-1912; Frederick William Gordon Haultain, 1912-1918; Sir F. W. G. Haultain (Appeal), 1918; J. T. Brown (King’s Bench), 1918. =Chief Justices, Superior Court, Quebec.= Edward Bowen, 1849-1866; William Collis Meredith, 1866-1884; Andrew Stuart, 1885-1889; Sir Francis Godschall Johnson, 1889-1894; Sir Louis Edelmar Napoléon Casault, 1894-1904; Adolphe Basile Routhier, 1904-1906; Sir Melbourne McTaggart Tait, 1906-1912; Charles Peers Davidson, 1912-1915; Sir F. X. Lemieux, 1915. =Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada.= Sir William Buell Richards, 1875-1879; Sir William Johnston Ritchie, 1879-1891; Sir Samuel Henry Strong, 1892-1902; Sir Henri Elzéar Taschereau, 1902-1906; Sir Charles Fitzpatrick, 1906-1918; Sir Louis Henry Davies, 1918-1924; Francis Alexander Anglin, 1924. =Chief Justices of Vancouver Island.= David Cameron, 1853-1858; Joseph Needham, 1858-1859. =Chignecto Basin.= At the head of the Bay of Fundy. From a Micmac Indian word _Signiukt_ meaning “a foot of cloth.” The French called the bay Beaubassin and also Bay de Gennes. In 1755 the English named it Cumberland. Later changed to present name. Fort Beausejour, or Fort Cumberland as it was renamed in 1755, and Fort Lawrence, as well as the old Acadian settlement of Beaubassin, stood near its shores. =Bib.=: Brown, _Nova Scotia Place Names_. =Childers, Hugh Culling Eardley= (1827-1896). Entered the House of Commons, 1860; financial secretary, 1865-1866; first lord of the Admiralty and privy councillor, 1868. In 1875 came to Canada on Lord Dufferin’s invitation as a commissioner under the Prince Edward Island Land Purchase Act. Secretary of state for war, 1880-1882; chancellor of the exchequer, 1882-1885; and home secretary, 1886. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Chinook Indians.= A tribe inhabiting the country about the mouth of the Columbia in the days of the fur trade. Accounts of them are found in the narratives of Alexander Henry, Ross Cox, Alexander Ross, Franchère, and other writers of the period. They gave their name to the Chinook Jargon, an Indian trade language of the Pacific coast in which English, French and possibly Russian words were afterwards incorporated; and also to the warm winds that blow from the Pacific over the Rocky Mountains. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Chipewyan Indians.= A group of Indian tribes in northern Canada, including the Desnedekenade, Athabaska, Thilanottine, Etheneldeli and Tatsanottine or Yellow-knives. Name is derived from a Cree name for the parkas or shirts of the northern Indians which were pointed and ornamented with tails before and behind. They were first visited by Samuel Hearne, and later by Alexander Mackenzie, Franklin and many other later Arctic explorers. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Chipman, Ward= (1754-1824). Graduated at Harvard, 1770. A United Empire Loyalist, he emigrated to Halifax, 1776, and thence to England. Returned to America and in 1782 was deputy muster-master-general of the army. In 1783 went to St. John, and became a member of the Assembly, advocate-general, solicitor-general, judge of the Supreme Court, a member of the Council, and in 1823 president and commander-in-chief of New Brunswick. He was one of the Maine Boundary Commissioners. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Chipman, Ward= (1786-1851). Son of preceding. Graduated at Harvard, 1805. Removed to St. John, and rose to the office of chief-justice of New Brunswick. Resigned, 1850. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Chippewa, Battle of.= On the south side of Chippewa Creek, which empties into the Niagara not far from the falls. July 3rd, 1812, the Americans under Generals Brown, Winfield Scott and Ripley crossed the Niagara into Canada, captured Fort Erie, and marched down to Chippewa where on the fifth they were attacked by Riall who, after a desperate fight, was forced to withdraw his men and fall back on Queenston and Fort George. The British had 1,800 and the Americans about 5,000 men. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Chippewa Indians.= A large tribe, of Algonquian stock, formerly ranging along both shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, and westward as far as North Dakota. First mentioned in the Jesuit _Relation_ of 1640 as living around Sault Ste. Marie. During the eighteenth century, they fought successfully against the Sioux, Foxes, and Iroquois. They numbered in 1764 about 25,000; and at the present time count over 30,000, of whom about one-half are on reservations in Canada. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_; Grant, _Sauteux Indians_ in Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_. =Chittenden, Thomas= (1730-1797). First governor of Vermont, 1778-1797. He took a very aggressive attitude, at the time of the Revolution, in demanding the separation of Vermont from New York and its recognition as a separate state. As there seemed little hope of that, he entered into secret negotiations with Haldimand with a view to bringing Vermont back to the British side, on condition that it should be received as a separate colony. He appears to have played a double part and attempted to persuade Washington of his loyalty to the cause of the revolting colonies. Ethan and Ira Allen (_q.v._) were the principal agents in the movement to make Vermont once more a British province. =Bib.=: Chipman, _Thomas Chittenden_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Cholera Epidemics=, 1832 and 1834. In the spring of 1832 vessels from the British Isles with immigrants brought a virulent type of cholera to Canada. One ship from Dublin arrived in the St. Lawrence with nearly half the passengers down with the disease. In spite of the establishment of a quarantine station at Grosse Isle, below Quebec, and other sanitary precautions, cholera spread rapidly throughout both Lower and Upper Canada. Between June and the end of September 3,292 died. In 1834 another epidemic appeared. Cholera was immediately added to the other grievances against the government, and one of the Ninety-Two Resolutions is specifically devoted to the epidemic and the government’s responsibility therefor. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_, vol. ix; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Chouart= _dit_ =des Groseilliers, Médard=. Born in France about 1621. Came to Canada, 1642. After serving the Jesuits for some years as a _donné_, or lay helper, engaged in the fur trade, and with his brother-in-law Radisson (_q.v._) made extensive explorations in the West and North, 1659-1663. With Radisson afterwards went to England and was instrumental in establishing the Hudson’s Bay Company, and laying the foundations of its gigantic fur trading monopoly on the shores of Hudson Bay. =Bib.=: Dionne, _Chouart et Radisson_ (R. S. C., 1893); Sulte, _Radisson in the North-West_ (R. S. C., 1904); Sulte, _Découverte du Mississippi_ (R. S. C., 1903); Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Pathfinders of the West_ and _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Christian Guardian.= A weekly newspaper, founded at York in 1829. Egerton Ryerson its first editor. Exponent of Methodist views on religious, educational and political questions. Took an active part in the movement for the secularization of the Clergy Reserves, and opposed a state church in Canada. Merged in _The New Outlook_, 1925. =Christian Watchman.= A weekly newspaper founded at St. John, N.B., in 1861, by James and Budd De Mille, to counteract the influence of the official Baptist paper, which was being used to promote the interests of a political group. It ran for one year, when, having achieved its purpose, it ceased publication. Contained a number of brilliant articles on political, historical and other subjects by the two brothers, who in fact wrote most of the material in each number. James De Mille was afterwards the author of a number of novels. =Christie, Alexander= (1792-1874). Chief Factor in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1821. Succeeded Donald McKenzie as governor of Rupert’s Land, with headquarters at Fort Garry on the Red River. He was associated with Sir George Simpson on the Council of Assiniboia. Retired from the fur trade in 1849 and returned to his native Scotland. Two of his sons and a grandson were in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Cowie, _Company of Adventurers_. =Christie, David= (1818-1880). Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh High School. Came to Canada, 1833, and devoted himself to farming. Took a prominent part in politics as a leader of the Radical wing of the Reformers. Sat for Wentworth in the Legislative Assembly, 1851-1854, and for East Brant, 1855-1858. Elected to the Legislative Council, 1858, and held his seat until Confederation. Appointed to the Dominion Senate, 1867; secretary of state, 1873; Speaker of the Senate, 1874-1878. Administrator of Ontario during the illness of the lieutenant-governor, 1875. Died in Paris, Ontario. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Christie, Robert= (1788-1856). Born in Nova Scotia. Repeatedly expelled through Papineau’s influence from the Assembly of Lower Canada on the charge of having advised Dalhousie to dissolve the Legislature. Afterwards reconciled with Papineau. Re-elected after the union, and held his seat until 1854. Contributed to Quebec _Gazette_ and _Mercury_. =Bib.=: _History of the Late Province of Lower Canada, from the Commencement to the Close of its Existence as a Separate Province._ For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Chronicle.= Newspaper published at Halifax. Established by William Annand, 1843. Joseph Howe one of the principal contributors, and in 1844 became editor. Succeeded by Jonathan McCully. Howe contributed a series of articles attacking Confederation. When Howe accepted Confederation, the _Chronicle_ bitterly attacked him as a renegade. =Bib.=: Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Church of England.= The first Anglican church in what is now Canada was built at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1750, when Cornwallis was governor of the province. The first see was established in 1787. Dr. Charles Inglis (_q.v._) as bishop of Nova Scotia had charge of the whole of British North America. The first service held in Quebec was in the Ursuline Convent, September, 1759. The first Anglican bishop of the diocese of Quebec was Dr. G. J. Mountain (_q.v._), appointed in 1793; and in 1839 Dr. John Strachan (_q.v._) became first bishop of Toronto. The early history of the Church in Upper Canada was involved with the political history of the country, in such matters as the Clergy Reserves, educational policy and the idea of a state church. As population grew, the eastern dioceses were subdivided into nine. The see of Rupert’s Land, founded 1849, was subsequently divided into Rupert’s Land, Moosonee, Saskatchewan, Calgary, Mackenzie River, Qu’Appelle, Athabaska, Keewatin, and Selkirk. In 1859 was established the see of British Columbia, divided later into New Westminster and Caledonia. In 1857 the Church of England Synod was legally constituted; and after that year bishops were elected by the votes of clergy and laity in Canada. The first Church Congress was held, 1883. The General Synod of the Church in the Dominion was established, 1893, and the metropolitans of Canada and Rupert’s Land were made archbishops, the first of whom were Dr. J. T. Lewis and Dr. R. Machray (_q.v._). Its membership in Canada by the census of 1921 was 1,407,994. =Bib.=: Hopkins, _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 2; Cross, _The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies_; Anderson, _History of Church of England in the Colonies_; Akins, _Church of England in North American Colonies_; Taylor, _The Last Three Bishops Appointed by the Crown_; Lowndes, _Bishops of the Day_; Machray, _Life of Archbishop Machray_; Mockridge, _Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_; Champion, _The Anglican Church in Canada_; Wynne, _The Church in Greater Britain_. =Churchill, Fort.= _See_ Prince of Wales Fort. =Churchill River.= Rises in La Loche Lake, lat. 50° 10´ N., long. 109° 40´ W., and after a course of 1,000 miles, empties into Hudson Bay. The mouth of the river was discovered by Munk, a Danish navigator, in 1619, but it was not until 1774 that its upper waters were discovered by Joseph Frobisher (_q.v._), and explored by Thomas Frobisher and Alexander Henry, _the Elder_ (_q.v._), in 1775. The Churchill was formerly known under various names: Danish River, in honour of Munk; English River, so called by Frobisher; and Missinipi, the native name. =Bib.=: Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Civil Law.= After the cession of Canada to England, this became a matter of vital importance to the French population. The British authorities found themselves in a very difficult position. The attempt to enforce English law, in a community ignorant of the language and accustomed to an entirely different code, had to be abandoned as impracticable. The situation was complicated by distrust and ill-feeling between the French and the numerically weak but very aggressive English population. After a period of ineffective compromise that ended in something like legal chaos, it was finally decided to adopt the plan that Carleton had favoured—the retention of the French civil law and the adoption of the British criminal law, and this decision was embodied in the Quebec Act. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Constitutional History of Canada_ and _How Canada is Governed_; Ashley, _Earlier Constitutional History of Canada_; Houston, _Canadian Constitutional Documents_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_. =Civil List.= In England this means the sum voted by Parliament for the support of the Royal household. In Canada it meant the amount voted for the expenses of government, or what is to-day known as the Estimates. Its control was a fruitful source of dispute between the governors and the Assemblies in the early days of all the colonies. Durham in his Report had recommended that the control of the revenues of the Crown should be vested in the Assembly, and Lord John Russell, in 1839, said he was willing that the Crown revenues should be placed entirely at the disposal of the Assembly, provided a permanent provision was made for the Civil List. Sydenham shared these views, and was able to put them into practice. Eventually the principle was accepted that the Legislature should control the revenues without any such proviso, and the expenses of government were left to the judgment of the representatives of the people. =Bib.=: Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_. =Civil Secretary.= The internal management of the provinces, at one time in the hands of the provincial secretaries of Upper and Lower Canada, was for many years controlled by the civil secretary of the lieutenant-governor. Sydenham had these duties transferred to members of the provincial government, and confined the duties of his own secretary to correspondence with the Home government and foreign governments. =Bib.=: Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_. =Clark, George Rogers= (1752-1818). American frontier leader. A Virginian who had become one of the pioneers in Kentucky. In July, 1778, he surprised and took the British forts of Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, and Vincennes on the Wabash. In December, Hamilton, lieutenant-governor of Detroit, retook Vincennes. In February, 1779, Clark again captured the post, and treated the garrison with unnecessary harshness. =Bib.=: _Campaign in the Illinois_; English, _Conquest of the Country North-West of the Ohio_. =Clark, Sir William Mortimer.= Born in Aberdeen, Scotland, 1836. Educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen; studied law at the University of Edinburgh, and admitted a writer to the signet, 1859. Came to Toronto, 1859; called to the bar of Ontario, 1869; Q. C., 1887. Chairman of Knox College. Engaged largely in financial affairs. Lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1903-1908. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Clark-Kennedy, W. H.= Lieut.-Colonel, 24th Battalion, C. E. F. _Victoria Cross_. At Arras, on the 27th and 28th of August, 1918, he led his battalion with conspicuous bravery, initiative and skill, under very heavy shell and machine-gun fire, capturing machine-gun nests and making it possible for the whole brigade to move forward. Under continuous fire he went up and down the line improving the position and inspiring his men. Though severely wounded, he refused aid, dragged himself into a shell hole, and despite intense pain and loss of blood, continued to direct his men until he had established a strong line of defence. “It is impossible,” says the official report, “to overestimate the results achieved by the valour and leadership of this officer.” =Clarke, Sir Alured= (1745-1832). Served in Germany under Lord Granby in 1745. Accompanied Lord Howe to America. Lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, 1782-1790. Lieutenant-governor of Lower Canada, 1790-1795. Administered the government in 1791 in Dorchester’s absence. Put into effect the important Constitutional Act of that year. He was responsible for the rather inappropriate Old Country names applied at this time to the newly-created counties in French-speaking Canada. After leaving the country, filled several high offices in India, finally becoming governor-general. Returned to England, 1802, and made field-marshal, 1830. Clarke township in Durham county, Ontario, named after him. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Clarke, Leonard.= Acting-corporal 2nd Battalion, C. E. F. _Victoria Cross_. Near Pozières, September 10th, 1916, when detailed with his section of bombers to clear the continuation of a newly captured trench, and cover the construction of a “block,” most of his party having become casualties, about twenty of the enemy under two officers attacked the trench. He boldly advanced against them, emptied his revolver and two enemy rifles that he had picked up, and when the enemy turned and ran he pursued them, shooting four and capturing a fifth. =Claus, Daniel= (1727-1787). Born in Germany, he came to America about 1748, and with Conrad Weiser went on an embassy to the Iroquois. He rapidly picked up the Indian languages, and was sent to assist Sir William Johnson, whose daughter he married. Became assistant superintendent of Indian affairs. Served as a Loyalist in the American Revolution; captain in the Royal American Regiment. Commanded the Indian auxiliaries in 1777 in St. Leger’s expedition against Fort Stanwix on the Mohawk. Promoted to colonel, and in 1812 commanded the militia on the Niagara frontier. Died in Wales. =Bib.=: Cruikshank, _Reminiscences of Colonel Claus_ (_Canadiana_, 1890); _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Clear Grits.= The Radical wing of the Reform party in Upper Canada. Corresponded to the Rouge party in Lower Canada. David Christie credited with originating the name. “We want,” he told George Brown, “only those who are Clear Grit.” Among the leaders of the group were Christie, Caleb Hopkins, Dr. John Rolph, James Lesslie and William McDougall. Brown was for some years a bitter opponent of the Clear Grits and their policy, but afterwards became their leader. They advocated universal suffrage, vote by ballot, biennial parliaments, free trade and direct taxation, secularization of the Clergy Reserves, abolition of primogeniture, and various reforms in legal administration. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Mackenzie, _George Brown_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Bourinot, _Elgin_; Kennedy, _Lord Elgin_. =Clergy Reserves.= This vexed problem arose out of a provision in the Act of 1791 that certain lands were to be set apart for the support of a “Protestant Clergy.” These Reserves were at first claimed exclusively by the Church of England. In 1822 the Presbyterians demanded a share, on the ground that the Church of Scotland was recognized by the Act of Union between England and Scotland as an Established Church. Other Protestant denominations afterwards claimed a share, arguing that the Reserves had been intended for the benefit of all Protestant clergy, rather than for the clergy of any particular denomination. The dispute was maintained for many years, with increasing bitterness, in the Legislature, in the press, and among the people in general. In 1819 the law officers of the Crown had given their opinion in favour of the Presbyterian claims. Colborne, in 1836, brought the indignation of the other denominations to the boiling point by endowing forty-five Anglican rectories. This became one of the grievances leading up to the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Sydenham, in 1840, persuaded the Assembly to pass an Act providing for the sale of the Clergy Reserves and the distribution of the proceeds among the different Protestant denominations. The Act was disallowed in England. The Imperial Parliament itself then tried its hand at settling the question, with such indifferent success that the entire secularization of the Reserves became one of the main planks in the platform of the Reform party. However, when that party came into power in 1848, it showed such reluctance either to ask for the repeal of the Imperial Act or to bring down legislation of its own, that the Clear Grits succeeded in breaking up the old Reform party and overthrowing the ministry. Finally, in 1854, the Coalition government known as the MacNab-Morin administration introduced and passed a bill for the secularization of the Reserves. By the irony of events, the man who was mainly instrumental in settling this bitter problem was neither a Clear Grit nor a Reformer, but the Conservative statesman, John A. Macdonald. _See also_ John Strachan; George Brown; Egerton Ryerson; Robert Baldwin. =Bib.=: Lindsey, _The Clergy Reserves_; Hincks’ Letters in Montreal _Herald_, December, 1882; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Bradshaw, _Self-Government in Canada_; Ryerson, _Story of My Life_; Bethune, _Memoir of Bishop Strachan_; Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Burwash, _Egerton Ryerson_. =Clinton, Sir Henry= (1738-1795). Son of George Clinton, governor of Newfoundland, 1732, and governor-in-chief of New York, 1741. Sent to America, 1775; served in the South, and with Howe at Philadelphia; succeeded him as commander-in-chief, 1778; captured Charleston, 1780; succeeded by Sir Guy Carleton, and returned to England, 1782. He was for some time in correspondence with Haldimand in connection with the attempt to bring Vermont back to British allegiance. In 1794 elected to the British House of Commons. Rose to rank of general, and became governor of Gibraltar, where he died. =Bib.=: Works: _Narrative of the Campaign in North America, Rejoinder to Cornwallis’ Observations_; _Observations on Stedman’s American War_. For biog., _see_ Kingsford, _History of Canada_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Clitherow, John= (1782-1852). Entered army, 1799; lieutenant-colonel, 1812; served in the Egyptian campaign, 1801; the Hanover campaign, 1805; the Walcheren expedition, 1809, and throughout the Peninsular War. Appointed major-general, 1830; lieutenant-general, 1841. Administered the government of Canada after the death of Sydenham, 1841. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Coats Island.= South-east of Southampton Island, Hudson Bay. Named after Captain W. Coats of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who made many voyages to Hudson Bay between 1727 and 1751. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Cobb, Sylvanus= (1709-1762). A native of Plymouth, Mass. Served in the expedition against Louisbourg, 1745. For some years engaged in the coast defence of Nova Scotia. Served at the second siege of Louisbourg under Amherst and Boscawen. Removed to Liverpool, Nova Scotia. Died of the plague at the siege of Havana, 1762. =Bib.=: Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Cochrane, Thomas= (1777-1804). Born in Nova Scotia. A member of the English bar. Chief-justice of the Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island, 1801; judge of the King’s Bench of Upper Canada, 1804. Drowned in wreck of the _Speedy_, while on his way to hold court. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Cockburn, James= (1819-1883). Born in Berwick-on-Tweed, England. Came to Canada, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1846. Practised his profession at Cobourg. Represented West Northumberland in the Assembly, 1861-1867; solicitor-general for Upper Canada, 1864-1867. A delegate to the Quebec Conference. After Confederation sat in the House of Commons for West Northumberland, 1867-1874, and during that time was Speaker of the House. Last Speaker to exercise the privilege of addressing the governor-general on measures of the session, 1869. Again elected to the House of Commons, 1878, and retained his seat until 1881, when he retired to accept the chairmanship of the commission on the consolidation of the statutes of Canada. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Cocking, Mathew.= An explorer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who went inland from York Factory, on Hudson Bay, to the country of the Blackfeet, in 1772-1773. On his return from this journey, he was sent again to the Saskatchewan to build Cumberland House, accompanying Samuel Hearne. Cocking was in charge there in 1775 when Alexander Henry visited the post. =Bib.=: Burpee, _An Adventurer from Hudson Bay_ (R. S. C. _Trans._, 1908). =Coffin, William Foster= (1808-1878). Born in Bath, England. Came to Quebec with his father, an army officer, 1813. Returned to England, 1815, and until 1824 was a student at Eton. Came back to Canada, 1830. Called to the bar, 1835. Took part in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837. Joint sheriff of Montreal, 1840-1851. Appointed commissioner of ordnance lands, 1856, and one of the Intercolonial Railway commissioners, 1868. Held many important offices under the government of Canada and in the militia. =Bib.=: Works: _History of the War of 1812_; _Three Chapters on a Triple Project_; _Thoughts on Defence from a Canadian Point of View_; _Quirks of Diplomacy_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Annual Register_, 1878. =Coke, Sir John= (1563-1644). Sat in Parliament, 1621-1629. In 1629 Charles I appointed him one of the commissioners to confer with the French ambassador as to the restoration of Quebec. Secretary of state, 1625; a commissioner of the treasury, 1635-1636. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Colbert, Jean Baptiste= (1619-1683). First minister to Louis XIV, and a very capable and honest statesman. His career, says Professor Colby, was “more intimately bound up with the colonizing of Canada than that of any other minister, Richelieu not excepted.” He created the Company of the West Indies (_q.v._), and to a large extent directed the policies of Courcelles, Frontenac, and other colonial administrators. He encouraged the governors in their efforts to keep the ecclesiastical power within bounds. The Mississippi was named Colbert by Frontenac, and for a time Louisiana was called La Colbertie. =Bib.=: Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_; Chambers, _Biog. Dict._ =Colborne, Sir John.= _See_ Seaton. =Colby, Charles William= (1867-). Born at Stanstead, Quebec. Educated at McGill and Harvard. A.M., Ph.D., D.C.L. Lecturer in English language and history at McGill, 1893-1895. Kingsford professor of history at McGill, 1895-1910. Appointed a member of the Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1907. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, 1909. =Bib.=: _The Sources of History_; _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_. =Colebrooke, Sir William Macbean George= (1787-1870). After serving in the army, and as political agent in the East, became lieutenant-governor of the Bahamas, 1834-1837; governor of the Leeward Islands, 1837; and in 1841 succeeded Sir John Harvey as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, where he aroused criticism by appointing his son-in-law provincial secretary. Afterwards governor of Barbados and the Windward Islands, 1848-1856. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Coles, George= (1810-1875). Premier of Prince Edward Island in 1851, and again in 1855, and in 1867. A delegate from Prince Edward Island to the Quebec Conference. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Prince Edward Island_. =College of New Brunswick.= _See_ New Brunswick, University of. =Collins, Francis.= Published the _Canadian Freeman_ in 1825. Reported the legislative debates. Convicted of libel; fined and imprisoned. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =Collver, Jabez.= Presbyterian minister, the first to come to Upper Canada. Took up land in the county of Norfolk in 1783. Laboured long and zealously in the district. =Bib.=: Gregg, _Presbyterian Church_. =Colonial Advocate.= Newspaper published at Queenston, in 1824, by William Lyon Mackenzie. Moved to York the following year. In it Mackenzie discussed the public questions of the day with frankness, and at first with moderation. He reported the debates of the Assembly. In 1826 he advocated a Confederation of the North American colonies. Gradually the tone of his criticism of the ruling faction became more caustic, and in 1826 what is described as a “genteel mob” broke into the office of the _Advocate_, wrecked the printing press and threw the type into the bay. In 1832 the office was again broken into and some of the type destroyed. The newspaper stopped publication in November, 1834. =Bib.=: Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Colonial Conference=, 1894. Opened at Ottawa, June 28th, with Mackenzie Bowell in the chair. Delegates present from the Imperial government, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Cape Colony, and Canada. Resolutions were passed in favour of an Imperial Customs Union, improved steamship communication and a Pacific Cable. Conference adjourned, July 11th. _See also_ Imperial Conference. =Bib.=: _Proceedings of the Colonial Conference_, 1894; Ewart, _Kingdom of Canada_. =Colonial Ministers of England.= Secretaries of state for the colonies. The official channel of communication between the government of Canada and the British government. From 1768 they are as follows, with their dates of assuming office: Earl of Hillsborough, 1768; Earl of Dartmouth, 1772; Lord George Sackville Germain, 1776; Welbore Ellis, 1782; Earl of Shelburne, 1782; Lord Grantham, 1782; Thomas Townsend, 1782; Lord North, 1783; Marquess Caermarthen, 1783; Lord Sydney, 1784; William Wyndham Grenville, 1789; Henry Dundas, 1791; Duke of Portland, 1794; Henry Dundas, 1794; Lord Hobart, 1801; Earl Camden, 1804; Viscount Castlereagh, 1805; William Windham, 1806; Viscount Castlereagh, 1807; Earl of Liverpool, 1809; Earl Bathurst, 1812; Viscount Goderich, 1827; William Huskisson, 1827; Sir George Murray, 1828; Viscount Goderich, 1830; Lord Stanley, 1833; Thomas Spring-Rice, 1834; Earl of Aberdeen, 1834; Lord Glenelg, 1835; Marquess of Normanby, 1839; Lord John Russell, 1839; Lord Stanley, 1841; William Ewart Gladstone, 1845; Earl Grey, 1846; Sir John Somerset Pakington, 1852; Duke of Newcastle, 1852; Sir George Grey, 1854; Sidney Herbert, 1855; Lord John Russell, 1855; Sir William Molesworth, 1855; Henry Labouchère, 1855; Lord Stanley, 1858; Sir E. G. Bulwer-Lytton, 1858; Duke of Newcastle, 1859; Edward Cardwell, 1864; Earl of Carnarvon, 1866; Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, 1867; Earl Granville, 1868; Earl of Kimberley, 1870; Earl of Carnarvon, 1874; Sir Michael E. Hicks-Beach, 1878; Earl of Kimberley, 1880; Earl of Derby, 1882; Lord Stanley of Preston, 1885; Earl Granville, 1886; Edward Stanhope, 1886; Baron Knutsford, 1887; Marquess of Ripon, 1892; Joseph Chamberlain, 1895; Alfred Lyttelton, 1903; Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, 1905; Earl of Crewe, 1908; Lewis Harcourt, 1910; Andrew Bonar Law, 1915; W. H. Long, 1916; Viscount Milner, 1919; Winston Spencer Churchill, 1921; Duke of Devonshire, 1922; J. H. Thomas, 1924; L. C. M. S. Amery, 1924. Colonial affairs before 1768 were in the hands of the Council of Plantations or of Trade and Plantations. In 1768 a secretary of state was appointed for American and colonial affairs. In 1782 this office was abolished and colonial matters turned over to the Home department. In 1794 the office of secretary of state for the colonies was combined with that of secretary for war. In 1854 colonial affairs were put under the exclusive charge of a principal secretary of state. In 1925 the office was created of secretary of state for dominion affairs. =Colonial Ministers of France.= Ministers of Marine and the Colonies. The official channel of communication between the government of Canada and the French Court. From 1588 to the close of the period of French rule in Canada, they were as follows: Ruzé de Beaulieu, 1588-1613; De Loménie de la Ville-aux-Clercs, 1613-1615; De Loménie de Brienne, 1615-1643; Guénégaud de Plancy, 1643-1662; De Lyonne, 1662-1669; Jean-Baptiste Colbert, 1669-1683; Colbert de Seignelay, 1683-1690; Louis Phélipeaux de Pontchartrain, 1690-1699; Jérôme Comte de Pontchartrain Phélipeaux, 1699-1715; Fleurian d’Armenonville, 1718-1722; Comte de Morville, 1722-1723; Comte de Maurepas, 1723-1749; Comte de Jouy Rouillé, 1749-1754; Machault d’Arnouville, 1754-1757; Peraine de Mauras, 1757-1758; Marquis de Massiac, 1758; Nicolas René Berryer, 1758-1761. From 1715 to 1718 the department of marine and the colonies was administered by the Council of Marine. =Colonization.= Bishop Laval deeply interested in question. In 1663 three hundred embarked at La Rochelle for Canada. These were too young and inexperienced, and a better class of settler sent the following year. A system of apprenticeship was established. The Sovereign Council asked for men from the north of France because of their docility and industry. In 1665 the Queen sent out a number of girls, and the same year a number of the disbanded soldiers of the Carignan Regiment came out as settlers. Various companies were chartered from time to time, one of whose principal obligations was the bringing out of settlers to New France, but their promises were generally much better than their performance. Champlain at Quebec, Maisonneuve at Montreal, and De Monts at Port Royal, had made sincere efforts at colonization, and a few statesmen like Talon had developed a consistent policy of immigration, but for the most part the efforts were spasmodic and half-hearted. For many years after the cession of Canada to England, colonization was rather a matter of voluntary effort than government policy. The United Empire Loyalists came to seek an asylum in British territory; the Irish came because they were driven out of their own country by famine; the Scotch because the land policy in the Highlands left them no alternative but emigration. In time each of the British North American colonies adopted a more or less vigorous policy of colonization, and that was continued and expanded by the Dominion. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_. =Coltman, W. B.= A merchant of Quebec, and lieutenant-colonel in the militia. Sent by Governor Sherbrooke, 1816, to Red River, to investigate dispute between the Hudson’s Bay and the North West Companies. He returned to Quebec in November, 1817, and made an elaborate report to Governor Sherbrooke on the relations of the two Companies and conditions generally in the western fur country. =Columbia Fur Company.= Organized by John Jacob Astor in 1822 to exploit the fur trade on the Pacific Coast. It was recruited largely from the North West Company. _See also_ Astor; Pacific Fur Company. =Columbia River.= Rises in Upper Columbia Lake, latitude 50°° 10´, longitude 115° 50´, and flows into the Pacific Ocean. Total length about 1,150 miles. Supposed to be Carver’s “River of Oregon.” Its mouth was discovered by Robert Gray, of Boston, May, 1792, and named by him after his vessel. Entered and explored by Broughton the same year. It was first reached overland by Lewis and Clark, in 1805; and first explored and surveyed throughout its entire length by David Thompson, of the North West Company, 1807-1811. Its principal branch is the Kootenay. _See also_ Gray, Robert; Broughton, W. R.; Lewis and Clark; Thompson, David. =Bib.=: Thompson, _Narrative_; Lewis and Clark, _Expedition_; Cox, _Adventures on the Columbia_; Ross, _Fur Traders_; Coues, _Henry-Thompson Journals_; Kane, _Wanderings of an Artist_; Symons, _Upper Columbia_. =Combe, Robert Grierson.= Lieutenant, 27th Battalion, C. E. F. _Victoria Cross_. On May 3rd, 1917, south of Acheville, he steadied his company under intense fire, and led them through the enemy barrage, reaching the objective with only five men. With great coolness and courage he proceeded to bomb the enemy; then collected small groups of men and captured the objective, together with eighty prisoners. He repeatedly charged the enemy, driving them before him, and, whilst personally leading his bombers, was killed by an enemy sniper. =Commerce.= _See_ Trade. =Commercial Union.= Complete and entire free trade with the United States, first proposed by Ira Gould, before Montreal Board of Trade, February, 1852. (_See_ Montreal _Gazette_, February 18-22, 1852). The question was repeatedly discussed in succeeding years, down to 1891, in and out of Parliament, and for a time was adopted by the Liberal party as a trade policy, but abandoned before they came into power in 1896. The supporters of the policy, under the leadership of men like Erastus Wiman, had organized the Commercial Union League. Many business men joined it, discouraged by the long-continued depression of trade. _See also_ Unrestricted Reciprocity; Reciprocity; Zollverein; Smith, Goldwin; Wiman, Erastus. A concise history of the movement will be found in Johnson’s _First Things in Canada_. =Bib.=: _Canadian Emancipation and Commercial Union_; Adam, _Handbook of Commercial Union_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_. =Commission des Monuments Historiques.= Of the province of Quebec. Established, 1922. Chairman of the commission, Hon. Adélard Turgeon, president of the Legislative Council of Quebec. The other members are: Pierre-Georges Roy, Victor Morin, W. D. Lighthall, E. Z. Massicotte and C. J. Simard. The general purpose of the commission is to conserve “toutes les vielles choses canadiennes d’intérêt historique ou artistique.” The commission published its first report in 1923, accompanied by a voluminous illustrated list in two volumes entitled _Les Monuments commémoratifs de la Province de Québec_, prepared by Pierre-Georges Roy. =Commission of Conservation.= Created by the Conservation Act, 1909, and amending Acts in 1910 and 1913. Its general purpose was both directly and in coöperation with other federal, provincial and local agencies, to conserve the vast natural resources of the Dominion. Sir Clifford Sifton was chairman, James White secretary, and later assistant to the chairman. There was a large and influential membership representing all sections of the country and a wide variety of expert knowledge. The commission published a number of valuable reports and other documents. It was abolished in 1921. =Commission on Public Records.= Appointed, 1912, and consisted of Sir Joseph Pope, E. F. Jarvis and A. G. Doughty. To investigate into and report upon the state of the records of the different departments of the government of Canada. Reported in 1914. Found very inadequate facilities for safeguarding valuable public records in the various departments. Resulted in a very large number of documents of historical interest being transferred to the public archives. =Commissions.= _See_ International Boundary Commission; International Joint Commission; International Waterways Commission; International Joint High Commission; Commission of Conservation; Commission on Public Records; Commission des Monuments Historiques; Historic Sites and Monuments Board. =Company of Canada= (=Merchant Adventurers of Canada=). Organized by David Kirke, and chartered by Charles I, to exploit the fur trade of the St. Lawrence. The restoration of Canada to France in 1632 brought the operations of Kirke, Sir William Alexander, and their associates to an untimely end. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =Company of De Caën.= Organized by William de Caën and his nephew, Emery, merchants of Rouen. Monopoly granted the company on usual terms as to settlement, missionaries, etc., 1621. Absorbed Champlain’s Company, 1622, and the united Companies carried on trade until 1633. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Company of New France= (=Compagnie des Cent-Associés=). Established, 1627, by Cardinal Richelieu, on the advice of Isaac de Razilly. A monopoly of fifteen years was granted, with full ownership of the entire valley of the St. Lawrence, in return for which the Company was to take out three hundred colonists every year up to 1643. No very serious effort was made to carry out this obligation, although the Company continued to enjoy its monopoly until 1663. The Company sent out four vessels in 1628 with provisions, munitions and a few settlers, but the little fleet was captured by David Kirke. The Company also bore the expense of some of the Jesuit mission stations; but it soon got into financial difficulties, and in the end was not reluctant to surrender its charter to the king. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Company of Rouen and St. Malo= (=Champlain’s Company=). Established at the instance of Champlain, in 1614. The shares were divided among the merchants of Rouen and St. Malo. The terms of their charter required the Company to bring out colonists, but they did not take this obligation very seriously. They did, however, make one notable addition to the population of New France, for in the spring of 1617 they brought out Louis Hébert and his family. Hébert’s experience as a colonist was not such as to encourage others to follow his example. The Company’s monopoly was cancelled in 1620. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Company of the Colony.= Organized in Montreal in 1700 to secure the monopoly of the western fur trade. Became insolvent a few years later, and in 1705 by royal command they surrendered the trade to Cadillac, who had been one of the associates. See _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvi; _Canadian Archives Report_, 1899; Burton, _Cadillac_, 17-20. Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_, mentions another company of the same name, organized in 1645 by a group of local merchants in Canada, which obtained valuable concessions from the Company of New France, and in return paid the latter company one-fourth of their gross receipts. The company flourished until 1650, when the destruction of the Huron settlements led to its insolvency and final dissolution. =Company of the West.= Later known as _La Compagnie des Indes_. Also called the Mississippi Company. Organized by the famous Scotch speculator, John Law, and chartered, 1717. Granted the fur trading monopoly of Louisiana, and the right to buy at a fixed price the beaver of Canada for twenty-five years. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Company of the West Indies= (=Compagnie des Indes Occidentales=). Chartered by Louis XIV, 1664, following the cancellation of the charter of the Company of New France. Its field of operations was enormous, covering the west coast of Africa, the east coast of South America from the Amazon to the Orinoco, Canada, Acadia, and Newfoundland. The Christianization of the native tribes was given as the principal object of the Company, commerce being of only secondary importance. Despite its many privileges, and the readiness with which its stock was subscribed, it did not prosper, and by 1672 was hopelessly in debt. Three years later its charter was revoked, so far as Canada was concerned. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Concomly.= A very shrewd, one-eyed savage, chief of the Chinook Indians near the mouth of the Columbia, who took an active part in the little drama of politics and the fur trade, in which the other actors were the representatives of John Jacob Astor and the Columbia Fur Company, and the North West Company. Concomly’s daughter married Duncan McDougall, one of the leading fur traders. =Bib.=: Coues, _Henry-Thompson Journals_; Irving, _Astoria_; Cox, _Adventures on the Columbia_. =Condé, Prince Henri de= (1588-1646). In 1613 he sent out three vessels to trade on the St. Lawrence. The king had made him lieutenant-general of New France in 1612, and Champlain’s Company had to pay him a large salary as one of its obligations. Having conspired against the queen regent he was imprisoned, and the Maréchal de Thémines became temporarily viceroy in his place. Condé was restored and retained the office until 1620. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Confederation.= George Johnson, in his _First Things in Canada_ gives in detail the genesis of the idea of a confederation of the various provinces or colonies of British North America, which he traces back to Sir Francis Nicholson’s proposal of 1690. That, however, related not to what is now Canada, but to the then British colonies on the Atlantic seaboard. So far as Canada is concerned, various schemes were put forward at various times by Chief-Justice Sewell, the Duke of Kent, R. J. Uniacke, Robert Gourlay, Bishop Strachan, William Lyon Mackenzie, Lord Durham, George R. Young, Major Warburton, Henry Sherwood, James W. Johnstone, P. S. Hamilton, Joseph Howe, A. T. Galt, and many others. The first definite step in the movement looking towards the union of the British North American colonies, was the Charlottetown Conference, 1864. Delegates from the three Maritime Provinces met to consider the union of those provinces. At the Conference, delegates from Canada (constituting what are now the provinces of Ontario and Quebec) appeared, and urged the broadening of the discussion to cover all the provinces. Out of this meeting grew the Quebec Conference of the same year, attended by delegates from Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland; the two latter subsequently withdrew from the movement. The Quebec Conference drew up a series of resolutions, which were made the basis of the final legislation. In 1866 delegates from the provinces met at the Westminster Hotel in London, and framed the British North America Act. The Act was passed by the Imperial Parliament, and received the queen’s assent, March, 1867. It was proclaimed throughout the new Dominion of Canada, July 1st, 1867. Manitoba was created a province, July 15th, 1870. British Columbia joined the union, July 20th, 1871; and Prince Edward Island, July 1st, 1873. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created September 1st, 1905. _See also_ Charlottetown Conference; Quebec Conference; Westminster Conference; Macdonald; Tupper; Brown; Galt; Howe; Cartier. =Bib.=: Whelan, _Union of the British Provinces_; Cauchon, _Union of British North American Provinces_; Howe, _Organization of the Empire_; McGee, _Two Speeches on Union of the Provinces_; Hamilton, _Union of the Colonies of British North America_; Pope, _Confederation Documents_; Rawlings, _Confederation of the British North American Provinces_; _Parliamentary Debates on Confederation_, 1865; Bourinot, _Constitutional History of Canada_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Borden, _Canadian Constitutional Studies_; Colquhoun, _Fathers of Confederation_; Kennedy, _The Constitution of Canada_; Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents_; _Memoirs of Ralph Vansittart_; Gray, _Confederation_; Keith, _Responsible Government in the Dominion_; Munro, _Constitution of Canada_; Hammond, _Confederation and its Leaders_. References to pamphlet and other material on this subject will be found in Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Congress, United States.= Published and circulated an address to the French Canadians in 1774, a queer mixture of cajolery and threats, designed to win them to the cause of the revolting colonies. Sent a commission to Canada in 1776 to examine the military situation and probe the mind of the _habitant_. Its secret agents penetrated every part of Canada in 1778, securing information and spreading sedition. One of its plans was to establish a French newspaper in Montreal, with Mesplet as editor, but this was abandoned when the American army retreated from the country. =Bib.=: Lucas, _History of Canada_. =Connaught, H. R. H. Prince Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of= (1850-). Succeeded Earl Grey as governor-general of Canada, 1911-1916. His term of office was marked by the Imperial Conference in London; the defeat of the Laurier government and the coming into office of Robert L. Borden; loss of the steamship _Titanic_; creation of Dominions Royal Commission; extension of the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba; trade agreement with the West Indies; death of Lord Strathcona; loss of _Empress of Ireland_; outbreak of war with Germany; sailing of the first Canadian contingent; Canadian war loans; destruction by fire of the houses of parliament at Ottawa; battles of Ypres, St. Julien, Festubert, Givenchy, St. Eloi and Sanctuary Wood. One of the Duke’s last public acts in Canada was the laying of the corner-stone of the new parliament buildings. =Connell, Charles.= As postmaster-general of New Brunswick he won fame of a sort by having a provincial five-cent postage stamp made in 1860 with his own effigy in place of the queen’s. It was promptly recalled, but not before a few stamps had got into circulation. The Connell stamp is now among the rarities of philately. Connell was subjected to a great deal of ridicule and had to resign. In 1865 elected for Carleton county, and became a member of the Mitchell government the same year. =Bib.=: Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =Connolly, Thomas Louis= (1815-1876). Born in County Cork, Ireland; studied for the church; came to Canada; Roman Catholic bishop of Fredericton, 1852; consecrated archbishop of Halifax, 1859. A warm personal friend of Thomas D’Arcy McGee, and a strong supporter of Confederation. =Connor, George Skeffington.= Born in Ireland. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Came to Canada, 1832, with William Hume Blake. Settled on a farm near Lake Simcoe. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1842. Sat in the Assembly as a Reformer, 1859-1862; judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1863. Died in Toronto, 1863. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Conolly, William.= A chief factor in the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1825. He succeeded John Stuart in charge of the New Caledonia department. He married a native wife, and his beautiful and accomplished daughters became the wives of Sir James Douglas and another leader of the fur trade. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Conseil Souverain.= _See_ Sovereign Council. =Conservative Party.= It is difficult to fix any precise date for the adoption in Canada of this name for what had previously been known as the Tory party or the Tories. In England it came into general use about the middle of the nineteenth century, but never altogether supplanted the older name. In Canada it was used at about the same time, and very rapidly supplanted the old name, perhaps because of the changing point-of-view of its adherents to whom what had once been regarded as Tory principles were no longer acceptable. While it inherited some of the traditions of its predecessor, its point of view was rather that of a growing, ambitious and self-conscious community than of a weak colony. It began to look to the future rather than to the past. With its early history are associated the names of such men as Macdonald, Tupper, Galt, Cartier, Tilley, McGee, and Campbell. _See also_ Tory Party; Liberal-Conservative Party. =Bib.=: Pope, _Sir John Macdonald_; Boyd, _Sir Georges Étienne-Cartier_; Tupper, _Recollections of Sixty Years_; Skelton, _Sir Alexander Galt_; Hannay, _Sir Leonard Tilley_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_; Lewis, _Canada under Macdonald, 1878-1891_, and _Four Premiers, 1891-1896_, in _Canada and its Provinces_, vol. vi; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Constitutional Act, 1791.= The Act was designed to harmonize the conflicting interests of French and English by dividing Quebec into two provinces—Upper and Lower Canada—thereby giving to each a larger control of its own local affairs. It established in each province a Legislative Council, appointed by the crown for life, and a Legislative Assembly, elected by the people. _See_ other constitutional Acts: Quebec Act, 1774; Union Act, 1840; British North America Act, 1867. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Parliamentary Procedure and Government_ and _Manual of the Constitutional History of Canada_; Houston, _Canadian Constitutional Documents_; _Dominion Archives Report_, 1890; Watson, _Constitutional History of Canada_; Durham, _Report_; Bradshaw, _Self-Government in Canada_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents of Canada, 1759-1791_; Doughty and McArthur, _Constitutional Documents of Canada, 1791-1818_. =Constitutional Associations.= Established in Quebec and Montreal in 1838 by the English element for the purpose of maintaining British connection, and securing the reunion of Upper and Lower Canada. Delegates were sent to Upper Canada to urge coöperation and also to England to press their views upon the British government. =Constitutional Reform Society.= Organized in Upper Canada in 1836. William Baldwin was president and Francis Hincks secretary. Its programme called for the establishment of responsible government and the abolition of the Rectories established by Sir John Colborne out of the Clergy Reserves. =Contrecœur.= _See_ Pécaudy de Contrecœur. =Cook, Captain James= (1728-1779). Served in Canada during siege of Quebec, 1759. Discovered New Zealand, 1769, and New South Wales, 1770. In his famous voyage of 1776-1778, explored the north-west coast of America. The object of this voyage was partly exploration and partly to safeguard England’s interests in the North Pacific, menaced by both Spain and Russia. The discovery of the North-West passage was the purpose of Cook as it had been of many earlier navigators, and was to be of others yet to come. For the discovery of this passage the British Admiralty had offered a prize of twenty thousand pounds. He first sighted the coast in lat. 44° north, was driven out to sea, and returned to the coast at 49° 30´, Nootka Sound. Continuing north he discovered and named Prince William Sound and Cook’s Inlet, visited Unalaska, and sailed up through Bering Strait into the Arctic. On the return voyage the following year, he was murdered by the natives of Owhyhee or Hawaii, in the Sandwich Islands. =Bib.=: _Voyage to the Pacific Ocean_. For biog., _see_ Besant, _Captain Cook_; Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Cook River.= Known to-day as Cook Inlet, on the coast of Alaska. Discovered by Captain James Cook on his last voyage, 1777, and named after him. Cape Cook, Vancouver Island, was also named after the great navigator, by Captain George H. Richards, in 1860. =Cook’s Mills.= An engagement in the War of 1812-1814. October 13th, 1814, Izard, the American general, having moved across the Niagara near Black Rock, with 6,000 men, marched down stream toward Chippewa. On the 19th he sent a brigade to Cook’s Mills, about twelve miles inland from Chippewa, where there was a heavy skirmish in which the Glengarries on the British side did good work. The following day Izard fell back, blew up the fortifications at Fort Erie, and retreated to his own side of the river. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Coote’s Paradise.= _See_ Hamilton. =Copper Mines.= Prehistoric workings have been found on Isle Royale and on both the south and north shores of Lake Superior, as well as thousands of copper artifacts, implements and ornaments of Indian workmanship. Brûlé, Radisson, and other early travellers, mention copper mines and copper ornaments and nuggets. Father Allouez made an investigation in 1665 and reported a number of large deposits on the south shore of Lake Superior. La Tourette, brother of Du Lhut, brought a large nugget from the west in 1687. Lahontan, Le Sueur, and others reported on the subject. La Ronde, in 1734, with St. Pierre, began to develop the Superior mines, using a little bark they had built at Sault Ste. Marie for transportation. On the banks of Ontonagon river he found the great copper mass which many years later was taken to Washington and now rests in the Smithsonian Institute. Miners were brought out and the venture prospered for a time, but trouble with the Indians brought it to an untimely end. In 1768 Alexander Henry with several associates tried to revive the industry, but disaster followed and the attempt was abandoned. _See_ Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. _Also_ Hearne’s _Journey_ for the attempt to mine copper on the Arctic coast. =Coppermine River.= Rises in a small lake, a little west of long. 110° and south of lat. 66°, and after a course of 525 miles flows into Coronation Gulf, on the Arctic coast of Canada. It was discovered by Samuel Hearne, 1771; and subsequently visited by Sir John Franklin, 1821; Sir John Richardson, 1848; and later travellers. _See_ Hearne. =Bib.=: Hearne, _Journey from Prince of Wales Fort to the Frozen Ocean_; Franklin, _Journey to the Polar Sea_; Richardson, _Arctic Searching Expedition_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Coppins, Frederick George.= Corporal, 8th Battalion, C. E. F. _Victoria Cross_. During an attack at Beaufort Wood, August 9th, 1918, his platoon came unexpectedly under fire of numerous machine-guns, and as it was impossible either to advance or retire and there was no cover, they must be annihilated unless the guns could be silenced immediately. Calling four men to follow him, he rushed forward in the face of intense machine-gun fire. His comrades were killed and he was wounded. Nevertheless he reached the hostile machine-guns, and killed or captured the crews single-handed. =Copyright.= The first granted in Canada was in 1841, for Alexander Davidson’s _Canadian Spelling Book_; the second, for Bridges’ _Boys’ Own Book_; and the third for Richardson’s _War of 1812_. These were under the provisions of the Imperial Copyright Act. The first Canadian copyright law was enacted in 1850. The Act of 1875 made it a condition for obtaining copyright in Canada that the work should be printed and published or reprinted and republished in Canada contemporaneously or subsequently to the publication or production elsewhere. Further legislation amended the law in various ways. In 1921 an amending Act was passed designed to bring the Canadian law into harmony with the Berne Convention. Amended 1924. =Coquart, Claude Godefroy= (1706-1765). Jesuit missionary. Came to Canada, 1738. Spent three years at Quebec. Accompanied La Vérendrye on his western journey in 1741, but got no farther than Michilimackinac, where he was, 1741-1744. His letter, quoted by Margry, in _Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l’ouest_, throws an interesting light on La Vérendrye’s explorations. Wintered at Fort la Reine, 1744-1745. In charge of Saguenay mission, 1746-1751. For a short time in Acadia after the British conquest. Died in Chicoutimi. =Bib.=: _Wis. His. Coll._, xvii and xviii. =Corn Laws.= Certain Acts of the British Parliament relating to the exportation and importation of grain and particularly wheat. The Act of 1773 encouraged the importation of foreign wheat. It was repealed in 1791 and importation discouraged. Other legislation followed in 1815 and 1828. In 1836 an agitation began for the repeal of the Corn Laws, and the Anti-Corn League was organized, which eventually led to the adoption of free trade. In 1843 a substantial preference was granted to Canadian wheat in the English market. This included flour and stimulated milling in Canada. The Act of 1846 repealed the Corn Laws and wiped out the preference. Elgin’s view was that Canada was injured not so much by the adoption of free trade as by her dependence on Imperial tariff legislation. =Bib.=: Lewis, _George Brown_. =Cornwall Canal.= Connects the navigable stretch of the St. Lawrence at Dickinson’s Landing with Cornwall, around the Long Sault Rapids. It is eleven and one-quarter miles long with six locks. From the head of the Soulanges Canal there is a stretch of thirty-one miles of navigable water to the Long Sault rapids. Work commenced on the canal in 1834. The Rebellion of 1837-1838 interfered with its completion, which did not take place until 1843. It then had a depth of nine feet of water. Subsequently enlarged and deepened to fourteen feet in 1902. =Bib.=: Holgate, _The Upper St. Lawrence River_; Keefer, _Canals of Canada_; Rhéaume, _Origin of Cornwall and Williamsburg Canals_ (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa _Trans._). =Cornwallis, Charles, first Marquis= (1738-1805). Served in American Revolutionary War; won victory at Camden over Gates, 1780, and in 1781 defeated Greene at Guildford. In 1781 hemmed in at Yorktown between the American army and the French fleet, and forced to surrender. Governor-general and commander-in-chief of Bengal, 1786-1893. Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1798; British plenipotentiary to negotiate peace of Amiens, 1801. Five years later again returned to India as governor-general, and died at Ghazeepore. =Bib.=: Cornwallis, _Despatches_; Kaye, _Lives of Indian Officers_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Johnston, _Yorktown Campaign_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Cornwallis, Edward.= Born, 1712. Member of the British House of Commons for Eyre, 1749. Appointed governor of Nova Scotia, 1749. Sailed from England with 2,576 emigrants and on July 2nd, 1749, reached the harbour of Chebucto, the site of the present city of Halifax. His administration marked by severe measures against the discontented Acadians. Returned to England, 1752. Elected to the House of Commons for Westminster, 1753; major-general, 1759; subsequently governor of Gibraltar. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Cornwallis Island.= Between North Devon and Bathurst Islands in the Arctic Archipelago. Named by Parry in 1819 after Admiral Sir William Cornwallis (1744-1819), under whom he had served in the Channel fleet. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Corvée.= An ancient French custom, introduced into New France, by which men were compelled to work without pay on roads and other public works. Used to some extent after the cession of Canada, in the transport of provisions for the upper posts, improving the roads, etc., but with this important difference that the forced labour was paid for. =Cosmos, Amor de.= Born in Windsor, N. S. Editor of _British Colonist_, founded 1858 in Victoria. He was a bitter opponent of Sir James Douglas. Advocated the entry of British Columbia into the Dominion. Premier of British Columbia, 1872-1874. He had been born with a somewhat prosaic name, Smith, to which his parents had added another equally uninspiring. Dissatisfied with both, he had an Act put through the Canadian Parliament changing his names to the rather singular combination given above. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of British Columbia_. =Costigan, John= (1835-1916). Born at St. Nicholas, Quebec. Represented Victoria county, New Brunswick, in the local Legislature, 1861-1866. Sat for the same county in the House of Commons, 1867-1904. Minister of inland revenue, 1882-1892; secretary of state, 1892-1894; minister of marine and fisheries, 1894-1896. Called to the Senate, 1907. He was a strong believer in Home Rule for Ireland, and on several occasions brought resolutions before the Canadian House of Commons relating thereto. Favoured disallowance of the New Brunswick law abolishing separate schools. A delegate to the Irish National Convention in Dublin in 1896. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Canadian Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Coulon de Villiers, Louis= (1710-1757). Stationed at Fort St. Joseph, 1729-1731; and at Green Bay, 1733. Accompanied Longueuil in the Chickasaw expedition of 1739. In Acadia, 1746. With Céloron on the Ohio, 1749. Stationed at Fort Miami, 1750-1753, and led a detachment of troops to Fort Duquesne in 1754. George Washington surrendered to him at Fort Necessity. Commanded at Niagara, 1755, and was present at the capture of Oswego, 1756. Also at Fort William Henry. Awarded the Cross of St. Louis. Died at Quebec. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Council.= _See_ Legislative Council; Executive Council; Sovereign Council. =Council of Assiniboia.= Appointed by the Hudson’s Bay Company for the government of the colonists in their territory. The first meeting was held February 12th, 1835, with Sir George Simpson as president. Bishop Taché, Alexander Christie, Alexander Ross, Cuthbert Grant, and ten others formed the Council. Among other useful work, it organized a volunteer corps for defensive and police purposes; divided the settlements into four districts with a magistrate for each; and made provision for a public building. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_; Bryce, _Manitoba_; Hargrave, _Red River_; Ross, _Red River Settlement_. =Counties of New Brunswick.= Albert, in honour of the Prince Consort; Carleton, after Thomas Carleton, first lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick; Charlotte, after Queen Charlotte, consort of George III; Gloucester, probably after Mary, Duchess of Gloucester, daughter of George III; Kent, in memory of the Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria; Kings, as an expression of loyalty to the king, George III; Madawaska, from the Maliseet _Med-a-wes-kaka_, said by Rand to mean “where one river enters another;” Northumberland, after the county of that name in England; Queens, as an expression of loyalty; Restigouche, from the Micmac _Lust-a-gooch_, meaning uncertain, suggested versions are “five-fingered river,” “river branching like the hand,” “big river,” “broad river”; Saint John, from the river which was named by De Monts and Champlain because they reached it on the day of St. John the Baptist; Sunbury, possibly after a village near London; Victoria, in honour of Queen Victoria; Westmorland, after the English county; York, after the Duke of York, eldest son of George III. =Bib.=: Ganong, _Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick_ (R. S. C., 1896). =Counties of Nova Scotia.= Annapolis, in honour of Queen Anne; Antigonish, according to Dr. Rand, from the Micmac word meaning “where branches are torn off the trees by bears getting beech-nuts;” Cape Breton, probably from the Breton fishermen who frequented its shores in the early days; Colchester, after the English town of that name; Cumberland, in honour of the Duke of Cumberland, son of George II; Digby, in honour of Admiral Robert Digby; Guysborough, after Sir Guy Carleton; Halifax, after the Earl of Halifax; Hants, an abbreviation of the name of the English county Hampshire; Inverness, probably after the Scotch county; Kings, as an expression of loyalty to the monarchy; Lunenburg, after Luneburg in Hanover; Pictou, from a Micmac word said to mean “big harbour;” Queens, as an expression of loyalty; Richmond, named for the Duke of Richmond; Shelburne, in honour of the Earl of Shelburne; Victoria, in honour of the queen; Yarmouth, probably after the Earl of Yarmouth. =Bib.=: _Place Names of Nova Scotia_. =Counties of Ontario.= Stormont, named after David Murray, seventh Viscount Stormont (1727-1796); Dundas, after Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville (1741-1811); Grenville, after William Wyndham Grenville (1759-1834); Leeds, after Francis Godolphin Osborne, fifth Duke of Leeds; Prescott, after Major-General Robert Prescott (1725-1816); Russell, after Peter Russell, who administered the government of Upper Canada, 1796-1799; Carleton, after Sir Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester (1724-1808); Lanark, after the town of Lanark, Scotland; Renfrew, after Renfrewshire, Scotland; Frontenac, after Count de Frontenac (1620-1698); Addington, after Henry Addington, Viscount Sidmouth (1755-1844); Lennox, after Charles Lennox, third Duke of Richmond (1735-1806); Prince Edward, after Prince Edward Augustus fourth son of George III and father of Queen Victoria (1767-1820); Hastings, after Francis Rawdon Hastings (1724-1826); Northumberland, after the English county of that name; Peterborough, after the town of Peterborough in that county, the town being named after Colonel Peter Robinson, brother of Sir John Beverley Robinson; Durham, after the county of the same name in England; Victoria, after Queen Victoria; Ontario, after Lake Ontario; York, after the English county of Yorkshire; Simcoe, after John Graves Simcoe; Peel, after Sir Robert Peel (1788-1850); Dufferin, after the governor-general of that name; Halton, after Major William Halton, secretary to Lieutenant-Governor Gore; Wellington, after the Duke of Wellington (1769-1851); Waterloo, after the famous battle; Wentworth, after Sir John Wentworth, governor of Nova Scotia; Lincoln, after Lincolnshire, England; Welland, name of Chippawa creek changed to Welland river, after stream of that name in Lincolnshire, and name of county followed; Haldimand, after Sir Frederick Haldimand (1718-1791); Brant, after Joseph Brant (1742-1807); Norfolk, after the English county of that name; Oxford, after the English city; Elgin, after the Earl of Elgin, governor-general; Middlesex, after the English county; Kent, after the English county; Lambton, after John George Lambton, Earl of Durham (1792-1840); Essex, after the English county; Perth, after the Ontario town of Perth, which in turn was named after Perth, Scotland; Huron, after Lake Huron; Bruce, after James Bruce, Earl of Elgin; Grey, after Earl Grey (1764-1845); Haliburton, after Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796-1865); Muskoka, after a chief of the Chippawa tribe; Parry Sound, name given originally by Captain Bayfield to the sound, then to the town, then to the county, after Parry Sound in the Arctic, which got its name from Sir William Edward Parry, the Arctic explorer; Nipissing, from Lake Nipissing; Manitoulin, a corruption of an Indian word for Great Spirit. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Counties of Prince Edward Island.= The three counties of Kings, Queens and Prince were obviously named in honour of the royal family. It will be noted that each of the three maritime provinces has a Kings county and a Queens county. The dominating element in the three colonies at the time these counties were named was the United Empire Loyalist, and in view of what had taken place in the other colonies on the Atlantic seaboard, it was an obvious and natural gesture of loyalty to so name these new settlements in the colonies that remained British. =Counties of Quebec.= Abitibi, from the Algonkin band of Indians; Argenteuil, from the seigniory which was named after the French town of that name; Arthabaska, from an Indian word meaning “place where there are reeds;” Bagot, after Sir Charles Bagot (1741-1843); Beauce, after a district of the same name in France; Beauharnois, after the seigniory granted to the Marquis Charles de Beauharnois in 1729; Bellechasse, after the islands of the same name, called by Champlain “Isles de Chasse;” and later known as “Islets de Bellechasse;” Berthier, after the seigniory of that name, granted to Alexandre Berthier in 1672; Bonaventure, after the island of that name, origin uncertain but probably given by Champlain; Brome, after a village in Suffolk, England; Chambly, after the seigniory of that name, granted to Jacques de Chambly in 1672; Champlain, after Samuel Champlain; Charlevoix, after the historian, Charlevoix; Chateauguay, after the seigniory granted to Charles Le Moyne in 1673, and named by him after Châteauguay in France; Chicoutimi, an Indian name signifying “farther on it is still deep;” Compton, probably after the Marquess Townshend (1753-1811), one of whose titles was Lord Compton; Deux-Montagnes, after the seigniory of that name, which was called after two conspicuous mountains therein; Dorchester, after Lord Dorchester; Drummond, after Sir George Drummond (1772-1854); Frontenac, after Count de Frontenac; Gaspé, the name goes back to 1542, and is said to be derived from a Micmac name signifying end or extremity; Hochelaga, after the ancient Indian town on the island of Montreal; Hull, after the English city of that name; Huntingdon, after the English county; Iberville, after the seigniory granted to Pierre Le Moyne Sieur de Iberville; Iles-de-la-Madeleine, after Madeleine Fontaine, wife of François Doublet, to whom they were granted in 1663; Jacques-Cartier, after the explorer; Joliette, after the seigniory granted to Louis Joliet in 1697; Kamouraska, Indian name meaning “where there are rushes on the other side of the river;” Labelle, after Rev. F. X. A. Labelle; Lac-St.-Jean, after St. John the Baptist; Laprairie, after the seigniory so named because much of it was prairie land; L’Assomption, after the Feast of the Assumption; Laval, after Bishop Laval; Lévis, after General Lévis, second in command to Montcalm; L’Islet, after the seigniory granted in 1677 to Geneviéve Couillard, named after a small rocky island near the present village; Lotbinière, after the seigniory granted to Louis-Theandre Chartier de Lotbinière in 1672; Maskinongé, from an Indian name meaning “big pike;” Matane, from an Indian name meaning “beaver pond;” Matapédia, from a Micmac name meaning “river that breaks up into branches;” Mégantic, from an Abnaki name meaning “where they preserve fish;” Missisquoi, from an Abnaki word meaning “the place where flint is found;” Montcalm, after the Marquis de Montcalm; Montmagny, after the governor of that name; Montmorency, after the Due de Montmorency; Napierville, after General Napier Christie Burton; Nicolet, after Jean Nicolet, the explorer; Papineau, after Denis Papineau; Pontiac, after the celebrated Indian chief; Portneuf, probably derived from the French town of that name; Quebec, from an Indian word meaning “strait,” or “narrows;” Richelieu, after Cardinal Richelieu; Richmond, after the Duke of Richmond (1764-1819); Rimouski, from a Micmac name meaning “haunt of dogs;” Rouville, from the seigniory granted to Jean Baptiste Hartel Sieur de Rouville, 1694; Saguenay, from an Indian name meaning “water that flows out;” Shefford, after Shefford, England; Sherbrooke, after Sir John Coape Sherbrooke (1764-1830); Soulanges, after the seigniory granted Pierre Jacques de Joybert de Soulanges, in 1702; Stanstead, after an English village of that name; St. Hyacinthe, after the seigniory acquired by Hyacinthe Simon Delorme in 1753; St. Jean, after the festival of St. John the Baptist; St. Maurice, after Maurice Poulin Sieur de la Fontaine; Témiscamingue, from an Indian name meaning “at the place of the deep dry water;” Témiscouata, from an Indian name meaning “deep lake forming the shores of a river;” Terrebonne, from the seigniory granted to Daulier des Landes, who is said to have named it on account of the fertility of the soil; Vaudreuil, after the Marquis de Vaudreuil; Verchéres, after the seigniory granted to François Jared de Verchéres in 1672; Wolfe, after General Wolfe; Yamaska, from an Indian name meaning “where there is grass at the bottom of the water.” =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Quebec_. =Courcelles, Daniel de Rémy, Sieur de.= Governor of Canada, 1665-1672. His tenure of office marked by an unsuccessful expedition against the Iroquois, and a long and acrimonious dispute with Laval and the Jesuits. Described by LeSueur as a judicious and capable administrator. The Marquis de Tracy was viceroy over all the French possessions in America during a portion of the governorship of De Courcelles; and Talon was twice intendant of New France during the same period. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Parkman, _Old Régime_; Sulte, _Régiment de Carignan_ (R. S. C., 1902). =Coureurs de bois.= Created in the early days of New France by the illiberal policy of the trading companies. Men, unable to earn a living in the settlements, were driven out into the wilderness to trade with the Indians. Gradually this class increased in numbers, adventurous young men being attracted by the freedom from control and the quick profits of traffic with the Indians. The drain on the colony and the demoralization in its life and morals became so serious that determined efforts were made to end the practice, but without success, though the penalty was death. These men, half-white half-Indian by nature, became the backbone of the fur trade, not only in the French period but also after Canada had become British. Hardy, fearless, cheerful, improvident, they added strength and picturesqueness to the fur trading ventures of the North West Company. =Bib.=: _See_ General Index, R. S. C.; Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Parkman, _Old Régime_; Ross Cox, _Adventures on the Columbia_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_; Munro, _The Coureurs-de-bois_ (Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc., 1923-1924). =Courts of Justice.= The Sovereign Council in New France exercised judicial powers, giving judgments in both civil and criminal cases, according to the royal ordinances and the _Coutume de Paris_. The Council had the power to establish subordinate courts throughout the colony. In the early days of the British régime, the courts of judicature were established by the governor, who also appointed the judges. In course of time courts were established, judges appointed, and laws passed, by the Legislature or the Cabinet. In 1721 a court of judicature was established at Annapolis, Nova Scotia. The Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875, and held its first sitting in June, 1876. =Couture, Guillaume.= Born in Normandy, 1608. Came to Canada, 1640. Two years later, on the way to the Huron country with Father Jogues (_q.v._), captured by the Iroquois, and carried off to their villages, where they were tortured. Couture escaped a worse fate by being adopted into an Iroquois family. In 1661 accompanied Father Dablon (_q.v._) on an expedition towards Hudson Bay. Threatened by an Iroquois war party, however, they got no farther than Lake Necouba, and retreated down the Saguenay to Tadoussac. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Cox, Ross.= Went to Astoria on the _Beaver_ in 1811-1812 as an employee of the Pacific Fur Company. When Astoria was transferred to the North West Company, joined that organization. Spent five years on the Columbia, and returned to the East overland. His narrative formed one of the principal sources of Irving’s _Astoria_, and is a valuable account of the fur trade on the Pacific coast and the character of the men engaged in it. =Bib.=: _Adventures on the Columbia River_. For biog., _see_ Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Craig, Sir James= (1748-1812). Distinguished himself at Lexington and Bunker Hill, in American Revolutionary War. Appointed governor of Jersey, 1793; and governor of the Cape, 1795. Sent to India two years later; and in 1807 governor-general of Canada. He distrusted the French Canadians and they in turn cordially disliked him. Suppressed French newspapers that criticized his policy. Recommended confiscation of the estates of the Sulpicians. Strongly favoured the union of Upper and Lower Canada. In 1809, his views and those of the Assembly being hopelessly at variance, he dissolved the House, and again the following year. Suffering from an incurable disease, he resigned in 1811 and returned to England. He was honest and courageous but, as Bourinot pointed out, he was “incapable of understanding colonial conditions and aspirations, ignorant of the principles and working of representative institutions, and too ready to apply arbitrary methods to the administration of civil affairs.” =Bib.=: Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_; _Dict. Eng. Hist._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Edgar, _General Brock_; DeCelles, _Papineau_; Cruikshank, _Administration of Sir James Craig_ (R. S. C., 1908). =Cramahé, Hector Theophilus.= A Swiss by birth but an officer in the British army. Member of the Executive Council in 1764 under Murray, who sent him to England to explain the difficulties in the way of applying British civil law to the conditions in Quebec. He had been Murray’s secretary. Lieutenant-governor under Carleton, and acted as administrator during the governor’s absence in England, 1770-1774, when the Quebec Act was under consideration. Arnold, in the invasion of 1775, sent him a summons to surrender Quebec, which Cramahé refused to consider. He distrusted the loyalty of the French militia. Had very friendly relations with Haldimand. Made governor of Detroit, 1785. Apparently died about 1788. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_. =Crane, William.= Son of Jonathan, a United Empire Loyalist, who settled in New Brunswick, and became a member of the Legislature and Speaker. William was sent as a delegate to England to present the grievances of the New Brunswick Assembly in 1836, and again the following year. Appointed to the Executive Council, 1843, and resigned the same year. Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =Crawford, John Willoughby= (1817-1875). Sat in the Legislative Assembly for East Toronto, 1861-1863; represented South Leeds in the House of Commons, 1867-1873; lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1873-1875. Died at Government House, Toronto. =Bib.=: Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_. =Crawley, Edmund Albern= (1799-1880). Graduated from King’s College, Windsor; studied law under James W. Johnstone, and called to the bar, 1882. One of the leaders of the Baptist Church in Nova Scotia; entered the ministry; and became the principal founder of Acadia College. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Hill, _Forty Years with the Baptist Ministers and Churches of the Maritime Provinces of Canada_. =Cree Indians.= An important Algonquian tribe, formerly ranging throughout what are now the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and north-eastwards to Hudson Bay. First mentioned in Jesuit _Relations_, 1640, 1661, and 1667, and in the early journals of the Hudson’s Bay Company. They formed an alliance with the Assiniboines, formerly of Siouan stock, and carried their raids against hostile tribes westwards to the Rocky Mountains, and north to the Mackenzie River. In 1776 they numbered about 15,000, but were reduced by smallpox in 1786, and again in 1838. By the end of the nineteenth century they had again regained their former numbers. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Harmon, _Journal_; Mackenzie, _Voyages_. =Creighton, John= (1794-1878). Born in Nova Scotia. Called to the bar, 1816, and created Q. C. by royal warrant, 1845. Sat in the Legislative Assembly of Nova Scotia, 1830-1850. Called to the Legislative Council, 1859, and elected Speaker, 1875. Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Crémazie, Octave= (1827-1879). His life a peculiarly sad one. Having made a failure of his business as a bookseller in Quebec, went to France, and died there in poverty. One of the founders of the _Institut Canadien_ of Quebec; and contributed for some years to the _Soirées Canadiennes_ and other periodicals. His poetical works published, 1882, under the patronage of the _Institut Canadien_, with an introduction by Abbé Casgrain. =Bib.=: _Œuvres Complètes_, Montreal, 1882. For biog., _see_ Casgrain, _Biog._; Gagnon, _Quelques Notes sur O. Crémazie_ in _Revue Canadienne_, vol. 49; also articles in same review by Abbé Casgrain (vol. 31); and by Abbé Degagné (vol. 30). =Crespeuil, Francis de= (1638-1702). Jesuit missionary. Born at Arras, France. Came to Quebec, 1670, and was assigned to the Tadoussac mission. For twenty-eight years he laboured among the Montagnais and other tribes of the Saguenay and lower St. Lawrence. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Croak, John Bernard.= Private, 13th Battalion, C. E. F. _Victoria Cross_. On August 8th, 1918, near Amiens, he captured single-handed an enemy machine-gun nest and took the crew prisoners. Shortly afterwards he was severely wounded, but nevertheless dashed forward alone against a very strong point containing several machine-guns. The remainder of his platoon followed, and they captured three machine guns and bayoneted or captured the entire garrison. He was again severely wounded, and died of his wounds. =Croft, Henry Holmes.= Born in London, England. Came to Canada in 1842, having been appointed, on the recommendation of Michael Faraday, to the chair of chemistry in King’s College, Toronto, where he remained until 1879. In 1849 he became vice-chancellor, and did much to transform this local college into a great national university. His researches also added largely to the advancement of agricultural chemistry in Canada. Died in Texas. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Crooks, Adam= (1827-1885). Son of James Crooks; born at West Flamboro, Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and the University of Toronto. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1851. Contested West Toronto for the Assembly, 1867, but defeated; elected, 1871; defeated in East Toronto, 1875, but shortly afterwards elected for South Oxford. Attorney-general, 1871-1872; provincial treasurer, 1872-1877, to which was added in 1876 the portfolio of education; minister of education, 1877-1883. Retired on account of ill health. Died in Hartford, Conn. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Crooks, James= (1778-1860). Born in Scotland. Came to Canada, 1794, and settled at Niagara. Engaged in mercantile life. Commanded a company of militia during the War of 1812-1814. Shortly after the close of the war removed to West Flamboro. Helped in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837. For twenty-five years a member of the Legislative Councils of Upper Canada and Canada. Died in West Flamboro. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Crooks, Ramsay= (1787-1859). Born at Greenock, Scotland. Came to America with his family and settled on the Canadian side of the Niagara river. Entered the service of the North West Company. In 1807 formed a fur trading partnership at St. Louis with Robert McClellan. In 1811 joined the Pacific Fur Company, and was a member of the overland expedition to Astoria. Reached Astoria May, 1812, and returning arrived at St. Louis April, 1813. He remained in Astor’s employ until 1817, when he became a partner of the American Fur Company, and in 1834 president. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xix. =Crosby, Thomas= (1840-1914). As a young man went out from Ontario to the Pacific coast, where for a time he conducted an Indian school at Nanaimo, was sent on a missionary tour among the tribes, taught himself the Indian language, built the first church in the Chilliwack valley, and established missions in the north at Port Simpson, on the Skeena river, on Queen Charlotte Islands, and at various points up the coast. After forty-five years of missionary work he was stricken with paralysis and retired to Vancouver, where he died. =Bib.=: Maclean, _Vanguards of Canada_. =Crown Point.= West side of Lake Champlain. Fort Frédéric was built there in 1731; rebuilt, 1734; and strengthened, 1742. It was blown up by Bourlamaque, 1759, to prevent its falling into the hands of the British; and the same year Amherst built a fort about two hundred yards west of the site of Fort Frédéric. This fort was captured, 1775, by Ethan Allen’s men; recaptured by Carleton the following year. Under the terms of the treaty of Paris, 1783, Crown Point became American territory. The international boundary crosses the head of Lake Champlain, some distance north of Crown Point. _See_ Arnold; Allen; Abercromby; Montgomery. =Bib.=: Crockett, _History of Lake Champlain_; Smith, _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Crow’s Nest Pass.= Discovered in the later sixties by a trapper, Michael Phillips, formerly in the employ of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The pass took its name from Crow’s Nest Mountain, which is named Loge des Corbeaux on one of the maps accompanying Palliser’s Report, 1859. The original Cree name, of which these are translations, is Kah-ka-ioo-wut-tshis-tun. The pass was used for many years by the Mounted Police, who made a trail through it from the plains to British Columbia. Toward the end of the last century the Canadian Pacific Railway built a branch line through the pass. =Bib.=: Dawson, _Crow’s Nest Pass_ (Geol. Survey, 1885); McTavish, _The Climb of Crow’s Nest Mountain_, in _Canadian Alpine Journal, 1907_. =Crysler’s Farm.= Battle in War of 1812-1814, fought November 11th, 1813. The scene of the fight was near the head of the Long Sault Rapids, on the St. Lawrence. Morrison commanded the British troops, about 800 men, and Boyd the Americans, numbering 1,800, increased during the fight to 2,400. The Americans were driven off the field. Morrison captured 100 men and a gun. The American loss was 300 men; and the British, 200 men. _See also_ War of 1812. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_. =Cumberland House.= Hudson’s Bay Company post. On Sturgeon Lake, north side of Saskatchewan river. Built by Samuel Hearne in 1774. Fur traders from Montreal, who afterwards became associated in the North West Company, had built a small establishment on the lake in 1772. The canoe route from the Saskatchewan to the Churchill by way of Frog Portage passed through Sturgeon Lake. =Cunard, Sir Samuel= (1787-1865). Born in Halifax. His practical training fitted him for the important rôle he was to fill in the evolution of ocean shipping. Watched closely the early attempts to cross the Atlantic by steam, and when in 1838 the British government invited tenders for carrying the mails between Liverpool, Halifax, and Boston, immediately sailed for England and laid before the Admiralty his carefully-matured plans for a line of steamships. Joseph Howe and Thomas Chandler Haliburton were associated with him in the initiation of this momentous idea. Succeeded in enlisting the support of several big shipping firms in England, and had no difficulty in securing the contract. So originated the Cunard company, which from an initial fleet of four vessels of 1200 tons each and 440 horse-power has grown to its present gigantic proportions. Was one of the owners of the _Royal William_ (_q.v._). Made a baronet, 1859. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Johnson, _First Things in Canada_, under _Steam Communication_. =Cuoq, Jean-André= (1821-1901). Entered the Sulpician order in 1843, and came to Canada two years later. Devoted his life to a minute study of the languages of the Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes, and became one of the leading authorities on the subject. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. =Bib.=: Works: _Jugement Erroné de M. Ernest Renan sur Quelques Langues Sauvages de l’Amérique_; _Livre des Sept Nations_; _Études Philologiques sur Quelques Langues Sauvages de l’Amérique_; _Lexique de la Langue Iroquoise_; _Lexique de la Langue Algonquine, Anote-Kekon_. For biog., _see Trans._ R. S. C., 1902, I, 127-128; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Currency.= During the French period money was at first very scarce. When the troops were sent out it became more abundant, the officers spending freely and paying in cash. The middle of the seventeenth century money was worth one-fourth more in Canada than in France, and two currencies became recognized, the Canadian franc and the _livre tournois_ or French franc. Seventeen million livres of French paper money was in circulation after the conquest, and was not redeemed until 1768. The British authorities passed an ordinance in 1764 by which the French Louis d’or and crown were kept in circulation. Montgomery tried to use congress paper money in Canada in 1776, with very indifferent success. The farmers and merchants preferred _specie_. First step for a revision of the currency was taken, 1795, when an Act was passed fixing standard of values. It appears that about this time there were in circulation in Upper Canada such coins as the Johannes and the Moidora of Portugal, and the Spanish doubloon. The penalty for counterfeiting was death. Simcoe found himself embarrassed by the lack of an adequate currency. He suggested a form of paper money, but the scheme did not commend itself to the Home government. Brock arranged with some of the principal merchants in 1812 to issue a special paper currency, which was afterwards redeemed. So-called “army bills” were issued and used between 1812 and 1820. The LaFontaine-Baldwin government introduced the decimal system in 1850. In 1871 an Act was passed by the Dominion Parliament establishing a uniform currency. _See_ Banking; Card Money. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_; Weir, _Sixty Years in Canada_. =Currie, Sir Arthur William= (1875-). Born in Ontario, he went west, taught school in British Columbia, and later was engaged in insurance and real estate. Began his military career in 1897 as a gunner in the 5th Regiment. Canadian Garrison Artillery. Received his commission, 1900, and rose to command of the regiment, 1909. Went overseas in 1914 in command of an infantry brigade. Promoted colonel, 1915, brigadier-general the same year. Commanded his brigade through the battles of Ypres, Festubert, Givenchy. Succeeded to the command of the first Canadian division, 1915; and to that of the Canadian corps, 1917. Promoted major-general, lieutenant-general, and general. Knighted, 1918. On his return to Canada became inspector military forces of Canada. Principal of McGill University, 1920. =Curry, Thomas.= One of the first fur traders from Montreal to reach the Saskatchewan, about 1771. Preceded by James Finlay (_q.v._). Alexander Mackenzie, in his _General History of the Fur Trade_, says that Curry with four canoes made his way to the Saskatchewan, and brought back such a rich cargo of furs that he was satisfied never to return to the Indian countries. Cocking (_q.v._) of the Hudson’s Bay Company mentions Curry (1772) and says that he “intercepted great part of the York Fort trade this year.” =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _General History of the Fur Trade_, in his _Voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans_; Burpee, _Hendry’s Journal_ (R. S. C., 1907); _Cocking’s Journal_ (R. S. C., 1908). =Customs.= In 1793 an arrangement was made between Upper and Lower Canada as to the division of the revenue derived from customs. As late as 1836 the customs revenue was still collected in New Brunswick by Imperial officials. This applied also to other colonies. Control over customs revenue had been handed over to Lower Canada in 1831. Under the terms of the British North America Act the customs was one of the matters reserved to the Federal government. _See also_ Canada Trade Act. =Cut Knife Hill.= About thirty-eight miles west of Battleford. In the Rebellion of 1885, the Indian chief Poundmaker (_q.v._) with a large force of Indians was encamped here. To prevent a junction between Poundmaker and Big Bear, Colonel Otter with 325 militia made a forced march and attacked the Indians at Cut Knife Hill. Poundmaker, a shrewd and resourceful leader, took full advantage of his superior position, and almost succeeded in enveloping the little column of whites. Otter managed to extract his men from the trap at the last moment, with the loss of a few men, and retreated to Battleford. The diversion had the effect of preventing the junction of Poundmaker and Big Bear, and discouraging the Indians. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1885. =Cuthbert, James.= Served in the navy as lieutenant of the flagship at Carthagena in 1721. Entered the 42nd Regiment on its formation. Served at the capture of Louisbourg and the siege of Quebec. Aide-de-camp to Murray. Appointed by Dorchester a member of the first Legislative Council. Captured by the Americans in the invasion of 1775 and sent in irons to Albany. They also burned his manor house. =Cuthbert, James Ross.= Son of preceding. An intimate friend of Brock, he formed a volunteer company from the men of his seigniory of Berthier in 1807. Supported Papineau in his agitation on behalf of the French Canadians. He was a member of the Special Council of Lower Canada in 1839, and opposed the union of the Canadas. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Cuvillier, Augustin.= Entered public life in 1815 as member for Huntington, which he represented almost continuously up to 1844. Speaker of Assembly, 1841-1844. Died, 1849. In 1828 he had been a delegate from the Assembly of Lower Canada to represent their grievances to the Imperial Government, but he had voted against Papineau’s Ninety-Two Resolutions. He was a man of moderate views. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Dablon, Claude= (1619-1697). Born at Dieppe. Educated at Paris and La Flèche; joined Canadian mission, 1655; accompanied Chaumonot to Onondaga territory, where he stayed for three years, then returned to Quebec and remained till 1661, when sent on a mission to Cree tribes in district of Hudson Bay. In 1668 went with Marquette to Algonquian tribes of Lake Superior. One of the founders of the mission at Sault Ste. Marie. In 1770 named superior of Canadian missions and rector of College at Quebec, but did not reach the St. Lawrence till following year; held these positions until August, 1680, and from October 1686 to 1693. Edited the _Relations_ of 1671 and 1672 and compiled others relating to 1673-1679. Died at Quebec. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Dalhousie, George Ramsay, ninth Earl of= (1770-1838). A Scottish peer. Entered the army at an early age and saw service in various parts of the world. From 1812 to 1814 commanded the 7th division of the British army in France and Spain. Received the thanks of Parliament for his services at Waterloo. Raised to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron Ramsay. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia in 1816. In 1819 became governor-general and commander-in-chief of British North America. Served in this capacity for nine years. He founded the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, and was responsible for the very happy idea of the Wolfe and Montcalm monument at Quebec. Politically he was not so successful. He has been described as a “disciplinarian devoid of diplomacy.” His relations with the French majority in the Legislature, and particularly with Papineau, were far from sympathetic. In 1827 he refused to confirm the election of Papineau as Speaker, and dissolved the Legislature. A storm of public indignation followed, and petitions were sent to England protesting against the governor’s usurpation of authority. Dalhousie was recalled. Largely responsible for the founding of Bytown. From 1829 to 1832 commander-in-chief in the East Indies. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_; _Dict. Eng. Hist._; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Dalhousie University.= Halifax. Founded by the Earl of Dalhousie, 1818. Corner-stone of original building laid in 1820. First endowment derived from Castine Fund, resulting from the occupation of Castine, Maine, during the War of 1812-1814. Act of Incorporation passed, 1821. First president elected and classes opened, 1838. University powers conferred 1841. College closed for some years owing to lack of funds for its support. Reorganized, 1863. In 1920 celebrated its centenary by launching a Million Dollar Endowment Fund. Two and a half millions subscribed, including $300,000 from Mrs. E. B. Eddy for Shirreff Hall, a dormitory for girls, to which $350,000 subsequently added; Carnegie and Rockefeller Foundations contributed $500,000 each towards the Medical School. William Dennis of Halifax gave $100,000 to endow a Chair of Government and Political Science. Dalhousie took an active part in the movement, initiated in 1922, for a union of the Maritime universities. The Carnegie Foundation offered to contribute two and a half millions toward the endowment of a Maritime university. Only Dalhousie and King’s had, up to 1925, united. =Bib.=: Hopkins, _Canada, An Ency._, vol. 3; MacMechan, _The Life of a Little College_. =Dallas, A. J.= Born in Scotland. Engaged for some years in the China trade. Entered service of Hudson’s Bay Company; chief factor at Fort Victoria, Vancouver Island; succeeded Sir George Simpson as governor of Rupert’s Land, 1862. Married a daughter of Sir James Douglas (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Dalmas, Anthony= (1636-1693). Jesuit missionary. Born in Tours, he came to Canada in 1670, and spent several years in the “grim routine of hardship and dangers” of the Tadoussac missions. Joined Father Sylvie at Fort Albany, on James Bay, in 1691. The fort had been captured by Iberville in 1686, and was now in the hands of a small French garrison. Dalmas was murdered by the tool-maker of the garrison in the spring of 1693. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Daly, Sir Dominick= (1798-1868). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada, 1825; provincial secretary for Lower Canada, 1827-1840; member of the Special Council of Lower Canada, 1840-1841; provincial secretary of Canada, 1841-1848. His easy and affable personality made him popular with all classes. When the government resigned in 1863, he alone remained to defend Metcalfe, constituting an administration of one. Left Canada, and appointed by the Imperial government lieutenant-governor of Tobago, 1851-1854. Afterwards lieutenant-governor of Prince Edward Island, 1854-1859; and governor of South Australia, 1861-1868. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Davin, _The Irishman in Canada_. =Daly, John Corry Wilson= (1796-1878). Born in Liverpool, England. For some time an assistant surgeon in the navy. Emigrated to the United States, and removed to Hamilton, 1826. Appointed surgeon to the Canada Company, 1827, and settled at Stratford, 1829. Succeeded John Galt (_q.v._) as agent of the Canada Company, 1831, and took up his residence at Guelph. In the next year returned to Stratford, where he resided until his death. For many years agent of the Bank of Upper Canada at Stratford. =Daly, Sir Malachy Bowes= (1836-1920). Son of Sir Dominick Daly; born in Quebec. Educated at St. Mary’s College, Oscott, England; studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1864. Private secretary to various governors of Nova Scotia. Sat in House of Commons for Halifax, 1878-1887; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1890-1900. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Daly, Thomas Mayne= (1852-1911). His father, of the same Christian names, was a member of the old Canadian assembly, and also sat in the House of Commons. The son was born at Stratford, Ontario; studied law and called to the bar, 1876. Removed to Manitoba, 1881, and became the first mayor of Brandon. Represented Selkirk in the House of Commons, 1887-1896. Minister of the interior in the Thompson administration, 1892; resigned, 1896, and went to England and France on a special mission in connection with a reorganization of the Canadian immigration system. Later practised law in Rossland, British Columbia. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Dandurand, Raoul= (1861-). Born in Montreal. Graduated from Laval; called to the bar, 1883; Q. C., 1897. Called to the Senate, 1898; Speaker, 1905-1909. Appointed a member of the King administration, 1921, and government leader in the Senate. Took an active part in the inter-parliamentary peace movement. One of the Canadian representatives to the Assembly of the League of Nations, 1924. Elected president of the Assembly, 1925. =Bib.=: Chambers, _Can. Parl. Guide._ =Daneau de Muy, Nicolas.= Came to Canada, 1685; married Marguerite Boucher, grand-daughter of Pierre Boucher, in 1687; and after serving with distinction in King William’s War, 1689-1697, died on his way to Louisiana to assume the governorship. His son, Jacques-Pierre Daneau de Muy, born, 1695, commanded at River St. Joseph in 1733; served as captain in King George’s War, 1744-1748; was appointed commandant at Detroit, 1755; and died there in 1757. He is described as a “prudent, wise and sedate man, and a very exact officer.” =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Daniel, Antoine= (1600-1648). Son of Antoine Daniel, of Dieppe. Entered the Society of Jesus; came to Canada in 1633, and a missionary in Cape Breton that year. In 1634 accompanied Brébeuf to the Huron country, where they laid the beginnings of that ill-fated mission. In 1636 came to Quebec to open the Seminary, which, from very modest beginnings, has since developed into Laval University. Returned to the Huron mission, and in 1648 was murdered by the Iroquois. First of the Huron martyrs. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Daniel, Charles.= Son of Antoine Daniel, of Dieppe. Made a notable voyage to New France in 1629, of which he left a graphic narrative. Arriving at Cape Breton that year, with two armed vessels, found Lord Ochiltree, who had joined Sir William Alexander in his colonization schemes, building a fort near Louisbourg. Seized the colonists and carried them off to France. Was himself captured by Kirke. =Bib.=: _Voyage à la Nouvelle France du Capitaine Charles Daniel._ For biog., _see_ Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =Daulac.= _See_ Dollard des Ormeaux. =Daumont.= _See_ St. Lusson. =Dauphin Lake.= In Manitoba, south of Lake Winnipegosis. Named after the Dauphin of France. Discovered by one of the sons of La Vérendrye in 1741, who built Fort Dauphin that year near the mouth of Mossy river, which discharges the waters of Lake Dauphin into Winnipegosis. J. B. Tyrrell thinks that the site of the fort is probably in the present town of Winnipegosis. =David, Claude= (1621-1687). He was by profession a physician, and practised at Three Rivers and later at Cap-de-la-Madeleine. In 1660 he accompanied the expedition of Father René Ménard to the west. He was one of a party of traders who had determined to open up trade with the Ottawas on the south shore of Lake Superior. The Iroquois menace and other difficulties kept them at Chequamegon Bay for three years. Finally, in 1663, the Iroquois having suffered a notable defeat, the traders and their native allies made their way back to the St. Lawrence with a cargo of furs, and reports of the existence of copper on Lake Superior. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =David, Laurent Olivier= (1840-). Educated at St. Thérèse College; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1864. One of founders, and editor, of _L’Opinion Publique_, 1870. Represented Montreal East in Quebec Legislature, 1886-1890. Called to the Senate, 1903. =Bib.=: Works: Biographies et Portraits; _Les Héros de Châteauguay_; _Les Patriotes de 1837-1838_; _Mes Contemporains_; _Les Deux Papineau_; _L’Union des Deux Canadas_; _Le Drapeau de Carillon_; _Laurier et Son Temps_; _Le Clerge Canadien: Sa Mission et Son Œuvre_; _Souvenirs et Biographies_; _Mélanges Historiques_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Davidson, John.= Commissioner of crown lands in Lower Canada. Appointed by Sydenham to same office after the union. Retired with Draper, and made collector of customs. =Bib.=: Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_. =Davies, Sir Louis Henry= (1845-1924). Born in Prince Edward Island. Educated at Prince of Wales College; studied law and called to the bar of Prince Edward Island, 1866. Sat in the Assembly, 1872-1879; premier and attorney-general, 1876. Counsel for Great Britain before the International Fisheries Commission at Halifax, 1877. Elected to the House of Commons for Queen’s, 1882; minister of marine and fisheries in the Laurier administration, 1896; one of the joint high commissioners on behalf of Great Britain to settle differences between the United States and Canada, 1898; knighted, 1897; appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1902; became chief-justice, and a member of the Imperial Privy Council. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Davin, Nicholas Flood= (1843-1901). Born in Ireland. Studied law and called to the English bar, 1868. Served as war correspondent during Franco-Prussian War. Came to Canada, 1872; joined staff of the _Globe_, and later, the _Mail_. Called to the Ontario bar, 1874. Established the Regina _Leader_, 1883. Represented West Assiniboia in Dominion Parliament, 1887-1900. A brilliant but somewhat erratic speaker. =Bib.=: Works: _The Irishman in Canada; Eos, an Epic of the Dawn_; _Culture and Practical Power_; _Ireland and the Empire_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men._ =Davis, John.= Born near Dartmouth, England. Made three voyages in search of a north-west passage. In 1585 he sailed to Greenland and across the strait that now bears his name to Baffin Land, discovering Cumberland Sound. The following year he continued his exploration of Baffin Land. In 1587 he explored Cumberland Sound and sailed down the coast past Frobisher Bay and across the entrance to what later became known as Hudson Strait to a point which he named Cape Chidley. In 1591 he sailed with Cavendish to the South Seas, and subsequently made journeys to the East Indies for the East Indian Company. On his return from one of these expeditions, he was killed by Japanese pirates off the coast of Malacca in 1605. =Bib.=: Markham, _Voyages of John Davis_. =Dawson, George Mercer= (1849-1901). Son of Sir J. W. Dawson (q.v.). Studied geology and palæontology under Huxley, Ramsay and Etheridge at the Royal School of Mines, London. Geologist and botanist to North American Boundary Commission, 1873-1875. Appointed to staff of Geological Survey, 1875; assistant director, 1883; director, 1895. Carried out many important explorations in the West and added largely to what was known of the geology particularly of the Rocky Mountain region. One of the British commissioners in Bering Sea Arbitration, 1892. =Bib.=: For his numerous reports and papers on geological and allied subjects, _see General Indexes to Geological Survey Reports_, 1863-1884, and 1885-1906; and _Bibliography of the Royal Society_ (R. S. C., 1894). For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men._ =Dawson, Sir John William= (1820-1899). Born at Pictou, Nova Scotia. Educated at Edinburgh University. Accompanied Sir Charles Lyell on his geological explorations in Nova Scotia. Appointed superintendent of education for Nova Scotia, 1850. Principal of McGill University, 1855-1893, and mainly instrumental in building up the institution from a small college to one of the first rank. Elected F. G. S., 1854, and F. R. S., 1862; knighted, 1884. First president of Royal Society of Canada. Author of many books and pamphlets on geology and palæontology. =Bib.=: Works: _Acadian Geology_; _Story of the Earth and Man_; _Science and the Bible_; _Dawn of Life_; _Origin of the World_; _Fossil Men_; _Change of Life in Geological Times_; _Chain of Life_; _Egypt and Syria_. For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Morgan, _Can. Men.; Cyc. Am. Biog._; Dawson, _Fifty Years of Work in Canada_. =Dawson, Simon James.= Born in Glengarry, Scotland, and came to Canada when a boy. Studied civil engineering, and was employed by the government in opening up the pine regions of the St. Maurice valley in 1851. Six years later he was given the important task of exploring the country from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, on which he published a comprehensive report. In 1868 he began work on what was afterwards known as the Dawson Route, from Lake Superior to the Lake of the Woods, and in 1870 provided boats and voyageurs to transport Wolseley’s force over this route to the Red river. In 1873 he was a commissioner to conclude a treaty with the Chippewa Indians. Two years later he was elected to the Ontario Legislature for Algoma, and advocated a vigorous colonization roads policy. In 1878 he was elected to the House of Commons for Algoma, being re-elected in 1882 and 1886. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names._ =Day, Charles Dewey= (1806-1884). Born in Bennington, Vermont. Came with his parents to Canada, 1812. Called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1827; created Q. C., 1837. Assisted in the prosecution of the insurgents who had been arrested during the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Appointed solicitor-general and called to the Special Council, 1839. Summoned by Sydenham to the Executive Council, 1840, and subsequently elected to the Assembly for the county of Ottawa. Appointed judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1842; transferred to the Superior Court, 1849; resigned, 1862. Acted as commissioner for the codification of the civil laws of Quebec; as representative of Quebec on the Arbitration Commission appointed under the British North America Act to settle the claims of the provinces; and as chairman of the Royal Commission to investigate the charges against the Macdonald government in connection with the granting of the charter to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. Held the office of chancellor of McGill University from 1857 until his death. Died in England. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Dearborn, Henry= (1751-1829). Served through the War of the Revolution; accompanied Arnold’s expedition to Canada. Secretary of war, 1801-1809; appointed major-general, 1812, and assigned to command of northern department in War of 1812; captured York, 1813, and Fort George, same year. Minister to Portugal, 1822-1824. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Dease, Peter Warren.= In charge of New Caledonia for the Hudson’s Bay Company, succeeding William Connolly. Became a Chief Factor in 1828. In 1839 with Thomas Simpson explored the Arctic coast of Canada from the farthest west point reached by Franklin to the most easterly point reached by Elson in 1826, and filled the gap between Points Turnagain and Ogle. Also part of the southern coasts of Victoria Land and King William Land. Finally settled the question as to the existence of a water channel between these great Arctic islands and the mainland. Dease lake and Dease river, a branch of the Liard, in northern British Columbia, were named after him by J. McLeod of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1834. Dease river flowing into Great Bear lake was also named after the explorer, as well as Dease bay on that lake. =Bib.=: _Narrative of Discoveries on the North Coast of America_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Debartzch, P. D.= Engaged in journalism. First elected to the Assembly of Lower Canada, 1810; member of the Legislative Council, 1815. Opposed the union of the Canadas. At one time a warm friend of Papineau, but afterwards withdrew his support when the attitude of the popular leader became extreme. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =DeCelles, Alfred Duclos= (1844-1925). Educated at Laval University. Engaged in journalism, and became editor-in-chief of _La Minerve_, and subsequently of _L’Opinion Publique_. In 1880 appointed assistant librarian of Parliament, and in 1886 general librarian. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1884. Made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, 1904; C. M. G., 1907. Author of a number of historical works in both French and English. =Bib.=: Papineau-Cartier; _Les Etats-Unis_; _Patriots of 1837_; contributed articles on Quebec to _Canada and its Provinces_. =Declaration of Independence.= Prepared by Dr. John D. Rolph and Dr. O’Grady, associates of William Lyon Mackenzie, in July, 1837. It was entitled a “Declaration of the Reformers of Toronto to their Fellow Reformers in Upper Canada,” and was afterwards known as the “Declaration of the Independence of Upper Canada.” Pledged common cause with Papineau and his followers in Lower Canada. Published in the _Constitution_, Mackenzie’s paper. A Declaration of Independence was also issued in Lower Canada in 1838, signed by Robert Nelson, and published in the Montreal newspapers. Its grandiloquent phrasing and the fact that few people of any importance seemed to be behind it, caused Kingsford to say: “Nothing in the annals of folly can be adduced as equal to it except the traditional ‘Three Tailors of Tooley Street,’ who described themselves as ‘We, the people of England’.” =De Lancey, James=. United Empire Loyalist. Sheriff of Westchester county, New York. Commanded a corps in the Revolution which, because they made free with the cattle of the rebels were known as “CowBoys.” This light horse became so unpopular and troublesome that Washington worked out an elaborate plan to capture or destroy the corps, but the expedition failed. After the war De Lancey settled in Nova Scotia, where in 1794 he became a member of the Council. Died at Annapolis in 1800. =Bib.=: _Sabine, Loyalists_. =Delaware Indians.= A confederacy, of Algonquian stock, occupying the basin of the Delaware river. The name came from Lord De la Warr, governor of Virginia in 1610. They were known to the British as Delawares; to the French as Loups; and they called themselves, Lenape. Early in the eighteenth century, the Iroquois brought them into subjection. They crossed the mountains, and formed settlements in eastern Ohio, about the middle of the century. The remnant of the Delaware are now on reservations in Oklahoma, with a few hundred on the Thames river and elsewhere in Canada. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Demers, Modeste= (1809-1871). Born at St. Nicolas, Lévis, Quebec. First Roman Catholic bishop of Vancouver Island, 1847-1871. He had previously been a missionary on Vancouver Island, and had made a journey to the Upper Fraser. =Déné Indians.= A group of tribes, of Athapaskan stock. The name means _men_. Morice includes four tribes in the Western Dénés: Sekanais, on the west slope of the Rocky Mountains; Babines, who occupy the shores of the lakes of the same name, and the neighbouring country; Carriers, whose villages extend from Stuart Lake to Alexandria on the Fraser; and Chilcotins, who occupy the valley of the river of the same name. =Bib.=: Morice, _The Western Dénés_; _Déné Sociology_; _Notes on the Western Dénés_. =Denison, George Taylor= (1839-1925). Born in Toronto. Came of a military family that for several generations had been keenly interested in the development of an efficient Canadian militia. His grandfather had served in the War of 1812 and the Rebellion of 1837, and organized the cavalry corps now known as the Governor-General’s Body Guard. His father organized the Queen’s Own and other Toronto militia units. His own military service began in 1855, and in 1866 he became lieutenant-colonel of the G. G. B. G. Commanded outposts on the Niagara river during the Fenian Raid, 1866. In 1877 won the prize offered by the Czar of Russia for the best _History of Cavalry_. That and his _Modern Cavalry_ have both been translated into several European languages, and the former into Japanese. He was one of the founders of the Canada First Party (q.v.). A charter member of the Royal Society of Canada. Largely instrumental in organizing the Imperial Federation League in Canada, and in reorganizing the parent body in England as the British Empire League. President of the Canadian branch, which adopted the same name. Politically he was an independent. Strongly opposed commercial union with the United States. Police Magistrate of Toronto for nearly half a century. =Bib.=: _History of Cavalry_; _Modern Cavalry_; _Soldiering in Canada_; _The Struggle for Imperial Unity_; _Fenian Raid on Fort Erie_; _The United Empire Loyalists_. For biog., _see Can. Men._ =Dennis, John Stoughton= (1820-1885). Born near Toronto. Educated at Victoria College; commissioned as surveyor of public lands, 1842. Assisted in the organization of the Canadian militia, 1855; raised and appointed to the command of the Toronto Field Battery, 1856; brigade-major of the 5th Military District, 1861-1869; saw active service during the Fenian Raid, 1866. Sent to Red River Settlement to organize system of surveys, 1869, but was forced to withdraw. His surveys created great uneasiness among the ignorant Half-Breeds and are believed to have been one of the causes of the Rebellion of 1870. Surveyor-general of Dominion Lands, 1871; deputy minister of the interior, 1878; retired, 1881; created C. M. G., 1882. =Bib.=: Denison, _The Fenian Raid on Fort Erie_ and _Soldiering in Canada_. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870. =Denonville, Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis of.= Eleventh governor of New France. Colonel of Dragoons in French army; spent thirty years in military service before coming to Canada, in 1685, as successor to La Barre. Although a capable officer, found himself in a difficult situation owing to the condition to which the country had been brought by the failure of La Barre and the intrigues of Dongan, the English governor of New York. Adopted a severe policy with the Indians, and was condemned for his treacherous seizure of Iroquois at Fort Frontenac in 1687. The horrible massacre of Lachine was one of the consequences of his maladministration. He led an expedition into the heart of the Seneca country in 1687, defeated them and burnt their villages. Then built a fort at Niagara and placed it under the command of De Troyes. The Iroquois in retaliation ravaged the island of Montreal in 1689. Denonville grew panicky and ordered that Fort Frontenac, which stood at the gateway to the Iroquois country, should be blown up and abandoned. He had already been recalled by the king, and was succeeded in the government of the colony by Frontenac. Died in 1710. =Bib.=: Girouard, _L’Expédition de Marquis de Denonville_ (R. S. C., 1899); Girouard, _Lake St. Louis Old and New_; Parkman, _Old Régime_ and _Frontenac_. =Dent, John Charles= (1841-1888). Canadian historian. Born in England. Came to Canada at an early age; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada. Went back to England and for a time engaged in newspaper work in London. Returned to America, 1847, and spent three years in Boston; came to Canada again, 1870, and became one of the editors of the _Globe._ =Bib.=: Works: _Last Forty Years_; _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; _Canadian Portrait Gallery_. For biog., _see_ MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =Denys, Nicolas= (1598-1688). Born at Tours. Early took to sea and in 1633 became interested in the fisheries of Nova Scotia. A short time after was made one of the lieutenants of Acadia under the Company of New France, and settled at Miscou. In 1647 his fort was seized by D’Aulnay, who had just been made lieutenant-general of the colony. In 1650 his establishment in Cape Breton captured and he himself taken prisoner. A second attempt to settle in Cape Breton frustrated by Le Borgne. Returned to France in 1653, and received a grant of the islands of the St. Lawrence, including a monopoly of the fur trade, and shortly after became governor of that territory, together with Newfoundland. In 1667 obtained a confirmation of his rights, but in the winter of 1668-1669 his establishment at St. Peters completely destroyed by fire. In 1671 returned to France and engaged in the preparation of his work on Acadia. About 1685 returned to Acadia, but his closing years darkened by the loss of his vast estates. Died three years later, at the age of ninety years. =Bib.=: _Description and Natural History of Acadia, ed. by Ganong._ For biog., _see_ Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Denys.= _See_ La Ronde. _De Peyster, Arent Schuyler_ (1736-1822). Born in New York, a nephew of Peter Schuyler of Albany, he entered the British army in 1755. Came to Canada, 1768, and in 1774 was sent to command at Michilimackinac. In 1779 he was promoted to the post at Detroit where he remained until 1784. Stationed for a short time at Niagara, and returned to England in 1785. In 1795 he settled at Dumfries, where he enjoyed the acquaintance of Robert Burns. His _Miscellanies_ contain interesting material on the western tribes and events in the west during the Revolution. He died at Dumfries. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Derby, Edward George Geoffrey Smith Stanley, fourteenth Earl= (1799-1869). Entered Parliament, 1820; Irish secretary, 1830-1833; colonial secretary, 1833-1834 and 1841-1844. Prime minister, 1852, 1858-1859, and 1866-1868. While colonial secretary he had taken a decided stand against the movement for responsible government in Canada. Endorsed Metcalfe’s policy, and in a speech in the House of Commons, 1844, gave his views on colonial government. “It was inconsistent,” he said, “with a monarchical government that the governor should be nominally responsible, and yet was to be stripped of all power and authority, and to be reduced to that degree of power which was vested in the Sovereign of this country. It was inconsistent with colonial dependence altogether and was overlooking altogether the distinction which must subsist between an independent country and a colony subject to the domination of the mother country.” =Bib.=: Kebbel, _Earl of Derby_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Derby, Frederick Arthur Stanley, sixteenth Earl= (1841-1908). Secretary of state for war, 1878-1880; secretary of state for the colonies, 1885-1886; president of the Board of Trade, 1886-1888; governor-general of Canada, 1888-1893. His tenure of office as governor-general marked by the bitter controversy over the Manitoba School Question, the death of Sir John Macdonald, and the decision to arbitrate the Bering Sea Seal Fisheries question. Succeeded to earldom, 1893. =Derby.= On the Fraser river, British Columbia. Named after the then secretary for the colonies. Previously known as Fort Langley. It was at one time suggested as the capital of the colony. =Bib.=: Scholefield and Howay, _British Columbia_. =Des Barres, William Frederick= (1800-1885). Born in Nova Scotia. Educated at Halifax Grammar School; called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1821. Represented Guysborough in the Assembly, 1836-1848; solicitor-general in Uniacke government, 1848; appointed judge of the Supreme Court, 1848; resigned, 1881. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Deschaillons, Jean Baptiste Saint-Ours= (1669-1747). Born in Canada. Commanded a detachment for the upper country in 1715; later was in command at Fort St. Joseph; in 1727 at Kaministikwia; and in 1728 at Detroit. In 1736 he was in command at Crown Point. He had been made an ensign in 1692; lieutenant in 1710; and captain, 1718. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Deschamps, Isaac= (1722-1801). A native of Switzerland; came to Nova Scotia in early life. Elected to the Assembly, 1761; judge of the Court of Common Pleas for King’s County, 1761; judge of the Island of St. John, 1768; assistant judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1770; chief-justice, 1785. Appointed a member of the Council, 1783. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Des Groseilliers.= _See_ Chouart. =Des Marets, Claude Godet, Sieur de.= He was the son-in-law of Pont-Gravé. Arrived in Quebec with Champlain, 1609. Accompanied Champlain the same year on the expeditions to Lake Champlain and Lake George. Died about 1626. =De Smet, Pierre Jean= (1801-1873). For many years a missionary among the western Indians. Travelled extensively through the mountain region north and south of the international boundary. In 1845 he crossed the mountains by way of Cross river and Whiteman’s pass, wintered at Edmonton, and returned by way of Athabaska pass in 1846. Roche de Smet, in Jasper Park, named after him. =Bib.=: _Life, Letters and Travels of Father De Smet._ =Dessaules, Louis A.= Born, 1819. Member of Legislative Council, 1856-1863. A member of the _Parti Rouge_. Edited _Le Pays_ at Montreal. =Bib.=: Works: _Rouge et Noir_; _Lectures sur l’Annexion du Canada aux Etats-Unis_; _Galilée, Ses Travaux Scientifiques et sa Condamnation_; _La Guerre Américaine_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Bib. Can._ =Detroit.= Founded by Antoine de la Motte Cadillac (_q.v._) in 1701. The fort remained under Cadillac’s command until 1710. A census taken that year shows six settlers cultivating the land, and twenty-nine soldiers, traders, etc., occupying houses within the fort. De la Forest succeeded Cadillac at the fort, 1710. Surrendered to the British, 1760. It was recognized as the most important of the western fortified posts. Had been a strategic point in the fur trade under the French, and remained such under the British. Pontiac laid siege to the fort, 1763, but failed to capture it owing to the courage and energy of Major Gladwin. By the terms of the treaty of Paris it fell within United States territory, but with other western posts was held by the British for some years as security for fair treatment of the Loyalists. Menaced by Wayne in 1793. Transferred to United States, 1796. It was then a flourishing little town, part French, part English. Captured by Brock, in War of 1812. General Hull, then in command of the fort, had two thousand regulars and militia. Brock attacked with seven hundred regulars and militia and about seven hundred Indians under Tecumseh. Hull surrendered unconditionally. Restored by treaty of Ghent. =Bib.=: _Cadillac Papers_ (_Mich. Hist. Coll._, vol. xxxiii _et seq._); Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Keep, _Detroit_. =Devil’s Hole.= Near Fort Niagara. Scene of the massacre by Indians of an English regiment in 1763, ambuscaded while marching to Fort Schlosser. =Devonshire, Victor Christian William Cavendish, Duke of= (1868-). Sat for Derbyshire W. in British House, 1891-1908; financial secretary to the treasury, 1903-1905; lord-lieutenant of Derbyshire; governor-general of Canada, 1916-1921, throughout part of the Great War and the difficult reconstruction period that followed. His term of office was marked by the Imperial Conference, meetings of Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, completion of the Quebec bridge, extension of parliamentary franchise to women, fourth war loan, explosion at Halifax, battles of Vimy Ridge, Loos, Passchendaele, Amiens, Cambrai, signing of the armistice, death of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, signing of peace treaties, visit of Prince of Wales to Canada, the various war loans, organization of Canadian National Railways, West Indies trade conference at Ottawa. =Dewdney, Edgar= (1835-1916). Born in Devonshire, England. Came to British Columbia, 1859. Had charge of survey of site of New Westminster, and other engineering works. First elected to provincial Legislature, 1869; returned to Dominion House, 1872. Appointed Indian commissioner for North-West Territories, 1879; and lieutenant-governor of North-West Territories, 1881. Member of Dominion Cabinet as minister of interior, 1888-1892. Appointed lieutenant-governor of British Columbia, 1892. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Dewdney Trail.= Road surveyed and built by Edgar Dewdney and Walter Moberly from Hope to Similkameen, and afterwards extended to Fort Steele on the Kootenay. Part of Sir James Douglas’ ambitious scheme of road-building in British Columbia. =Dickey, Arthur R.= Born 1854. Son of following. Practised law in Amherst. Elected to House of Commons for Cumberland county, 1888-1896. Secretary of state, 1894; minister of militia and defence, 1895; minister of justice, 1896. Represented the Dominion government, with Sir Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), and A. Desjardins, in the negotiations with the Manitoba government over the Manitoba School Question. =Bib.=: Morgan, =Can. Men=. =Dickey, Robert Barry= (1811-1903). Born in Amherst, Nova Scotia. Studied law, and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, and of New Brunswick, 1834. Sat in Legislative Council, Nova Scotia, 1858-1867. Appointed to the Senate, 1867. Took an active part in the negotiations leading up to the building of the Intercolonial Railway, and the Confederation of the provinces. =Bib.=: Morgan,_ Can. Men_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Dickson, Walter Hamilton= (1806-1884). Born in Niagara. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1830. Served during the Rebellion of 1837 as a cavalry officer. Represented Niagara in the Assembly, 1841-1851; sat in the Legislative Council of Canada, 1855-1867; appointed to the Dominion Senate, 1867. =Dieskau, Jean Armand, Baron de= (1701-1777). Of German descent; served with distinction under Marshal Saxe. When it was made known to the court at Versailles that the British had sent two regiments to America under Braddock, the French decided to fit out an expedition on a larger scale, and six regiments embarked for Canada under Dieskau, who was given the rank of general. Immediately after assuming command, prepared to attack the British and marched at the head of a body of men against Johnson, who was in the Lake Champlain country. Although his plans appear to have been well laid, Dieskau’s position was betrayed through the action of the Indians. Severely wounded, he was made prisoner, but well cared for by the British. Taken to England, ruined in health and fortune. Liberated at the conclusion of the war in 1763, and returned to France. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _Fight with France_. =Digby.= A town in Nova Scotia, on Digby Basin. Founded, 1783; incorporated as a town, 1890. Became famous because of its shipbuilding, its cherries and its “Digby chickens.” =Dinesen, Thomas.= Private, 42nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Awarded the _Victoria Cross_ for most conspicuous and continuous bravery displayed during ten hours of hand-to-hand fighting, August 12th, 1918, at Parvillers, which resulted in the capture of over a mile of strongly garrisoned and stubbornly defended enemy trenches. Five times in succession he rushed forward alone, and single-handed put hostile machine-guns out of action. =Discovery.= The “good and luckie ship,” that was so closely associated with the search for the North-West Passage. She was a “fly-boat” of seventy tons. Waymouth sailed in her to the north-west in 1602, Hudson in 1610, Button in 1612, Gibbon in 1614 and Bylot and Baffin in 1615. A sloop of the same name was lost in Knight’s ill-fated voyage of 1719. A pink called the _Discovery_ was used by Middleton in a voyage to the northern part of Hudson Bay in 1741-1742. One of Cook’s vessels in his third expedition, 1776-1780, also bore this name. Finally one of the ships in the Nares expedition, 1875-1876, was called the _Discovery_. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Dixon, George.= Commanded the _Queen Charlotte_. Was on the north-west coast of America in 1787 with Captain Portlock of the _King George_. They had been shipmates in Cook’s last voyage. In 1787 they traded up and down the coast separately. Dixon sailed around the Queen Charlotte Islands, and named them after his vessel. After his return to England he got into a controversy with Captain Meares over their respective rights to original discovery of certain points on the north-west coast. He died about 1800. An account of his voyage, written by his supercargo William Beresford, was published in 1788. Dixon Entrance was named after him by Sir Joseph Banks. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Dollard des Ormeaux, Adam.= (1634?-1660). A young officer of the garrison at Montreal, who saved Montreal and the colony from probable destruction by the Iroquois, in 1660. With sixteen companions and a few Indian allies, he intercepted the Iroquois at the Long Sault Rapids, on the Ottawa, and with a heroism seldom equalled in the world’s history, this little band gave their lives for their country’s sake. The Iroquois, discouraged by such unexpected resistance, abandoned the projected raid on the colony. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; _Jesuit Relations_, 1660; Faillon, _Histoire de la Colonie Française_; Dollier de Casson, _Histoire de Montréal_. The exploit has inspired several Canadian poems. _See_ Martin, _Marguerite_; Fréchette, _Legende d’un Peuple_. =Dollier de Casson, Francis= (1636-1701). Born in Basse Bretagne. Served with distinction as a cavalry officer under Turenne. Came to Montreal and joined the Sulpicians in 1666. In 1669-1670 carried out with Galinée an important exploration of the country north of Lake Erie and west to Sault Ste. Marie. Became superior of the Seminary of Montreal, and later vicar-general of the diocese. =Bib.=: _Histoire de Montréal_. For biog., _see_ Parkman, _Old Régime_; _Exploration of the Great Lakes by Dollier de Casson and de Bréhant de Galinée_, ed. by Coyne. =Don de Dieu.= Name of the ship in which Champlain sailed for Quebec in 1608. A boat of 80 tons. This, or another vessel of the same name, was sent out to Canada in 1633 by the Company of One Hundred Associates with settlers and provisions. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France_. =Dongan, Thomas, Earl of Limerick= (1634-1715). Colonial governor of New York. Came to America, 1682. Resigned, 1688. Became Earl of Limerick, 1698. Carried on a diplomatic correspondence with La Barre and later with Denonville. Very successful in playing off the Iroquois against the French—using the French menace as a means of binding the Indians to New England, and the Iroquois menace as an argument to compel the French to abandon Fort Frontenac. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Dorchester, Guy Carleton, first Baron= (1724-1808). Born in County Down, Ireland. Commissioned an ensign in Lord Rothe’s Regiment, 1742. Promotion came slowly, but in 1757 he was lieutenant-colonel of the 72nd Regiment. Served with the British legion under Prince Ferdinand in Germany. In 1759, at Wolfe’s special request, accompanied him to Canada as quartermaster-general. Wolfe relied upon him to supply the lack of ability among his engineers. Entrusted with the task of drawing off the troops from the camp at Montmorency. In the Battle of the Plains led a regiment of grenadiers and was wounded. Returning to Europe, he took part in 1761 in the attack on Port Andro, and was again wounded. Full colonel, 1762, and served under Albemarle at siege of Havana, and once more wounded. Appointed to succeed Murray as governor of Canada, 1768. He had been appointed lieutenant-governor two years earlier. He arrived at a very critical time, and it needed all his ability both as general and statesman to steer the country safely through. From both points of view, he foresaw the importance of binding the French to the British cause by generous treatment. In 1770 he returned to England, to discuss Canadian affairs with the Home government. Remained there four years, and had much to do with the drafting of the Quebec Act. In 1775, on news of the American Invasion, he hurried to Montreal and called out the militia, but realizing the impossibility with his limited force of defending Montreal, concentrated his energy on Quebec. His courage and energy inspired his men, and the invaders were driven back from the citadel and out of the country. In 1776 he defeated the Americans in a naval engagement on Lake Champlain. Lord George Germain, narrow-minded and revengeful, had an old grudge against Carleton, and took advantage of his authority in 1777 to take the command of the troops from Carleton and give it to Burgoyne. Carleton promptly offered his resignation, and in 1778 returned to England. In 1782 he was sent out again as commander-in-chief to succeed Clinton at New York. He came back to America with greatly increased authority, to deal with more difficult and delicate problems. Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown, and the war was dwindling to its ignominious end. With the peace, Carleton’s chief preoccupation was to defend the cause of the unfortunate Loyalists, and get them safely out of the country. This accomplished, he returned to England, 1784. Two years later, having been made Baron Dorchester, he was offered the governorship of Canada, and threw himself into the involved affairs of the colony with renewed energy. The Quebec Act had solved some of the difficulties that had confronted him in his previous term of office, but by no means all of them. The English criminal law and the French civil code were nominally in force, but the administration of civil law was in hopeless confusion, “English judges following English, French judges French law, and what was worse some followed no particular laws of any kind whatsoever.” These and questions of local commerce, education and police regulations, the Indians, the western posts, and transportation, all engaged Dorchester’s attention, and all had the benefit of his ripe judgment. His relations with Simcoe were somewhat unfortunate; both were men of determined character, and Dorchester held strong views as to centralized authority. They were bound to clash, and the dispute was at least partly responsible for the resignation of their posts by both men. Dorchester met his last Parliament in November, 1795, and the following July sailed for England. The frigate _Active_ on which he sailed was wrecked on Anticosti, and the governor and his family were taken to Halifax, from which they finally reached England. Dorchester died at Stubbings, near Maidenhead. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Lucas, _History of Canada_; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Wood, _Father of British Canada_. =Dorion, Sir Antoine Aimé= (1818-1891). Educated at Nicolet College. Studied law, and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1842. Signed the Annexation Manifesto, 1849. Represented Montreal in Legislature, 1854-1861. One of the leaders of the _Parti Rouge_, and a disciple of Papineau. Accepted the policy of representation by population. Moved resolution favouring union of the Canadas, in 1856. Formed administration with George Brown, 1858. Defeated by Cartier in Montreal, 1861. Provincial secretary in Sandfield Macdonald-Sicotte government, 1862. Succeeded Sicotte as attorney-general, 1863. Helped to convert George Brown to Confederation, but afterwards opposed it in Parliament. Minister of justice in Mackenzie government, 1873-1874. Chief-justice of Quebec, 1874-1891. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_. =Dorion, Jean Baptiste Eric= (1826-1866). Brother of preceding, and like him a leader of the _Parti Rouge_. He was nicknamed _L’enfant terrible_, because of his fiery eloquence and the uncertainty as to who would be its next victim. One of founders of _L’Avenir_, 1848. Sat in the Legislature, 1854-1857, and again in 1861. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Bib. Can._ =Dosquet, Pierre-Herman= (1691-1777). Native of Lille, France; came to Canada, 1721; on his return to France, 1725, consecrated bishop of Samos and appointed coadjutor to Bishop Mornay. Later made bishop of Quebec. While in Canada lived in the style of a seignior, much in contrast to the simple life of Laval and of St. Vallier. Died in Paris. =Bib.=: Tetu, _Évêques de Québec_; Casgrain, _L’Habitation de Samos_ (R. S. C., 1906). =Double Majority.= In Canadian politics, about the middle of the nineteenth century, it meant that “no ministry should be held to possess the confidence of Parliament unless it could command a majority in each section of the province.” With an overwhelming majority of French in one section and an equally overwhelming majority of English in the other, no permanent government was possible that did not tacitly recognize the principle of a double majority. =Bib.=: Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Mackenzie, _George Brown_. =Double Ministries.= Brown-Dorion; Hincks-Morin; LaFontaine-Baldwin; Macdonald-Cartier; Macdonald-Dorion; Macdonald-Sicotte; MacNab-Morin; MacNab-Taché; Sherwood-Daly; Taché-Macdonald. _See_ under names of individual ministers. “=Double Shuffle=,” 1858. An ingenious device resorted to by John A. Macdonald, Cartier and their colleagues to avoid the necessity of re-election. The Macdonald-Cartier government had been succeeded in 1858 by the Brown-Dorion administration, and that almost immediately by the former government with some minor changes. Constitutional practice required the ministers to return to their constituents for re-election, but advantage was taken of a clause in the statute that provided that when a minister accepted another office within one month he should not thereby vacate his seat. =Bib.=: Lewis, _George Brown_. =Doucett, Joseph.= Lieutenant-governor of the Fort of Annapolis, 1717-1726. Member of the governor’s Council. =Dougall, John= (1808-1886). Born in Paisley, Scotland. Came to Canada, 1826, and took up mercantile pursuits. For a time editor of the _Canada Temperance Advocate_; founded the _Montreal Witness_, 1826. Died in Flushing, New York. =Doughty, Arthur George= (1860-). Appointed joint librarian of the Legislative Library of Quebec, 1901-1904. Succeeded Douglas Brymner as Dominion Archivist and Keeper of the Records, 1904. Appointed a member of the Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1907. Largely responsible for the arrangements in connection with the celebration of the Tercentenary of the founding of Quebec. =Bib.=: _Siege of Quebec and Battle of the Plains_; _Quebec under Two Flags_; _The Fortress of Quebec_; _Cradle of New France_; _The King’s Book of Quebec_. =Douglas, David= (1798-1834). Made extensive botanical collections on the Pacific coast of North America, for the Horticultural Society of London, 1824-1826. Crossed the continent from Fort Vancouver, on the Columbia, to Hudson Bay; met Sir John Franklin there and returned with him to England. Came out again to the Columbia River on a similar mission, 1829, and went from there to the Hawaiian Islands, where he was killed. The gigantic Douglas fir was named after him. On his return journey across the continent he travelled up the Columbia and over Athabaska Pass. In his Journal he named two peaks on either side of the pass Mts. Brown and Hooker, and estimated their heights at about 16,000 feet. As a matter of fact there is no peak in the vicinity of the pass much over 10,000 feet. The error seems to have been in regard to the height of the pass above sea level rather than to the height of the peaks themselves. =Bib.=: _Douglas’ Journal, 1823-27_. =Douglas, Sir Howard= (1776-1861). Entered the army, 1794; commanded a regiment at Quebec, 1797; served at Corunna and Flushing, 1809. After discharging various military missions, appointed governor of New Brunswick, 1823, holding the position until 1828. While there he interested himself in educational problems, and did his utmost to secure a liberal charter for King’s College. Lord high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, 1835-1840. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Fulton, _Life of Sir Howard Douglas_. =Douglas, Sir James= (1803-1877). Born in Lanarkshire, Scotland. Educated in Scotland. Came to Canada in 1820 and joined the North West Company. Reported at Fort William, where he first came in contact with Dr. John McLoughlin, then in charge of the fort. When the North West Company was merged in the Hudson’s Bay Company the following year, McLoughlin, who had been put in charge of the fur trade west of the mountains, took Douglas with him as far as the Athabaska department, where he served an apprenticeship, and then accompanied William Connolly to New Caledonia in 1824. He spent several years at Fort St. James, Fort McLeod, and other posts in what is now northern British Columbia; married Amelia Connolly, daughter of the chief factor; and in 1830 was transferred to Fort Vancouver. In 1835 he had charge of the York Factory express, which crossed the continent by way of the Columbia, Athabaska Pass, the Saskatchewan and the Hayes route to Hudson Bay; and five years later he commanded the party that was sent north to raise the British flag above Fort Stikine, in the territory leased by the Company from Russia. On his return journey he moved Fort McLoughlin from Millbank Sound to the head of Vancouver Island. The same year he was sent south to negotiate with the Mexican governor for the privilege of carrying on the fur trade in California. A fort was built on San Francisco Bay, but was abandoned in 1846. Douglas succeeded McLoughlin as manager of that disastrous experiment, the Puget Sound Agricultural Company. He had been promoted to chief trader in 1832, and to chief factor in 1840. Three years later he built Fort Victoria, on Vancouver Island, to which the western headquarters of the Hudson’s Bay Company were moved after the final settlement of the international boundary. In 1846 he succeeded McLoughlin in charge of the western department of the Hudson’s Bay Company; and in 1851 succeeded Blanchard as governor of Vancouver Island, still remaining an officer of the Company. For several years he governed the little colony with the aid of his council; but in 1856, under instructions from the Colonial Office, he divided the country into electoral districts and called the first Legislature of Vancouver Island. Two years later, when the mainland was made a separate colony, Douglas was appointed governor of this as well as of the Island colony, and finally severed his connection with the Hudson’s Bay Company. The creation of the new colony had been made necessary owing to the discovery of gold on the Fraser, and for some years Douglas’ energies were devoted to the urgent problems of transportation and civil government arising out of the Cariboo gold rush. He was in the curious position of representing the Crown in one colony possessing representative institutions, and at the same time in another where he was practically an autocrat. Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, the colonial secretary, paid a warm tribute to his ability, readiness of resource, and wise and manly temper of conciliation. In no respect did he show his courage more clearly than in carrying out a policy of road-building that for such a small community was extraordinarily ambitious, and included the famous Cariboo Road and the Dewdney Trail. He even planned a highway through the Rockies, to connect with a road to be built on the eastern side and form a transcontinental route. In 1863 his governorship of Vancouver Island ended, and the following year he retired from the governorship of the mainland, and sailed for England. After some months in Europe, he returned to Victoria, where he died. _See also_ Hudson’s Bay Company; Puget Sound Agricultural Company; McLoughlin, John; Vancouver Island; British Columbia. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_; Begg, _History of British Columbia_; Scholefield and Howay, _British Columbia_. =Douglas, Captain W. M.= With Meares on the North-West Coast in 1788. Sailed from Canton in the _Iphigenia Nubiana_ for Cook River. Joined Meares at Nootka with a large cargo of sea-otter skins; and from there sailed to the Sandwich Islands. Returned to Nootka the following year, and his ship was seized by Martinez in command of a Spanish ship of war. Douglas satisfied Martinez that Cook had discovered Nootka before the Spaniards, and the _Iphigenia_ was released, but with a warning not to trade on that coast. Douglas sailed to the Queen Charlotte Islands, and thence to China. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _North West Coast_. =Doukhobors.= Spirit Wrestlers, or as they called themselves, “The Christian Community of the Universal Brotherhood.” They seem to have originated north of the Black Sea in Russia, and were bitterly persecuted by the Russian government, their communities broken up and scattered throughout the Caucasus in 1841-1844. Their leader Peter Veregin with many of his disciples were banished to Siberia in 1886. Tolstoi took up their cause, and with the support of English and American Quakers got permission for them to emigrate to America, and raised a fund to help them. Prince Hilkoff came out to Canada with a deputation, the Canadian government set apart 270,000 acres in the Saskatchewan Valley, and in 1899 seventy-three hundred Doukhobors arrived and began community settlements in the neighbourhood of Yorkton and Rosthern. Both before and after they came to Canada they had the sympathy and support of Professor James Mavor, of Toronto University. While excellent farmers the Doukhobors have not made very desirable citizens. Their peculiar religious and social ideas have made them a race apart, a little bit of southern Russia on the Canadian prairies. They live in communal villages, although the younger generation shows a tendency to break away from this practice. They not only refuse military service, but deny the obligation to obey any human laws. Their fanaticism has at times given great trouble to the Canadian Mounted Police, particularly between 1902 and 1907, when many of them were persuaded that the Millennium was at hand and started out across the western prairies to meet Christ, throwing away their clothes as they marched. Veregin, having been released from Siberia, arrived in Canada in 1902, and being a shrewd business man and a born leader, put the affairs of the Doukhobors in excellent shape. Finding conditions unsatisfactory in Saskatchewan, he bought 10,000 acres of fruit land from the Hudson’s Bay Company, at the junction of the Columbia and Kootenay rivers in British Columbia, and settled five thousand of his people there, where they have been very successful. Veregin said in 1919 that their community holdings in Canada were worth $2,000,000. According to the census of 1921, there were then 12,648 Doukhobors in Canada. Veregin died in 1924. =Bib.=: Black, _History of Saskatchewan_. =Doutre, Joseph= (1825-1886). Born in Beauharnois, Quebec. Called to the bar, 1847. Early became a leader of the Liberal party. One of the founders of _Le Pays_, besides contributing to other newspapers. As a result of one of his articles, fought a duel with Georges É. Cartier, but without serious consequences. Joined the _Institut Canadien_ at Montreal, and became the president, 1852. Took a leading part in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church in the “Joseph Guibord Case.” Counsel for the Dominion government before the Halifax Fisheries Commission. =Bib.=: Works: _Les Fiancès de 1812_; _Le Frère et la Sœur_; _Les Sauvages du Canada_; _The Constitution of Canada_. For biog., _see_ Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =Doyle, Sir Charles Hastings= (1805-1883). Served in the army. Commander of the forces in Nova Scotia, 1861-1868; lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1866-1867; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1867-1870; commander of the forces in British North America, 1870-1874. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Doyle, Lawrence O’Connor.= Associated with Joseph Howe and Haliburton in writing “The Club” papers in the _Nova Scotian_. Sir John Harvey offered him a seat in the Executive Council of Nova Scotia in 1846. Elected to the Assembly for Halifax the following year. A member of the Uniacke government, 1848. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Builders of Nova Scotia_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Drake, Sir Francis= (1545-1596). Sailed from Plymouth for the River Plate, 1577; passed through the Straits of Magellan, 1578; plundered Valparaiso, and explored the western coast of North America taking possession of the country in the name of Queen Elizabeth, and naming it New Albion. He attempted to return in 1579 by a northerly route, but had to abandon the attempt, and sailed back to England by way of the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope, reaching Portsmouth in September, 1580. Vice-admiral of the fleet in the defeat of the Spanish Armada off Gravelines, 1588. Died on board his own ship off Porto Bello and was buried at sea. =Bib.=: Southey, _Lives of the Admirals_; Corbett, _Drake and the Tudor Navy_; Payne, _Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America_; Froude, _English Seamen in the Seventeenth Century_; Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Draper, William Henry= (1801-1877). Born in London, England. In his youth ran away to sea and served on an East Indiaman. Came to Canada in 1821 and taught school at Port Hope; subsequently studied law and began practice at York. Elected to Assembly of Upper Canada for city of Toronto in 1836, and made a member of the Executive Council. During the Rebellion of 1837 acted as aide-de-camp to the lieutenant-governor. In March, 1837, became solicitor-general, and in 1840 succeeded Christopher Hagerman as attorney-general. As solicitor-general he had brought in a bill for the disposal of the Clergy Reserves and the distribution of the proceeds; and had presented to the Upper Canadian Assembly the resolutions embodying the proposed terms of union with Lower Canada. After the union of the provinces, retained in the Executive Council as attorney-general of Upper Canada. It fell to his lot to pilot the ministry through the stormy debates of the first session, and to resist the attacks of Baldwin, Hincks, and their fellow-Reformers. His oratorical powers earned him the name of “Sweet William.” He has been described as “a man of great ability, eloquent and persuasive of speech, skilled as a parliamentary manager and dexterous in the game of politics.” By principle and temperament he was a Conservative and opposed to the extension of democratic rule. He introduced bills for the promotion of higher education, and for the establishment of municipal institutions, but had not sufficient support in the Assembly to put them through. In September, 1842, saw the necessity of resigning and gave way in order that the LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry might be formed. In 1843 appointed to the Legislative Council, where he led the opposition. On the resignation of the LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry in December, 1843, accepted office with Viger, and in the exciting election held in the autumn of 1844 obtained a bare majority for the new ministry. The previous summer he had visited Lower Canada to canvass the political situation, and had written Metcalfe that he had come to the conclusion that the aid of the French Canadians was not to be obtained on any other terms than the restoration of Baldwin and LaFontaine. In January, 1845, resigned his seat in the Legislative Council and elected to the Assembly for London. He had an Act passed in this year for the indemnification of those whose property had been damaged during the Rebellion of 1837-1838. An unsuccessful attempt to secure the support of the French-Canadian Reform section discredited him with the Tories of Upper Canada, and in May, 1847, withdrew from the Cabinet, and shortly afterwards resigned his seat in the Assembly. Appointed puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench for Upper Canada, and in 1856 made chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas. In 1857 a commissioner to represent Canada before the committee of the British Parliament investigating the affairs of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In July, 1863, succeeded Archibald McLean as chief-justice of Upper Canada; and in 1869 appointed president of the Court of Error and Appeal. Continued to act in this position until his death. =Bib.=. Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years;_ Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Read, _Lives of the Judges_; Leacock, _Baldwin_, _LaFontaine_, _Hincks_; Burwash, _Egerton Ryerson;_ Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_. For his own writings, _see_ Morgan, _Bib. Can._ =Dreuilletes, Gabriel= (1610-1681). Studied at Jesuit College, Toulouse. In 1643 came to Canada and spent a year in study of Algonquian language. Soon became proficient in that tongue and accompanied wandering bands on their hunting trips. In 1646 went on an expedition to the Abnaki tribes of Maine, who had become interested in Christianity through converts of the Sillery mission. Remained with the Abnaki one year and then removed to district of Tadoussac, where he spent three years among the Montagnais. In 1651 the governor of New France, D’Ailleboust, sent him to form an alliance with the New England colonies against the Iroquois, offering commercial advantages as an inducement, but in this was unsuccessful. He made the journey with his friend John Winslow, and Puritan Boston enjoyed the unusual and not too welcome privilege of entertaining a French Jesuit. Laboured for twenty years in missions of Sillery, Three Rivers, and other posts. In 1661 had charge of the mission to the Cree tribes, and in 1672 spent some time in the mission of Sault Ste. Marie, of which he was one of the founders. Died at Quebec. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_ and _La Salle_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Drew, Andrew= (1792-1878). Entered the navy, 1806. Took part in many of the most important engagements during the war with France, including the Walcheren expedition. Promoted to lieutenant for gallantry during the fight between the _Eurotas_ and the French frigate _Clorinde,_ 1814. Promoted to commander for his brilliant defence of Cape Coast Castle against the Ashantees, 1824. Retired and settled in Canada. During Rebellion of 1837 offered his services to the government. Conducted the capture of the _Caroline_ (_q.v._), for which he received the thanks of the Upper Canada Parliament and was appointed commander of the provincial marine. A grant by the Assembly to provide seventy-five guineas for the purchase of a sword of honour was not approved by the Legislative Council. Remained on active service in Canada until 1839. Appointed to the command of the _Wasp_ on the West India Station, 1842, where he discovered and surveyed a dangerous rock which still bears his name. Appointed naval storekeeper at the Cape of Good Hope, 1850. Raised to the rank of admiral, 1862. Retired from active service and resided in England until his death. _See also_ Caroline. _Bib._: Drew and Woods, _The Burning of the Caroline_; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Lizars, _Humours of ’37_; Read, _Rebellion of 1837_. =Drocourt-Quéant.= In August, 1918, as a vital step toward the capture of Cambrai, the Canadian divisions were entrusted with the big task of acting as spearhead in wiping out the Drocourt-Quéant end of the Hindenburg Line. The country was naturally more adapted to defence than attack, and the Germans had added to its strength in every conceivable way. General Currie planned to “drive a wedge into the enemy with two of his Canadian divisions.” With the aid of a tremendous barrage the infantry smashed the almost impregnable German lines, gaining six thousand yards on a front of ten thousand yards the first day. Furious attack and counter-attack followed in the succeeding days, and on September 2nd the Drocourt-Quéant line was destroyed and the enemy flying in disorder back to the Canal du Nord. Two days later the Canadian lines had been established along the west bank of the canal. The total count of prisoners had reached 10,360, with ninety-seven guns, 1,016 machine-guns and seventy-three trench-mortars. Five trench systems had been wiped out and eighteen German divisions practically put out of business. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_, vol. v. =Drummond, Sir George Alexander= (1829-1910). Educated University of Edinburgh. Became president of the Bank of Montreal. Called to the Senate, 1888. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men._ =Drummond, Sir Gordon= (1771-1854). Son of Colin Drummond, at one time deputy paymaster-general of the forces in Canada. Born at Quebec. Entered the army, 1789, and rapidly promoted until in 1794 became lieutenant-colonel of the 8th Liverpool Regiment. Saw distinguished service in the Netherlands and in the West Indies; became colonel, 1798, and commanded his regiment during the campaign in Egypt, assisting in capture of Cairo and Alexandria. In 1805 given rank of major-general and took command of a division in Jamaica. In December, 1808, transferred to the staff in Canada until 1811. Served for a time in Ireland; returned to Canada as second in command to Sir George Prevost, 1813. Took a prominent part in the War of 1812. From December, 1813, to April, 1815, president and administrator of Upper Canada, and during this period succeeded in turning the tide of victory to the British forces. Defeated the Americans at Niagara, July 28th, 1814, and followed this up by occupying Fort Erie in November. In recognition of his services during the war, gazetted a K. C. B. On the departure of Sir George Prevost appointed administrator of Lower Canada, and assumed office April 4th, 1815. Had expressed a strong desire to return to England, as it was understood that the appointment was to be only temporary. Accordingly relieved by Major-General Wilson, and departed from Quebec, May 20th, 1816. Obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in 1825. In 1827 made a G. C. B. Died in London. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_. =Drummond, Lewis Thomas= (1813-1882). Born in Londonderry, Ireland. Came to Canada with his mother, 1825. Educated at Nicolet College; studied law, and called to the bar, 1836. Elected to the Assembly for Montreal, 1843, but prevented from taking his seat by the dissolution of the Assembly. Defeated in the general election that followed, but in the same year elected for Portneuf. Held office in the LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry as solicitor-general for Lower Canada, 1848-1851, and became attorney-general for Lower Canada in the Hincks-Morin government, 1851. Held office under various administrations until 1856, when he resigned, owing to a dispute over the leadership of the Assembly. He took a leading part in the settlement of a difficult and delicate question, the removal of the old feudal system of Seigniorial Tenure. He brought down a bill in 1853, which failed because of the opposition of the Legislative Council. The following year he introduced a similar measure, which, with some amendments in the Upper House, was passed. It abolished all feudal rights and duties in Lower Canada, and created a Seigniorial Court to deal with the intricate questions of law involved. Provision was made for compensation to the seigniors. Again took office as attorney-general in the short-lived Brown-Dorion administration, 1861, and as commissioner of public works in the Macdonald-Dorion government, 1863. In the same year defeated for re-election and retired from political life. Appointed a judge of the Superior Court for Lower Canada, 1864. Retired, 1873. Died in Montreal. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Dubuque, Julien.= Described as the first permanent white settler in Iowa. Born in Canada, 1762. Entered the fur trade, and in 1785 had a trading post at Prairie du Chien. Learned from the Indians of lead mines, and in 1788 obtained a concession to work them. Pike met him in 1805 on his western expedition. Died, 1810. City of Dubuque, Iowa, named after him. =Bib.=: _Annals of Iowa_, 3rd series vol. ii. =Du Calvet, Pierre.= Under the French régime engaged in the fur trade and, having acquired considerable wealth, remained in the colony after the conquest. In 1764 made a magistrate and justice of the peace. Vigorously opposed an ordinance of 1770 regulating the administration of justice, and on several subsequent occasions clashed with the executive authority. Suspected by Haldimand of having been in secret correspondence with the United States, and arrested in September, 1780; from November, 1780, to May, 1783, kept in confinement without the opportunity of a legal trial. In 1784 went to England, where he denounced Haldimand and sought redress before the British ministry. In this connection published an _Appel à la Justice de l’Etat_, setting forth his personal grievances, but concluding with a carefully prepared plan of government, which was considered as the basis for that adopted in the Constitutional Act of 1791. Complaints were not favourably received, and returned to Canada. In March, 1786, left New York for London on board the _Shelburne_, which is supposed to have been lost with all on board. _See also_ Haldimand, Sir Frederick. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents of Canada_; Sulte, _Pierre Ducalvet_ (R. S. C., 1919). For full titles of his _Appel à la justice de l’État_ and _The Case of Pierre Du Calvet_, see Morgan, =Bib. Can.= =Duchesneau, Jacques.= Intendant of New France, 1675-1682. His commission invested him with the title of president of the Sovereign Council, an office which had hitherto been filled by the governor. As Frontenac, a man of dominant spirit, was then governor, interminable disputes arose between him and the intendant touching questions of precedence. Frontenac lost no opportunity of showing his resentment; and the intendant sided with the bishop in the vexed question of selling brandy to the Indians. Finally the quarrel came to the ears of the king, and both governor and intendant were recalled. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in New World_; Parkman, _Frontenac_; Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903). =Duck Lake.= A small settlement near Fort Carlton, and about forty miles from Prince Albert. Scene of a skirmish during the Riel Rebellion of 1885. A quantity of provisions and forage had been stored there, which Riel was determined to capture. Gabriel Dumont with a party of half-breeds met Major Crozier of the Mounted Police with a force of about 100 men, and compelled them to retire with a loss of twelve men killed and about twenty-five wounded. Crozier retired on Fort Carlton, and on March 29th evacuated it as incapable of defence. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1885. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Saskatchewan Rebellion (Canada in the Great World War_, vol. i.). =Dudouyt, Jean.= A director of the Seminary at Quebec in 1661. Grand vicar to the bishop of Quebec in 1675. Laval created an ecclesiastical court that year and made Dudouyt a member. Laval sent him to France in 1676 to explain to the Court the situation as to the fur trade and the selling of liquor to the Indians. He had an interview with Colbert but found him unsympathetic. In 1684 became grand cantor of the diocese of Quebec. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Dufferin and Ava, Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, Marquess= of (1826-1902). British commissioner to Syria, 1860; under-secretary for India, 1864-1866, and for war, 1865-1867; governor-general of Canada, 1872-1878; ambassador to Russia, 1879; transferred to Constantinople, 1881; viceroy of India, 1884; ambassador to Italy, 1888; ambassador to France, 1891; Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, 1891. During his governorship of Canada, Prince Edward Island entered Confederation; the Intercolonial Railway was opened from Quebec to Halifax; and the Royal Military College was established at Kingston. Dufferin had to meet the political situation created by the Pacific Scandal, a situation made the more difficult by his personal esteem for Sir John A. Macdonald. British Columbia had joined the Dominion in 1871, but there had been much dissatisfaction in the province over the delay in building the railway which was one of the terms of union. Dufferin visited the province in 1876 and succeeded by his tact and adroitness in calming the public mind. =Bib.=: Works: _Journey from Oxford to Skibbereen_; _Letters from High Latitudes_; _Inquiry into State of Ireland_; _Irish Emigration_; _Speeches and Addresses_, ed. by Milton. For biog., _see_ Leggo, _History of the Administration of Lord Dufferin in Canada_; Stewart, _Canada under Lord Dufferin_; Black, _The Marquess of Dufferin and Ava_; Lyall, _The Life of the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava_; Dent, _Can. Por._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Dugas, Du Gua, or Du Guast, Sieur de Monts.= _See_ Monts. =Dugué de Boisbriant, Pierre= (1675-1740). French commandant in the Illinois country, 1718-1724. In 1720 he built Fort Chartres, about sixteen miles north-west of Kaskaskia, and a mile from the Mississippi. =Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon= (1636-1710). Born at St. Germain-en-Laye. Came to Canada, 1672. Returned to France, took part in the campaign in Flanders, and was present at the battle of Seneffe, 1664. Returned to Canada the latter year. Left Montreal for the west, 1678, and the following year took possession of the country of the Sioux for France. He presided over a meeting of the tribes at the head of Lake Superior, persuaded them to enter into a treaty of peace, and secured the fur trade in the Sioux country to the French. Rescued Father Hennepin from the Sioux, 1679. He had gone west without the permission of the authorities at Quebec, and when he returned in 1680 he was imprisoned by the Intendant Duchesneau for disobeying the king’s regulations. He was released, and went to France in the hope of obtaining the sanction of the Court for further explorations. In this, although he seems to have had the sympathy and support of Frontenac, he was unsuccessful, but was made post commander and agent to the tribes west and north of Lake Superior. He was successful in diverting much of the fur trade from the Hudson’s Bay Company to Montreal. His original explorations in the west covered a great deal of territory, along the south shore of Lake Superior and in the Sioux country south-west and west of the lake. He gained unusual influence over some of the western tribes. In 1683 he was sent by the governor, La Barre, to take possession of La Salle’s fort at St. Louis in the Illinois country, confiscate the goods, and bring them down to Montreal. The following year under instructions of the governor, he brought a number of Indians down to Niagara to join in a war against the Senecas. In 1686 he built and fortified a post at the outlet of Lake Huron. Commanded at Fort Frontenac, 1696, and later at Detroit. The city of Duluth named after him. =Bib.=: Margry, _Découvertes et Etablissements des Français_; _Sieur Du Lhut_ (_Minn. Hist. Coll._, vol. 1); McLennan, _Death of Duluth_ (R. S. C., 1903); _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites) vol. 62; Roy, _Du Lhut_ (Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4); Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Duncan, Alexander.= Sailed to North West Coast with Colnett in 1788. Engaged in the sea-otter trade. He confirmed the discovery of Portlock and Dixon that the Queen Charlotte Islands were not part of the mainland. =Duncan, William.= Sent out from England in 1856 by the Church of England Missionary Society; laboured among the Indians at Port Simpson for nearly five years; and in 1862 established a native industrial community at Metla Kahtla. As the result of a long and bitter controversy as to his aims and methods, he removed his colony to Alaska. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_; Arctander, _Apostle of Alaska: the Story of William Duncan_. =Duncombe, Charles.= Practiced medicine at Burford Plains, near Brantford. Elected to the Legislature, 1824, and re-elected, 1836. He took an active part in the Rebellion of 1837-1838, and commanded several hundred rebels at Brantford. On the approach of Colonel MacNab with a party of militia, he retreated to a place called Scotland, where he was joined by about a thousand volunteers. Learning that the rebellion had collapsed he advised his men to disperse. After the failure of the Rebellion, escaped to the United States. In 1843 he was pardoned and returned to Canada, but remained only for a short time. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =Dundas, George= (1819-1880). Lieutenant-governor of Prince Edward Island, 1859-1869. Afterwards lieutenant-governor of St. Vincent, West India Islands, where he died. =Dundas.= Town of Ontario, at the head of Burlington Bay. Founded 1801; incorporated, 1847. It was known for a time as “Coote’s Paradise.” =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Dundas Street.= Also known as the Governor’s Road. Built by Governor Simcoe; connected site of London with the village of Dundas. Afterwards extended to York. Originally intended to connect Montreal and the Detroit River. Place and road were named after the then secretary for the colonies. =Dunkin, Christopher= (1811-1881). Born in London, England. Educated at the Universities of London and Glasgow. Emigrated to America; studied at Harvard University, and for a time tutor of Greek in that institution. Came to Canada about 1836, and engaged in newspaper work. Appointed secretary to the Education Commission, 1838, and subsequently secretary to the Post office Commission. Assistant-secretary for Lower Canada, 1841-1847; called to the bar, 1846. Unsuccessfully contested the county of Drummond for a seat in the Legislative Assembly, 1844, but elected to represent Drummond and Arthabaska, 1857. Defeated, 1861, but elected for the county of Brome, 1862. Retained his seat until Confederation, when elected for the same county to the House of Commons. At first an opponent of Confederation, but afterwards a strong supporter. Provincial treasurer of Quebec, 1867; entered the Dominion Cabinet as minister of agriculture, 1869. Appointed a judge of the Superior Court of Quebec, 1871; held office until his death. Name associated with the Canada Temperance Act, better known as the “Dunkin Act.” =Bib.=: Dent’s, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Dunlop, William= (1795?-1848). Born in Scotland. Served as a regimental surgeon in War of 1812 and in India. He was known as “Tiger Dunlop” because of his record as a tiger slayer in India. Came to Canada in 1826, with John Galt, and took part in the establishment of the Canada Company. In Scotland, had been the intimate of John Wilson (“Christopher North,” of _Blackwood’s_), Maginn, and Hogg, and had done some literary work, which he continued in Canada. Founded the Toronto Literary Club, 1836. Represented Huron in the Legislature, 1841-1846. _See also_ Canada Company; Galt; Talbot. =Bib.=: _Statistical Sketches of Upper Canada._ For biog., _see_ Lizars, _Days of the Canada Company_ and _Humours of ’37_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_; Morgan, _Bib. Can._ =Dunn, Lieutenant A. R.= A Canadian who served in the Crimean War. Won his commission and the _Victoria Cross_ for exceptional gallantry on the occasion of the charge of the Light Brigade. After the war retired from the service, returned to Canada and lived in Toronto. In 1858 joined the 100th Regiment (Royal Canadians) as major for service in the Indian Mutiny. =Dunn, John Henry.= Came to Canada in 1820, from England. Appointed by Governor Head in 1824, receiver-general and member of Executive and Legislative Councils of Upper Canada, and again became receiver-general after the Union in 1841. He was a Moderate Reformer and had the confidence of Robert Baldwin. Defeated in Toronto in 1844. Died in London, 1854. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Dunn, Thomas= (1731-1818). Engaged in mercantile life; came to Canada shortly after the conquest. In 1764 appointed a member of the first Legislative Council of Quebec. A member of the new Council formed under Quebec Act, and one of the five selected by Carleton for the Special Privy Council. On the passing of the Constitutional Act, appointed one of the first executive and legislative councillors of the Lower Province, and during five different periods acted as president of the Legislative Council. On departure of Sir Robert Milnes, in 1805, assumed the administration of the province and continued to act until the arrival of Sir James Craig in October, 1807. Again in 1811, during the interval between the departure of Sir James Craig and the arrival of Sir George Prevost, entrusted with the administration. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Dunning, John.= _See_ Ashburton. =Dunsmuir, James= (1851-1920). Born at Port Vancouver. Robert Dunsmuir, his father, who developed the coal mines at Nanaimo, was a member of the British Columbia government. James Dunsmuir continued the coal-mining interests. Built Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, and sold it to the Canadian Pacific Railway Company in 1905. Represented East Yale in British Columbia Assembly, 1898-1902; premier and president of the Council, 1900-1902; lieutenant-governor, 1906-1909. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Dunvegan.= A trading post on the left bank of the Peace River, about lat. 56°, and long. 118° 40´. Built by Archibald Norman McLeod for the North West Company about the beginning of the nineteenth century. It was named after the “cold, bleak, rock-built castle of the McLeods of Skye.” Daniel Williams Harmon stationed there, 1808-1810; Simon Fraser visited him on his way east from exploring the river that bears his name. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Duplessis-Bochart, Guillaume Guillemot.= Sent to Canada, 1632, by the Company of New France to take possession of Quebec, captured by Kirke and now restored by King Charles. Used his influence with the Hurons to persuade them to take Fathers Brébeuf and Daniel with them to the scene of their labours on Georgian Bay. Led a trading expedition up the Ottawa River, 1636. Killed by the Iroquois at Three Rivers, 1651. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Duplessis-Mornay.= _See_ Mornay. =Duplessis, Pacifique.= A Récollet missionary. Came to Canada with Champlain, 1615. In 1618 while stationed at Three Rivers was instrumental in suppressing an Indian conspiracy which might have ended the life of the little colony. Returned to France the same year. Came out again, 1619, and died the same year. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Dupont-Gravé.= _See_ Pont-Gravé. =Dupuy, Claude Thomas.= Intendant of New France, 1726-1728. Although a man of some ability, was extremely pretentious and self-opinionated, and became involved in constant quarrels with the governor and the bishop. =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903). =Duquesne de Menneville, Michel Ange, Marquis de.= Appointed governor of New France, 1752, in succession to La Jonquière. His policy was to intercept communication between New England and the western Indians and thus to restore the Indians to dependence on France. In the spring of 1753 sent a force of a thousand men under Morin to the Ohio district; a fort was built at Presqu’île and another, Fort Le Bœuf, inland on Le Bœuf river. Disease made ravages among the troops, and while 300 were left to garrison the forts, the remainder were compelled to return to Montreal, and Duquesne’s plans for a further advance were frustrated. Nevertheless the Indians were brought into submission to the French. Improved the organization of the government of the colony, and through thorough discipline raised the efficiency of the colonial troops. Succeeded in 1755 by the Marquis de Vaudreuil. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _The Fight for Canada_; Fiske, _New France and New England_. =Durell, Philip.= Born in England. Entered the navy and became a captain in 1742. Seven years later he commanded the _Gloucester_, and later the _Rochester_. In 1755 he was promoted to the _Terrible_, and in May of that year sailed to America with Holbourne to reinforce Admiral Boscawen. Early in 1758 he was commander-in-chief of the fleet wintering at Halifax, and later took part in the siege of Louisbourg. Made a rear-admiral. The chart of the St. Lawrence made under his supervision was of immense service to Admiral Saunders in getting his fleet up to Quebec in 1759. Much of the information was incorporated in Captain Cook’s chart. Second in command under Saunders at Quebec. For his services in connection with the siege of Quebec, Durell was highly commended by Saunders. Made a vice-admiral in 1762, and shortly afterwards sent out to command the American station. Died at Halifax in August, 1766. =Bib.=: Smillie, _The Achievements of Durell in 1759_ (R. S. C., 1925); Wood, _Logs of the Conquest of Canada_ and _The Fight for Canada_; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_. =Durham, John George Lambton, Earl of= (1792-1840). Entered British Parliament, 1814, for county of Durham, and won recognition as an advanced Reformer. Brought forward plan of parliamentary reform in 1821. Raised to peerage, 1828. Member of Grey’s ministry, 1830. Sent to St. Petersburg on special mission, 1833. Ambassador to Russia, 1836. Sent to Canada in 1838 to bring order out of the chaos of the Rebellion. His famous Report followed. His policy in Canada excited much opposition both in Great Britain and Canada. The House of Lords voted disapproval of some of his acts, and he took the extraordinary step of returning to England without either being recalled or obtaining the royal consent. Nevertheless the wisdom of his recommendations has since been abundantly justified. He was a man ahead of his time. In his view the Canadian Reformers were justified in demanding responsible government. He was impressed by the constitutional helplessness of the Assemblies in both Lower and Upper Canada. With unanswerable logic he revealed the absurdity of the plea that representative institutions in the mother country and in the colonies were two entirely different things. Representative government, he said, had been guaranteed by the Constitutional Act of 1791. Failure to settle the vexed question of the Clergy Reserves was, he held, one of the chief causes of the Rebellion of 1837-1838. He opposed the idea of giving Upper Canada, with a smaller population, the same number of members in the Legislature as Lower Canada, as both unfair and calculated to defeat its own purpose of English control when the relative populations should be reversed. With faith in the future of Canada, he looked to the confederation of all the provinces. “It would,” he said, “enable all the provinces to coöperate for all common purposes; and, above all, it would form a great and powerful people, possessing the means of securing good and responsible government for itself, and which, under the protection of the British Empire, might in some measure counterbalance the preponderant and increasing influence of the United States on the American continent.” Durham’s biographer, Stuart J. Reid, disposed of the story that Durham’s Report was actually written by Gibbon Wakefield and Charles Buller, both of whom accompanied Durham to Canada. Died at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, soon after his return. =Bib.=: _Report on the Affairs of British North America_; Haliburton, _Reply to the Report of the Earl of Durham_; Bradshaw, _Self-Government in Canada_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Garnett, _The Authorship of Lord Durham’s Report_; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Reid, _Life and Letters of Lord Durham_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_; Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_. =Dutch Colonists.= A number came to Canada as United Empire Loyalists from Pennsylvania and New York. Sabine’s _Loyalists_ mentions six Van Buskirks who settled in Nova Scotia, besides such Dutch names as Van Cortlandt, Van de Burgh, Van Home, Van Norden, Van Wart, Van Wyck, Van Ambar, Van Blarcum, Van Voorst, and so forth, who came to either the Maritime Provinces or Upper Canada. Many Dutch farmers from Pennsylvania also settled in Upper Canada toward the end of the eighteenth century, and laid the foundations of the prosperous county of Waterloo and the town of Berlin (now Kitchener). =Bib.=: See Dunham, _Trail of the Conestoga_. =Duval, Jean.= A locksmith who came with Champlain from France to Canada in 1608. He was the leader of a conspiracy to assassinate Champlain and turn the colony over to the Basques. The plot was discovered and Duval executed. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Duval, Jean Francois Joseph= (1801-1881). Born in Quebec. Studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1823. Represented Quebec in the Assembly, 1830-1834. Appointed to the bench, 1839; judge of the Superior Court, 1852; a member of the Seigniorial Court, 1854; judge of the Queen’s Bench, 1855; chief-justice of the Queen’s Bench, 1864; retired, 1874. Died in Quebec. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Du Vignau, Nicolas.= In 1612 Champlain met him in Paris. Du Vignau told him that he had reached the North Sea (Hudson Bay) by way of the River of the Algonquins (Ottawa river) and had seen European vessels there. Champlain took him back with him to Canada, and in 1613 they ascended the Ottawa together as far as Allumette Island where Tessouat, the Algonquin chief, had his village. Champlain repeated Du Vignau’s story to Tessouat, who indignantly branded it as a falsehood. “Turn the imposter over to us,” he cried, “and we will know how to deal with him.” =Bib.=: Champlain, _Voyages_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Sulte, _Valley of the Grand River_ (R. S. C., 1898). =Earthquake of 1663.= Known in Canadian history as the “Great Earthquake.” The most extravagant accounts have come down as to the circumstances attending this earthquake, but it was probably the most serious disturbance of the earth’s crust, in Canadian territory, of which we have any record. It affected chiefly the valley of the St. Lawrence from Montreal to the gulf, a region more susceptible to seismic disturbance than any other in Eastern Canada. It has been described by Father Lalemant, by the Governor Avaugour, by Marie de l’Incarnation and others. Kingsford cites contemporary reports of similar phenomena in 1638 and 1766. An earthquake visited the same region in the spring of 1925. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_; Lalemant, _Relation_, 1663; Ragueneau, _Vie de Catherine de St. Augustin_; Marie de I’Incarnation, _Lettres_; Parkman, _Old Régime_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Eastern Townships.= That part of the province of Quebec lying along its southern border. Lord North in 1784 suggested that they might be settled with disbanded soldiers, but Dorchester thought it unwise to make close neighbours of the Loyalists and the men they had fought against. His plan was to leave the region in its wild state for a time and then settle it with French Canadians, who would serve as a buffer between the English settlers in Canada and the New Englanders. As a matter of fact many of the early settlers of the Townships came from Vermont, and it is only in comparatively recent times that, by a process of peaceful penetration, the French Canadians have gradually swamped the old English-speaking population. =Bib.=: Day, _Pioneers of the Eastern Townships_; Day, _History of the Eastern Townships_; Thomas, _History of the Eastern Townships_. =Eccles Hill.= On May 25th, 1870, what was known as the Army of the Irish Republic, under “General” O’Neil, crossed the boundary into Canada at a point in the Eastern Townships known as Eccles Hill. O’Neil had accumulated arms and ammunition for 15,000 men, but only 800 turned up. Against him were a few Canadian militia and home guards, altogether two officers and seventy-one men, subsequently reinforced by about sixty militia. The Canadians held their position throughout the day, and toward evening Colonel Osborne Smith ordered the advance. The enemy broke in all directions and were soon in full flight across the boundary, where the Fenian leader O’Neil was arrested by United States troops sent somewhat belatedly to maintain order. =Echemin Indians.= A tribe closely resembling the Micmacs of Nova Scotia, and inhabiting in the seventeenth century what is now eastern Maine and New Brunswick. They lived by hunting and fishing. In their relations with the whites they were inclined to take sides with the French rather than with the English. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Indians of North America_. =Edgar, Sir James David= (1841-1899). Studied law, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1864. Elected to House of Commons, 1872. Sent on political mission to British Columbia in 1874, in connection with Canadian Pacific Railway. Returned to Parliament, 1884; elected Speaker of the House of Commons, 1896. =Bib.=: _This Canada of Ours and Other Poems_; _The White Stone Canoe_; _Canada and its Capital_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, Can_. Men_. =Edgar, John.= Commanded a British vessel on the Great Lakes, 1772-1775. In the latter year left the service and went into business at Detroit. Arrested by the British authorities on discovery that he was aiding the Americans with information and in other ways. Sent prisoner to Montreal, escaped in 1781, joined American navy in which he served to the close of the Revolutionary War. In 1784 established himself at Kaskaskia, where in 1825 he entertained Lafayette. Died, 1830. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Edmonton.= Capital of province of Alberta. Situated on the North Saskatchewan. Occupies site of Edmonton House, or Fort Edmonton, of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Fort Augustus, of the North West Company, stood some miles below on the north bank of the Saskatchewan; built by Hughes, 1794; destroyed by the Blackfeet, 1807; rebuilt, 1810, and called New Fort Augustus, or sometimes Fort des Prairies. Fort Edmonton, built by Sutherland of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1795. Then the most westerly trading post, until Rocky Mountain House built by North West Company, 1799. Edmonton destroyed by Blackfeet, 1807; rebuilt by Rowand, 1808; abandoned, 1810, but reoccupied before 1819. It was on the route to both Athabaska Pass and Yellowhead Pass, and was visited by all the notable travellers who passed that way, Milton and Cheadle, Southesk, Paul Kane, David Douglas, Father De Smet, Dr. Hector, Sandford Fleming and G. M. Grant. The last remaining building of the fort was removed and destroyed when the Provincial Legislative Building was being erected. =Bib.=: Cameron, _The City on the Saskatchewan_. =Education.= In New France was confined to the Jesuits’ College in Quebec, afterwards Laval University, and for girls to the convents. Schools, or academies as they were generally called, were established at Quebec, Montreal and other towns, soon after the cession of Canada to England, by clergymen and others, old countrymen or colonials from New England. None of them were self-supporting, and depended more or less upon government grants. In Lower Canada the foundation was laid of what was to become the admirable system of classical colleges and public schools of Quebec. In Upper Canada, Simcoe and Strachan exerted themselves to provide grammar schools and colleges. Simcoe set apart half a million acres of public land for the establishment of a university and four royal grammar schools. In 1807, an Act was passed providing a school in each of the eight districts. By 1845, these had been extended to twenty-five schools. At the same time private and subscription schools, largely elementary, were springing up all over the province. In 1823, a provincial board of education was created. In Nova Scotia, Joseph Howe had advocated compulsory education and an undenominational provincial university. He brought in a public school bill, but could get no support for it, and it was not until some years later that the province made provision for elementary education. Higher education had been provided for in the establishment of Kings’ College in 1790 and Dalhousie in 1820. New Brunswick was equally slow in providing schools, the first Act having been passed in 1805 by which a grammar school was established at St. John, and provision made for country schools. The provincial university dates from 1800, when a provincial charter was granted for a college at Fredericton. Under the terms of the British North America Act, the subject of education was assigned to the provinces. The school systems of the western provinces are based largely on that of Ontario. The history of education in Canada is associated particularly with the names of John Strachan, Egerton Ryerson, Sir William Dawson, George Monro Grant, Sir Daniel Wilson and P. J. O. Chauveau. Among the more notable private benefactions for education, the Leonard Foundation, created in 1916 and enlarged in 1920, provides a fund of $500,000 for scholarships in a number of Canadian schools and colleges designed to help ambitious students who need financial assistance. The trust was established and endowed by Colonel and Mrs. R. W. Leonard of St. Catharines. For other important gifts to education, _see_ McGill University; Dalhousie University; Macdonald College; and University of Toronto. _See also_ Universities; Separate Schools; Manitoba School Question; Frontier College. =Bib.=: Canada: _An Ency._, vols. 2, 3, and 4; Chauveau, _L’Instruction Publique_; Dawson, _Fifty Years’ Work in Canada_; Hodgins, _Documentary History of Education in Upper Canada_; Ryerson, _Story of My Life_; Meilleur, _L’Education du Bas-Canada_; Millar, _Educational System of Ontario_; Ross, _Universities of Canada_; _Education in the Canadas_ (Archives Report, 1899). =Election Laws.= A bill in regard to corrupt practices in elections was brought before the Canadian Legislature in 1841, but was rejected by the Legislative Council. The following year the Baldwin-LaFontaine government introduced a broader measure and secured its adoption. In subsequent legislation, before and after Confederation, provision was made for simultaneous voting, the secret ballot, and other reforms. =Bib.=: Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_. =Elgin, James Bruce, eighth Earl of= (1811-1863). Born in London. Sat for two years in the House of Commons, then accepted the governorship of Jamaica; resigned in 1846, and the following year sent out to Canada as governor-general. It proved to be a very fortunate choice, as Elgin was admirably fitted by character and temperament to demonstrate in practice the soundness of Durham’s principles of colonial government. He realized, as some of his predecessors in office had failed to, that responsible government in Canada need not be inconsistent with his position as representative of the British Crown. He also made it clear that as governor-general he would show neither favouritism nor antipathy to any political party, but would give the government of the day all constitutional support frankly and without reserve. He found in the Parliament of Canada men of exceptional ability on both sides of politics, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks, Morin, MacNab, John A. Macdonald, Chauveau, Blake, and John Hillyard Cameron, and he coöperated loyally with them in establishing a real government of the people. He showed himself even broader than Durham in his attitude toward the French, and urged upon the Imperial authorities the folly of attempting to restrict the use of their language. He was “deeply convinced of the impolicy of all such attempts to denationalize the French. Generally speaking they produce the opposite effect from that intended, causing the flame of national prejudice and animosity to burn more fiercely.” Elgin’s one real antipathy was for Papineau, a man whom he regarded as “actuated by the most malignant passions, irritated vanity, disappointed ambition and national hatred.” Keenly alive to the dangerous effect of the Imperial navigation laws upon Canadian prosperity, he pressed for their repeal, which was tardily granted in 1849. Some years later he succeeded in bringing about another measure which he had very much at heart, the reciprocity treaty with the United States. In 1849 Elgin found himself confronted with a difficult problem in the Rebellion Losses bill, the passage of which had aroused intense indignation among its opponents. His refusal either to dissolve the Legislature or reserve the bill for consideration of the Imperial authorities led to disgraceful scenes in Montreal. The Parliament buildings were burnt and he himself was insulted by the mob. As Bourinot has said, Elgin’s action was both wise and the only thing he could have properly done under the rules of parliamentary government. He gave his whole-hearted support to the movement to establish a broad and efficient educational system. Personally he was not in favour of disassociating education and religion. Elgin’s relations with Canadian public men were singularly happy. His genial spirit and natural tact made it easy for him to get along with men of all political parties. For Baldwin and LaFontaine he seems to have felt particular admiration and respect. For Canada itself he conceived a very real affection. His farewell speech in Quebec in 1854 breathes a spirit of regret that seems to be altogether sincere. After his return from Canada, Elgin was sent on a diplomatic mission to China, secured the treaty of Tientsin, and incidentally negotiated the treaty of Yeddo with Japan. He became postmaster-general in the Palmerston government; was sent on a second mission to China; and finally went to India as governor-general. He died at Dhurmsala in the Kangra valley, beneath the snow-clad Himalayas. =Bib.=: Walrond, _Letters of Elgin_; Wrong, _The Earl of Elgin_; LeMoine, _Le Comte d’Elgin_ (R. S. C., 1894); Dent, _Can. Por._, and _Last Forty Years_; Turcotte, _Canada sous l’Union_; Hincks, _Reminiscences_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Kennedy, _Lord Elgin_. =Eliza, Francisco.= Commanded Spanish expedition to Nootka, and made an attempt to explore Juan de Fuca Strait, 1790. Sent Fidalgo to examine the northern coast same year. Carried on extensive explorations in 1791, returning to Monterey the following year. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _North-West Coast_. =Ellesmere Island.= Northernmost of the great islands in the Arctic archipelago. Smith Sound, Kane Basin and Kennedy Channel divide it from Greenland. Named after Francis Leveson-Gower, first Earl of Ellesmere (1800-1857), who was president of the Royal Geographical Society, 1854-1855. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names Northern Canada_. =Ellice, Alexander.= Born at Knockleith, Scotland, in 1743, a Scotch merchant of good family, he came to America and engaged in business in New York. At the beginning of the Revolutionary War he removed to Montreal, where he founded the firm of Inglis, Ellice & Company. About 1780 he went to England to take charge of that end of the firm’s business, his brother Robert remaining as manager of the Montreal office. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xix. =Ellice, Edward= (1781-1863). Son of Alexander (_q.v._). Came to Canada in 1803. Seignior of Beauharnois. An influential London merchant, closely associated for many years with the North West Company, and an active participant in the negotiations that led up to the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies in 1821. He suggested to the colonial secretary in 1822 the union of Upper and Lower Canada. Gave evidence on the fur trade before the parliamentary committee on the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1857. He was a director of the Canada Company. Represented Coventry in the British House of Commons, 1818-1863; filled the office of secretary to the treasury, 1830-1832; secretary for war, 1832-1834. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Elmsley, John= (1762-1805). Born in the suburbs of London, he was admitted to the bar of the Middle Temple in 1790, and in 1796 came to Canada and succeeded Osgoode as chief-justice of Upper Canada, where he actively interested himself in laying the foundations of the administration of justice in the youthful province. Promoted chief-justice of Lower Canada, 1802; also a member of the Executive Council and president of the Legislative Council. He died at Montreal. One of the townships in the county of Lanark, Ontario, perpetuates his name. =Bib.=: Audet, _Les juges en chef de la Province de Québec_ (Revue du Droit, 1925); Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Embargo.= Pronounced by President Jefferson in 1808 on shipping of the United States, to prevent trading with England or France. Led to extensive smuggling through Canada, and stimulated Canadian trade and ocean commerce. Bib.: Edgar, _General Brock_. =England, Richard.= Born in Ireland. Joined the army as an ensign in 1766, in the 47th infantry. Promoted to major in 1781. Two years later transferred to the 24th regiment as lieutenant-colonel. In command at Detroit, 1792, and the last British commandant there. Left on the surrender of the fort to the Americans in 1796. Returned to England and promoted major-general the same year. For a time governor of Plymouth. Became lieutenant-general. Died, 1812. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =English Settlers in Canada.= First came from New England and New York, after cession of Canada in 1760. Many became merchants in Montreal. Their selfishness and intolerant attitude, in some cases, toward the French aroused the indignation of both Murray and Carleton. With them were a number of disbanded soldiers. About a quarter of a century later English stock of a different quality came in the United Empire Loyalists from the revolting colonies. Thereafter English settlers came from the old land, and in increasing numbers. At the first census after Confederation there were 706,369 people in Canada of English origin, and by the census of 1921 there were 2,545,496, or 28.96 per cent, of the total population. =Enos, General Roger= (1729-1808). Commanded Vermont troops in 1781 on the Lake Champlain frontier; and involved with Ethan and Ira Allen (_q.v._) in the scheme to bring Vermont back to British allegiance. A few years later he proposed to settle two Canadian townships with settlers from his own side of the border. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Epidemics.= _See_ Smallpox; Scurvy; Cholera. =Equal Rights Association.= Formed in Toronto, in 1889, to secure the disallowance of the Jesuits’ Estates Act, and generally to oppose what were described as the “political encroachments of ultramontanism.” Among the principal founders were D’Alton McCarthy, William E. O’Brien, and Clarke Wallace. In 1894 a somewhat similar organization was founded known as the Protestant Protective Association. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Sir Oliver Mowat_. =Erie Indians.= The name signifies long-tailed, or people of the panther. A large tribe of Iroquoian stock, inhabiting in the seventeenth century the country between Lake Erie and the Ohio. Their lands adjoined those of the Neutral Nation west of Lake Erie. They lived in sedentary towns and villages and cultivated the soil. After a long war the Eries were practically wiped out by the Iroquois in 1656, the few survivors being adopted into the Iroquois confederacy. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Erie, Lake.= Area 10,000 square miles. Discovered by Brébeuf and Chaumonot, 1640. It is possible that the lake may have been first seen by white men at a still earlier date, when the Franciscan friar, La Roche Daillon, visited the Neutral nation, 1626, but there is no direct evidence. The lake is mentioned under its present name in Lalemant’s _Relation_ of 1641, as well as in that of Ragueneau, 1648. La Salle’s _Griffon_ was the first ship to sail its waters, 1679. First clearly shown on Sanson map of 1650. =Bib.=: Chaumonot, _Vie_; Harris, _Early Missions_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; _Atlas of Canada_; Coyne, _Exploration of the Great Lakes_. =Ermatinger, Francis.= Member of a family associated with the fur trade. His father and uncle had been prominent fur traders at Sault Ste. Marie. He and his brother Edward had been equally prominent in the fur trade of the Pacific coast. Under orders of Sir George Simpson he carried out a difficult journey through California in 1841. Edward accompanied David Douglas, the botanist, on his journey east through Athabaska Pass in 1826. =Bib.=: Simpson, _Journey Round the World_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Edward Ermatinger, _York Factory Express Journal_, 1827-1828 (R. S. C., 1912). =Eskimo.= American aborigines, formerly occupying practically the entire coast of North America from Newfoundland around to the Aleutian Islands; now confined to the northern coast of the continent, and the Arctic Islands. They call themselves Innuit, meaning “people,” the name “Eskimo” having been given them by some of their Indian neighbours, and signifying “eaters of raw flesh.” Their first contact with white men was with the Scandinavians in Greenland in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Most of the Labrador and Greenland Eskimo have been Christianized by the Moravian and Danish missionaries. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Reclus, _Primitive Folk_; United States Bureau of Ethnology, _Reports_. =Esquimalt.= From an Indian name meaning “a place gradually shoaling.” Sir James Douglas (1842) spells it _Is-whoy-malth_. The Spanish naval officer Quimper had named the place Puerto de Cordova in 1790. Galiano and Valdes were there in 1792. Naval station four miles from Victoria, Vancouver Island. Naval hospital built, 1855; land reserved for a naval depot, 1859; naval yard established, 1864; dry dock completed, 1887; naval station taken over from Admiralty by Canadian government, 1905. Once suggested as the site of a city. Royal Naval College moved there after the Halifax explosion, 1918; closed, 1922. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Esten, James C. Palmer= (1806-1864). Born in Bermuda. Educated at the Charter House, London; called to the English bar. Came to Canada, 1836, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1838. Served as a volunteer during Rebellion of 1837. Practised his profession at Toronto. Appointed vice-chancellor, 1849. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =European and North American Railway.= Designed to run from Shediac on the Straits of Northumberland through St. John to the United States border, where it would connect with American railways. An English firm, Peto, Brassy and Betts, offered to build the road in 1852. New Brunswick’s subsidy amounted to £20,000 a year for twenty years and a million acres of land. The line from Shediac to St. John was completed in 1860. Many years afterward connection was made with the American railways at the Maine boundary. =Bib.=: Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =European War.= _See_ War of 1914-1918. =Eustache, Sir J. R.= Born, 1795. Educated at St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. Entered the army; served in Upper Canada in command of the 19th Light Dragoons; present at the battle of Lundy’s Lane and at the storming of Fort Erie; knighted for distinguished services. Took part in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in Lower Canada; high-sheriff of Kildare, 1848; lieutenant-general, 1859. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Evans, James= (1801-1846). Born in Kingston-upon-Hull, England. Emigrated to Canada; opened a school near l’Orignal, and about 1828 moved to Rice Lake, where he entered the Methodist ministry, and began his lifelong work among the Indians. In 1840 given charge of missionary work in the North-West, with headquarters at Norway House. Had already devoted much time to the study of the native languages, and while at Norway House invented the Cree syllabic characters, a simple, phonetic system, by means of which the Indian was taught to read with surprising facility. At first cast his own type, built his own press, and printed on birchbark. Later obtained more effective materials, and set up catechisms, hymn-books, and portions of the Bible in syllabic. =Bib.=: Young, _The Apostle of the North_; Maclean, _James Evans, Inventor of the Syllabic System_; Carroll, _James Evans_ in the _Methodist Magazine_, October, 1882; Pilling, _Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages_. =Examiner.= Newspaper published at Toronto. Established by Sir Francis Hincks in 1838. It was the principal organ of the Clear Grits, and strongly supported the movement for responsible government. =Executive Council.= Provided by the Quebec Act. Under the Constitutional Act it was given to Upper Canada as well. Its members appointed by the governor and responsible only to him. Existed also in the Maritime provinces before Confederation under similar conditions. Its irresponsibility to the people condemned by Durham and Sydenham. Under terms of British North America Act continued in provinces, but responsible to the Assembly. In the Dominion became the Privy Council (_q.v._). =Exhibitions.= The first industrial exhibition held in Canada, and probably the first in the world, was that of 1737, promoted by the Intendant Hocquart. It included fruits and grains, woods and furs, and the products of the mines and the fisheries. The exhibition was afterwards sent to France. A provincial exhibition was held in Toronto in 1846; Ottawa had an exhibition in 1878; Montreal in 1880; Halifax in 1881; and St. John in 1883. Since then many other cities and towns have used this means of illustrating the industrial resources of the locality and the country. The exhibitions at Toronto, Ottawa and several other Canadian cities, are annual. Canada has also been largely represented at all the great international exhibitions such as those at Chicago, San Francisco and Wembley. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Extradition.= Negotiated by Sydenham with the United States, and embodied in the Ashburton treaty, 1842. See Article X and explanatory note (_Treaties with the United States affecting Canada_). Provided for the mutual surrender of fugitives from justice. Did not apply to political offences. An Imperial Act was passed in 1870. The Canadian Extradition Act, 1886, applied to any foreign state with which there was an extradition arrangement. Extradition is covered by the Revised Statutes of Canada, Chap. 155. =Faillon, Abbé Michel Étienne= (1799-1870). Historian. Born in France. Entered the Sulpician Order. Came to Canada in 1854. Returned to France about 1865 and published there his history of Canada. =Bib.=: Works: _Vie de Mme. d’ Youville_; _Vie de Mlle. Mance_; _Vie de Mlle. Le Ber_; _Histoire de la Colonie Française en Canada_. For biog., _see_ Desmazures, _L’Abbé Faillon: Sa Vie et ses Œuvres_. =Falconbridge, Sir Glenholme= (1846-1920). Born at Drummondville, Ontario. Educated at the University of Toronto, graduating, 1866. Called to the bar, 1871; Q. C., 1885. Appointed judge of the Queen’s Bench, Ontario, 1887; chief-justice, 1900. Knighted, 1909. Was a member of the commissions to revise the Statutes of Ontario, and to collect and revise the Imperial Statutes affecting civil rights in Ontario. Wrote metrical translations of Latin and German poets. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Falkland, Lucius Bentinck, Viscount.= Governor of Nova Scotia, 1840-1846. He came out to Nova Scotia as a young man, with little political experience. His policy, which proved unworkable, was to call to his council men representing all shades of political opinion. Bitterly attacked by Joseph Howe, he returned to England in 1846, and was appointed governor of Bombay. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Family Compact.= A group of Tory leaders in Upper Canada, so nicknamed by their political opponents because they held power as a distinct group, allied by bonds of political, social, and religious sympathy. Term also used in other provinces, in connection with somewhat similar conditions. Characterizing it in his _Report_, Lord Durham says: “Fortified by family connection, and the common interest felt by all who held, and all who desired, subordinate offices, that party was thus erected into a solid and permanent power, controlled by no responsibility, subject to no serious change, exercising over the whole government of the province an authority utterly independent of the people and its representatives, and possessing the only means of influencing either the government at home, or the colonial representative of the Crown.” In Upper Canada they came into power in the days of Simcoe. In Lower Canada their origin goes back to the beginnings of British rule. Disappeared finally as a political force with the establishment of responsible government. _See also_ Strachan, John; MacNab, Sir Allan Napier; Robinson, Sir John Beverley; Mackenzie, William Lyon. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Durham, _Report_; Mackenzie, _Sketches of Canada_; Bradshaw, _Self-Government in Canada_; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Robinson, _Life of Sir John Beverley Robinson_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_; Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Bourinot, _Elgin_; Parkin, _Macdonald_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Wallace, _The Family Compact_. =Fanning, David= (1755-1825). Born in Virginia, he commanded a Loyalist corps in the Revolution, and gained the reputation of a daring and resourceful leader. Came to New Brunswick, 1786. Removed to Nova Scotia, 1799. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Fanning, Edmund= (1737-1818). Born on Long Island, New York. Studied law and practised in North Carolina. Returned to New York, and in 1777 raised a corps of Loyalists known as the King’s American Regiment. In 1782 surveyor-general of New York. Removed to Nova Scotia, and was lieutenant-governor, 1783-1786; in 1786 became governor of Prince Edward Island, holding the office until 1804. Rose to the rank of general in the army, 1808. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Farrer, Edward= (1850-1916). A brilliant Canadian journalist. Associated with the Toronto _Globe_ as chief editorial writer. Advocated annexation of Canada to the United States. Issued a pamphlet on the subject in 1891, which Sir John Macdonald used against the Liberals in the election of that year. =Bib.=: _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Fathers of Confederation.= This term has been applied to those who attended the Quebec Conference in 1864, and represented the Legislatures and people of their respective colonies in the negotiations leading up to Confederation. In the following list they are grouped under the colonies they represented. Canada: Sir Étienne P. Taché, John A. Macdonald, Georges É. Cartier, William McDougall, George Brown, Alexander T. Galt, Alexander Campbell, Oliver Mowat, Hector L. Langevin, James Cockburn, Thomas D’Arcy McGee, J. C. Chapais. Nova Scotia: Charles Tupper, W. A. Henry, R. B. Dickey, Jonathan McCully, A. C. Archibald. New Brunswick: S. L. Tilley, John M. Johnson, Peter Mitchell, Charles Fisher, Edward Chandler, W. H. Steeves, John H. Gray. Newfoundland: F. B. T. Carter, John Ambrose Shea. Prince Edward Island: John Hamilton Grey, Edward Palmer, W. H. Pope, George Coles, T. Heath Haviland, Edward Whelan, A. A. McDonald. =Bib.=: Hammond, _Confederation and its Leaders_. =Fénelon, François de Salignac.= Sulpician missionary sent by Laval to the Iroquois north of Lake Ontario. Brother of the famous archbishop of Cambrai. Established a school for Indians on the island of Montreal. He attacked Frontenac in a sermon, and was summoned before the Council, sent to France and censured by the king. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_; Garneau, _Histoire du Canada_. =Fenety, George Edward.= Born at Halifax in 1812. Entered journalism in the office of Joseph Howe’s _Nova Scotian_, 1829. Spent some years on American newspapers; then went to St. John, New Brunswick, where he founded the _Commercial News_, 1839, described as “the first penny paper in the British Empire.” Queen’s printer of New Brunswick, 1863-1895. =Bib.=: _Political Notes_; _Imperial Federation_; _Recollections of Joseph Howe_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Fenian Raids.= The Fenian Brotherhood is said to have been formed about 1858 in Ireland and the United States, the object being to liberate Ireland from its connection with England, and establish a republic. A history of the movement in Ireland will be found in McCarthy’s _History of our Own Times_, and in O’Leary’s _Recollections of Fenianism_. Early in 1866 the American branch of the Brotherhood planned an invasion of Canada. The Canadian militia was called out, but the invasion was postponed. In April, the New Brunswick border was threatened, and troops marched to the defence of St. Andrew’s and St. Stephen. The Fenians thought better of it. Late in May another party, under one O’Neil, crossed from Buffalo to Fort Erie and advanced to Ridgeway, where they were driven back. In 1870 the same O’Neil led his followers into Quebec, but was again repulsed. In 1871 he made a similar attempt in the West, but a detachment of United States troops from Fort Pembina followed, arrested him, and dispersed his followers. In the negotiations leading up to the Treaty of Washington, 1871, Canada claimed compensation from the United States for the Fenian Raids. Through some oversight the claims were not included in the terms of reference and were withdrawn, the British government assuming responsibility for losses sustained in Canada. The United States government, although pressing for settlement of the Alabama Claims (_q.v._), undertook no responsibility for the Fenian Raids. In New Brunswick the Raids had the effect of influencing the electorate towards Confederation. They were used also as an argument for retaining British troops in Canada. An aftermath of the earlier Fenian Raids was the murder of Thomas D’Arcy McGee (_q.v._) in Ottawa, 1868. =Bib.=: Somerville, _Narrative of the Fenian Invasion of Canada_; Campbell, _The Fenian Invasions of Canada of 1866 and 1870_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; _Correspondence Relating to the Fenian Invasion_, Ottawa, 1869; _Trials of the Fenian Prisoners at Toronto Who Were Captured at Fort Erie, C. W., in June_, 1866, ed. by George R. Gregg and E. P. Roden; McMicken, _Fenian Raid on Manitoba_ (Manitoba Hist. and Sc. Society, 1888); Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_; Macdonald, _Troublous Times in Canada_; Denison, _Soldiering in Canada_ and _The Fenian Raid on Fort Erie_; Cumberland, _Fenian Raid of 1866_ (R.S.C. 1910); Pierce, _The Fenian Raid_. =Ferland, Jean Baptiste Antoine= (1805-1865). Canadian historian. Educated at Nicolet College, where he afterwards became professor of arts, rhetoric and philosophy, and appointed Superior of the college in 1847. Member of faculty of Laval University, 1855-1865. =Bib.=: Works: _Cours d’Histoire du Canada_; _Opuscules_; _La Gaspésie_; _Joseph-Octave Plessis_; _Voyage au Labrador_. For biog., _see Cyc. Am. Biog._; Bibaud, _Pan. Can._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Festubert, Battle of.= In May, 1915, while General Foch was concentrating what was then a tremendous artillery bombardment on the German lines between Carency and La Targette, Sir Douglas Haig supported the French attack by operations in the neighbourhood of Festubert. In these the part played by the Canadians consisted in the capture, at ruinous cost, of two positions known as the Orchard and K5. In 1915 the British artillery support was insignificant as compared with the resources of the enemy; it was so in guns, and much more so in ammunition. And our airmen were not yet in a position to supply much information as to the German strength. As a result they fell into cleverly designed traps, which took a terrible toll before they could be won through. In the end they won their objectives, but “Sir John French was convinced of the expensive futility of further action.” The battle added to the reputation of the Canadians, and prepared them for the more brilliant and profitable operations that were yet to come. =Bib.=: Hunter, _Battle of Festubert_ (_Canada in the Great World War_, vol. iii). =Fidalgo, Salvador.= Accompanied Eliza to North-West Coast, 1790; founded a Spanish settlement in Fuca Straits, 1792, and removed the post the same year to Nootka. Still there in 1793 when Vancouver visited the place. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_. =Fidler, Peter= (1769-1822). Entered service of Hudson’s Bay Company, about 1791. Carried on extensive explorations and surveys in the North-West. Left a series of manuscript journals, covering the records of his explorations for over a quarter of a century. These are said to be in the archives of the Hudson’s Bay Company in London. Also left an eccentric will, of which Bryce gives a synopsis. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Tyrrell, _Peter Fidler, 1769-1822_ (R. S. C., 1913). =Fiedmont, Jacquot de.= A French engineer under Montcalm. Fortified the bridges over the St. Charles river at Quebec. Directed artillery fire against the British camp. =Bib.=: Casgrain, _Wolfe-Montcalm_. =Findlay Island.= In the Arctic archipelago. Named by Richards in 1853 after J. H. Findlay, an eminent English cartographer and for many years a member of the council of the Royal Geographical Society. Sverdrup, who commanded an important Arctic expedition in the _Fram_, 1898-1902, erroneously named the island “King Christian.” The name “Findlay” has been confirmed by the Geographic Board of Canada. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Finlay, Hugh.= Appointed by Sir Guy Carleton a member of his Council. In 1776 associated with Adam Mabane, Thomas Dunn and others in an investigation of the affairs of the province. In 1784 advocated the establishment of a system of free schools. Deputy postmaster-general of Canada about 1776-1788. Letters were then delivered throughout the province by walking postmen. Mails were carried by sailing packets to and from Quebec, Halifax and St. John. Finlay was one of the leaders of the English element in Quebec, and represented their views in a letter to the Home government. =Bib.=: Shortt and Doughty, _Canadian Constitutional Documents_. =Finlay, James.= One of the pioneer fur traders from Montreal in the West. He reached the Saskatchewan about 1767, and is mentioned by Matthew Cocking of the Hudson’s Bay Company as having a trading post there. He was at Fort des Prairies in 1776, where Alexander Henry visited him that year. Finlay returned to Montreal in 1785, and became an influential merchant of the town. =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _History of the fur Trade_ in his _Voyages_; _Hendry’s Journal_ (R. S. C., 1907); _Cocking’s Journal_ (R. S. C., 1908). =Finlayson, Duncan.= A chief factor in the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1832. Served on the Pacific coast, 1831-1837. Governor of Assiniboia, 1839-1844. Described by Alexander Ross as a just man of liberal principles, knowing nothing of party or its objects. Established a rudimentary judicial system in the colony. Died in England about 1861. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Finlayson, Roderick= (1818-1892). Born in Scotland, he joined the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1837, and saw service on the Pacific coast at Forts Taku, Stikine and Simpson. In 1843 he accompanied Douglas to Vancouver Island to build Fort Camosun (afterwards Victoria), and succeeded Charles Ross in command of the post the following year. Made a chief factor in 1859. He became chief accountant for the Western department of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and held the position until 1862. Member of the Legislative Council of Vancouver Island, 1851-1863. He left a valuable journal of the fur trade on the Pacific coast. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_; Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Fireships.= Used by the French against the British fleet before Quebec in 1759. They did no damage, partly owing to mismanagement on the part of the French officers, and partly because of the resourcefulness and bravery of the English sailors, who coolly towed the fireships ashore. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Fish Creek.= About ten miles from Batoche, in Saskatchewan. Scene of an engagement in the Rebellion of 1885 between Riel’s forces and those under General Middleton. Gabriel Dumont had prepared an ambush in a deep ravine. The ambush failed, but it took some time to clear the rebels out of the _coulee_. =Bib.=: Boulton, _Reminiscences of North-West Rebellions_. =Fisher, Charles= (1808-1880). Born in Fredericton. Educated at King’s College and called to the bar, 1833. Contested York for the New Brunswick Assembly, 1834, but defeated. Elected for York, 1837, and continued to hold the seat with slight intervals until after Confederation. Entered the New Brunswick government, 1848, but resigned, 1850, owing to a difference with the lieutenant-governor. Appointed a delegate to the Portland Railway Convention, 1850. Became premier and attorney-general in the first purely Liberal government formed in New Brunswick, 1851. Resigned, 1856; in the following year resumed office and remained at the head of affairs until 1861. Appointed a delegate to the Trade Convention at Detroit, 1865. Again entered the government as attorney-general, 1866. Represented New Brunswick as one of the delegates to the Quebec and Westminster Conferences. Represented York in the first Dominion House of Commons. Appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of his native province, 1868. Died in Fredericton. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Fisher, Frederick.= Lance-Corporal, 13th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross_. On April 23rd, 1915, in the neighbourhood of St. Julien, he went forward with the machine-gun of which he had charge, under heavy fire, and most gallantly assisted in covering the retreat of a battery. Later he went forward again to the firing line and was killed while bringing his machine-gun into action, under very heavy fire, in order to cover the advance of supports. =Fisher, Sydney Arthur= (1850-1921). Educated McGill University and Trinity College, Cambridge. Sat for Brome in House of Commons, 1882-1891 and 1896-1911; minister of agriculture, 1896-1911. Member of the Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1907; member of the Commission of Conservation, 1909. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Fisheries Question.= In one form or another runs through the history of Canada from its earliest days. The fisheries of the Grand Banks, the Gulf and the coast drew the Basques, English, French and Portuguese across the Atlantic before the days of Jacques Cartier. They formed the backbone of the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland. Fishermen of New England had been drawing rich harvests not only from the Banks but from the inshore fisheries of what is now Canada before the Revolution. In the peace negotiations the representatives of the United States tried to secure the perpetual right to use these inshore fisheries, but without success. By the treaty of 1818 the United States were granted limited privileges of taking, curing and drying fish on certain defined coasts of British North America. In 1854 the privilege of fishing in Canadian waters was granted to American fishermen in exchange for commercial reciprocity, but the privilege lapsed with the abrogation of the reciprocity treaty in 1866. In the negotiations for the treaty of Washington, 1871, the British government acknowledged and supported Canada’s exclusive right to the inshore fisheries. The Americans offered $1,000,000 for the fisheries in perpetuity, which was refused. They then suggested a limited reciprocity, which was also unacceptable. Finally, fishing rights were granted to the United States for a term of years in return for certain reciprocal advantages including money compensation. By the Halifax Award of 1877 the latter was fixed at $5,500,000. =Bib.=: Isham, _Fishery Question, its Origin and Present Situation_; Bourinot, _Fishery Question, its Imperial Importance_; Elliott, _United States and the North-Eastern Fisheries_; Ricci, _Fisheries Dispute and Annexation to Canada_. =FitzGibbon, James= (1780-1863). Born in Ireland. Joined the Tarbert Fencibles, 1798; served in Holland the following year, and in 1801 present at the battle of Copenhagen. The same year came to Canada with the 49th Regiment, and served under Brock with distinction in the War of 1812. In command of the British at Beaver Dam. It was to FitzGibbon that Laura Secord (_q.v._) brought her famous message. In 1822 appointed assistant adjutant-general; and in 1827 clerk of the House of Assembly. Commissioned as colonel of the Second West York Regiment, 1831, and took an active part in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837. Returned to England, where in 1850 he was made a military knight of Windsor. =Bib.=: FitzGibbon, _A Veteran of 1812_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Read, _Rebellion of 1837_; Lizars, _Humours of ’37_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Fitzpatrick, Sir Charles= (1853-). Born in Quebec. Educated at Laval University; studied law, and called to the bar, 1876; Q. C., 1893; chief counsel for Louis Riel, 1885, and took part in several other famous trials; represented Quebec county in provincial Assembly, 1890-1896; and in House of Commons, 1896-1906; solicitor-general, 1896-1901; minister of justice, 1902-1906; chief-justice of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1906-18. Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1918-1923. K. C. M. G., 1907; G. C. M. G., 1911; Imperial Privy Councillor, 1908. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Fleet, British, before Quebec.= Under the general command of Admiral Charles Saunders (_q.v._), sailed for the St. Lawrence from Louisbourg in June, 1759, bringing Wolfe and his little army for the siege of Quebec. With the help of charts and pilots, the fleet was brought safely up the river, and finally anchored in sight of the citadel. In July a portion of the fleet was successfully sailed up past the town, and by the end of August Admiral Holmes had a dozen vessels above Quebec. It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of the fleet in making possible the military steps that led to the Battle of the Plains. Colonel Wood goes so far as to say that the fleet was the dominating factor in the siege, the army being nothing much more than a landing party on a large scale. Toward the end of October the fleet sailed for England, taking with it the body of Wolfe, fallen in the hour of victory. The following spring it again sailed for the St. Lawrence, and arrived before Quebec in time to nullify the victory of Lévis at Ste. Foy, and make certain the final conquest of Canada. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _Logs of Naval Conquest of Canada_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Bradley, _The Fight with France for North America_; Wrong, _The Fall of Canada_. =Fleming, Sir Sandford= (1827-1915). Born at Kirkaldy, Scotland. Came to Canada in a sailing ship in 1845. Made his way from Quebec to Peterborough by way of the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa, the Rideau Canal and Lake Ontario, and by farmer’s cart from Cobourg to Peterborough. Was for a time employed on the surveys for the Northern Railway. Chief engineer of the Intercolonial Railway, 1864-1876; and of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 1871-1880; in the latter he was closely associated with Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), and George Stephen (Lord Mount Stephen); chancellor of Queen’s University, 1880-1915; president of the Royal Society of Canada, 1888-1889. To his initiative and persistent enthusiasm were mainly due the establishment of a system of universal or cosmic time; the laying of the Pacific cable, as part of an inter-imperial telegraph service; the founding of the Canadian Institute; and the building of the memorial tower at Halifax to commemorate the opening of the first colonial legislature. In 1893-1894 he made a trip around the world. His latter years were spent in Ottawa, to the end devoted to plans for public betterment. He worked untiringly for the advancement of the Canadian people and for the strengthening of the ties binding together the scattered members of the British Empire. “Behind all his efforts was the firm conviction that a united empire was a step in the direction of world peace.” =Bib.=: Works: _The Intercolonial_; _England and Canada_; and numerous historical and scientific papers. _See_ Bibliog. of Royal Society (R. S. C., 1894); Johnson, _The All Red Line_; Grant, _Ocean to Ocean_. For biog., _see_ Burpee, _Sandford Fleming: Empire Builder_, and bibliography therein. =Fleurimont.= _See_ Noyelles. =Flowerdew, Gordon Muriel.= Lieutenant, Strathcona’s Horse. _Victoria Cross_. On March 30th, 1918, north-east of Bois de Moreuil, he commanded a squadron detailed for special service. Confronted with two lines of the enemy each about sixty strong, with machine-guns in the centre and flanks, he carried out on his own initiative, and with most important results, a small edition of the charge of the Light Brigade. Leading his men he charged through both lines of the enemy, about two hundred yards apart, and wheeling about galloped at them again. The enemy broke and retired, leaving the remnant of the Squadron in possession. Lieutenant Flowerdew was dangerously wounded but continued to cheer on his men. =Foley, M. H.= A member of Sir E. P. Taché’s government in 1864; postmaster-general in the still-born Brown-Dorion government of 1858; leader of the Opposition, 1863; member of the Macdonald-Sicotte government same year; retired with Buchanan and Simpson to make room for George Brown, Mowat and Macdougall in the coalition ministry the same year. =Bib.=: Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Fond du Lac.= At the western end of Lake Superior. Du Lhut was there in 1679 to meet the Sioux. Radisson had also met the Indians at the same place in 1660. The fur trade does not seem to have centered here to much extent during the French period, but in the early days of British rule the North West Company had a post at Fond du Lac, and a recognized portage route to the interior led by way of the St. Louis river to Rainy river and the Lake of the Woods, and another to the upper waters of the Mississippi. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xix. =Fonte, Bartholomew de.= His fictitious voyage of 1640 to the North-West Coast was described in a letter published in the _Monthly Miscellany_, London, 1708. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_. =Forget, Amédée Emmanuel.= Born in Ste. Marie de Monnoir, Quebec, in 1847. Studied law and called to the bar of Quebec, 1871. Secretary to the Manitoba Half-Breed Commission, 1875; clerk of the North-West Council, 1876-1888; Indian commissioner, 1895-1898; lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, 1898-1905; first lieutenant-governor of Saskatchewan, 1905-1910. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Forget, Sir Rodolphe= (1861-1919). Represented Charlevoix in House of Commons. Was for many years an important figure in transportation, banking and industrial interests. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Forsyth, Richardson and Co.= Fur trading firm of Montreal. Formed in 1790 by John Forsyth and John Richardson, both from Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Engaged in the trade around Lake Superior before 1795. For a time represented the interests of the X Y Company in opposition to the North West Company, but in 1805 joined the latter and became its Montreal agents. =Bib.=: Davidson, _North West Company_. =Fort Albany.= Hudson’s Bay Company post at mouth of Albany river, west coast of James Bay. Established about 1683. Captured by Troyes in 1686 and renamed Fort Ste. Anne. It was regained by the English in 1689; again taken by the French under Iberville in 1690; and finally restored to the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1693. Fort and river named after Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II. =Bib.=: Dawson, _St. Lawrence Basin_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Fort Albert.= _See_ Victoria. =Fort Alexandria.= Hudson’s Bay Company’s post on Fraser river, built originally by the North West Company about 1800. Stood at the point where Alexander Mackenzie reached his farthest point down the Fraser in 1793, and named after him. There was another Fort Alexandria of the North West Company—also known as Fort Tremblant and Poplar Fort—on the upper Assiniboine, near the source of Swan river, built in 1780, and abandoned in 1805. =Bib.=: Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Fort Anne.= Military post on Wood Creek, on the route from the Hudson river to Lake Champlain. Built originally by Colonel Nicholson in 1709. Afterwards destroyed by the French, and rebuilt. Near here a fight took place in 1758 between a British force under Robert Rogers and a party of French and Indians under Marin. The fort was captured by Major Carleton in 1780. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Half Century of Conflict_. =Fort Anne.= _See_ Annapolis. =Fort Babine.= Hudson’s Bay Company post on Babine Lake, in northern British Columbia. Built in 1822, under the direction of John Stuart, who had been with Fraser on his famous journey down the river that bears his name. =Bib.=: Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Fort Beauharnois.= Built on the shores of Lake Pepin, on the Mississippi, by La Perrière in 1727. Named after the then governor of Canada. Boucherville was in command in 1728, and abandoned the post, 1729, because of the hostility of the Fox tribe. Said to have been reoccupied, 1732-1737. In 1750 Marin built another post on the Wisconsin side of the lake, which was abandoned in 1756. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii, xviii. =Fort Bourbon.= Built by one of the sons of La Vérendrye, near the northern end of Lake Winnipegosis, 1748; subsequently moved to the south side of Cedar Lake, at the foot of the Saskatchewan. Thomas Curry, one of the earliest of the British traders from Montreal, made the latter post his headquarters between 1770 and 1772. Probably the original French fort had before this fallen into decay. Prud’homme says the site is still distinguishable. Peter Pond passed the fort or its site in 1776, and Alexander Henry had been there the previous year. This name was also applied by Iberville to Fort Nelson (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Burpee, _Journals of La Vérendrye_; Prud’homme, _La Vérendrye_ and _Les Successeurs de La Vérendrye_ (R. S. C., 1917 and 1918). =Fort Camosun.= _See_ Victoria. =Fort Carillon.= _See_ Ticonderoga. =Fort Charnisay.= Built by d’Aulnay de Charnisay, governor of Acadia, in 1645, at the mouth of the St. John river, Bay of Fundy. Occupied later by Charles de la Tour. Rebuilt by Governor Villebon in 1698. Restored by Boishébert, 1751. Again rebuilt by General Monckton, 1758. Dismantled, 1768. A boulder and tablet in St. John marks the site. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of Acadia_. =Fort Chartres.= Built by Boisbrant in 1720 in the Illinois country, a mile east of the Mississippi. It was replaced, 1753-1756, by an immense stone fort which cost about $1,000,000. Surrendered to the English in 1765. Undermined by the Mississippi in 1774 and abandoned. Bib.: Mason, _Chapters from Illinois History_. =Fort Chilcotin.= An outpost of Fort Alexandria (_q.v._), in British Columbia, built under the direction of John Stuart, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, about 1822. =Bib.=: Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Fort Chipewyan.= Built by Roderick McKenzie, for the North West Company, in 1788, on the south side of Lake Athabaska, near the mouth of the Athabaska river. It was for some time the headquarters of Alexander Mackenzie, and from here he started out on his exploring expeditions of 1789 and 1793 to the Arctic and the Pacific. It contained a well-selected library, which was famous in its day among the fur traders. Turnor, the astronomer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, wintered there, 1791-1792, taking observations. About 1820 the fort was moved to the north side of the lake, where it is still in operation. The X Y Company had a post on the lake built in 1800. Sir George Simpson visited Chipewyan in 1828 on his way across the continent. William McGillivray was then in charge. =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _History of the Fur Trade_ in his _Voyages_; Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Fort Chippawa.= A military post on the Niagara river, a mile and a half above the Falls. It was the end of the carrying-place, and a transport post for goods on their way to the west. In the days of Brock it consisted of a blockhouse and quarters for one officer and thirty-six men, enclosed with palisades which were much decayed and useless for defence. Colonel Bisshopp stationed here in 1812. It was the scene of a battle in that year. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Fort Churchill.= _See_ Prince of Wales Fort. =Fort Colville.= Hudson’s Bay Company post on the Upper Columbia. Built, 1825-1826 by Dr. John McLoughlin. It was the distributing point for the fur trade on the Upper Columbia and the Kootenay, and the last post touched at by the east-bound brigades on the Columbia. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Fort Conolly.= Hudson’s Bay Company post on Bear Lake in northern British Columbia, near the source of the Skeena river. Built by (Sir) James Douglas in 1826, and named after William Conolly of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Fort Crèvecœur.= Established by La Salle, on the Illinois river, in 1680. Tonty was left in charge, with two Récollet missionaries, Membré and De la Ribourde. The Iroquois attacked the fort a few months later, and Tonty and his companions were forced to flee, Father de la Ribourde being killed and Tonty wounded in the skirmish. =Bib.=: Parkman, _La Salle_; Sulte, _Les Tonty_ (R. S. C., 1893). =Fort Cumberland.= _See_ Beauséjour. =Fort Dauphin.= Built by one of the sons of La Vérendrye in 1741 near the mouth of Mossy river, which flows into Lake Winnipegosis, or Lake of the Prairies as it was formerly called. Bougainville in his _Memoir on the Western Posts_, calls the river _Minanghenachequeké_ or Troubled Water. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Fort Dease.= On Dease Lake, in the extreme northern part of British Columbia. Built by Robert Campbell, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1838. Destroyed by the Indians. =Bib.=: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company. =Fort Douglas.= On Red River, about two miles below the mouth of the Assiniboine. Built by John McLeod, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1815. The following year it was captured by Cuthbert Grant of the North West Company. Retaken by the De Meuron expedition for Lord Selkirk in 1817. For some years thereafter it was occupied as the residence of the governor of Rupert’s Land. Subsequently sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company, it was used for commercial purposes until 1854, and then allowed to fall to pieces. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Five Forts of Winnipeg_ (R. S. C., 1885). =Fort Duquesne.= Military post at junction of Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, built while Galissonière was governor of New France. Near here Braddock suffered his disastrous defeat in 1755. Captured by the English three years later, under Henry Bouquet, who changed the name to Fort Pitt. A description of the fort and its surroundings will be found in Parkman’s _Montcalm and Wolfe_, vol. 1. The city of Pittsburgh now covers the site. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Casgrain, _Wolfe-Montcalm_. =Fort Edward.= Military post, on the Hudson at the place where the route turned off to Lake Champlain. Dated back to 1709, when Colonel Nicholson built a stockade fort at this spot known as the Great Carrying Place, and named it after himself. Later another fort was built here and called Fort Lydius, and still later Fort Edward was built at the same place. The fall of Oswego in 1756 led Webb to abandon and burn Fort Edward. Marin made a raid upon it the next year. Taken by Burgoyne in 1777. =Bib.=: _Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe_; Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_. =Fort Erie.= Military post on Niagara river opposite Buffalo. Built by Captain John Montressor in 1764. In 1782 consisted of blockhouses surrounded by a stockade. Garrisoned with part of the 49th Regiment in 1812. Two British vessels anchored there were cut out by Lieutenant Jesse Elliott of the United States navy, in October, 1812. Abandoned in 1813 after the capture of Fort George by the Americans. Reoccupied, 1814, with a garrison of 150 men. Captured by the Americans in July, 1814, and enlarged and strengthened. Unsuccessfully besieged by Drummond in August. Abandoned and blown up by the Americans under General Izard in November. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Fort Essington.= On the British Columbia coast. Built by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1835 as an intermediate post between Fort McLoughlin and Fort Simpson. Named after Captain William Essington, R. N. Port Essington, near mouth of the Skeena, named by Vancouver in 1793. Present small town dates from 1871. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Fort Fraser.= Post built by Simon Fraser, for the North West Company, in 1806, at east end of Fraser Lake, in northern British Columbia. Burned in October, 1817. Rebuilt, and still maintained by Hudson’s Bay Company. It is on the telegraph line to the Yukon. =Bib.=: Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Fort Frédéric.= _See_ Crown Point. =Fort Frontenac.= _See_ Cataraqui. =Fort Garry.= At junction of Red and Assiniboine rivers, where the city of Winnipeg now stands. Named after Nicholas Garry, a director of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Built in 1821 after the union of the Hudson’s Bay and North West Companies. It contained several buildings surrounded by a wall with bastions. Pulled down in 1852. In 1835 Governor Christie began work on a much larger fort, also known as Garry. It contained warehouses, the governor’s residence, a court-house, a jail, and other buildings, surrounded by a substantial stone wall. Seized and occupied by Louis Riel in 1869. The Council of Assiniboia met here from 1835 to 1869. Sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1882, and mostly torn down. All that remains to-day is the gate, on Main Street, opposite the Canadian National Railway station. In 1831 the Hudson’s Bay Company built a stone fort on Red River just below St. Andrew’s Rapids, and nineteen miles from Fort Garry. This was known as Lower Fort Garry, and still stands in an excellent state of preservation. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Five Forts of Winnipeg_ (R. S. C., 1885). =Fort Gaspereaux.= Near Fort Elgin, New Brunswick. Built by the French, 1750, at Bay Verte to command the defence of the Isthmus of Chignecto. Captured by the English in 1755 and renamed Fort Monckton. Marked to-day by a cairn and tablet. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of Acadia_. =Fort George.= A military post on the west side of Niagara river about a mile above its entrance into Lake Ontario. Built by Simcoe about 1793. In 1796, when Fort Niagara was given up to the United States, the flag, garrison, guns and stores were removed to Fort George. In 1803 it is described as a low square fort with earthen ramparts, cedar palisades, and loopholed log barracks. Brock made his headquarters here at the opening of the War of 1812. Captured by the Americans under Dearborn in 1813. Retaken by Colonel Murray same year. Fort William Henry, on Lake George, was also known as Fort George. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Fort George.= Built by Simon Fraser, on Fraser river, for North West Company, in 1807. It stood at the mouth of the Nechaco, and was named after King George. From here Fraser started out on his exploring expedition down the Fraser. In 1823 two Hudson’s Bay Company men were massacred here by Indians. The town of Prince George, on the Canadian National Railway, stands on or near the site of the fort. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_. =Fort George.= _See_ Astoria. =Fort Gibraltar.= Built by the North West Company, on the banks of Red River, near the mouth of the Assiniboine, in 1804-1805. John Wills, who built the fort, remained in charge until his death in 1814. Within the oak stockade were the residences of the Bourgeois and his men, a storehouse, blacksmith’s shop, stable, kitchen and icehouse. Duncan Cameron, of the North West Company, who succeeded to the command of the fort in 1814, was instrumental in persuading a large number of the Selkirk colonists to leave Red River and go down to Canada. The following year the fort was captured by Selkirk’s men, but restored. In 1816 it was again seized by Governor Semple, and destroyed. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Five Forts of Winnipeg_ (R. S. C., 1885). =Fort Halkett.= Hudson’s Bay Company post, built on Liard river, 1822. Abandoned about 1875. It was on the fur traders’ route from the Mackenzie river to the Pacific by way of the Stikine. Robert Campbell travelled this way in 1834. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Fort Kamloops.= Also known as Fort Thompson. Built by Hudson’s Bay Company in 1813 at the junction of the North and South branches of the Thompson river, in British Columbia. It was the principal post on the trading route between the Columbia and the Fraser. Present town of Kamloops covers site of the fort. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_. =Fort Kootenay.= Also called Kootenay House. Built by David Thompson in 1807, for the North West Company, on the Kootenay river near what is known to-day as Lake Windermere. This was the first trading post on the Upper Columbia or its branches, and was the headquarters for Thompson’s explorations west of the mountains. A memorial to Thompson, in the shape of a reproduction of a typical trading fort of the days of the fur trade, was built near the site of Fort Kootenay in 1922. =Bib.=: Thompson, _Narrative_. =Fort La Baye.= Built in 1717 at the western end of Green Bay, Lake Michigan, to control the Fox-Wisconsin portage route to the Mississippi. Subsequently called Fort St. François; also sometimes Fort St. Philippe. Abandoned and burnt by Lignery in 1728. Rebuilt by Villiers in 1731. The first commandant was Philippe d’Amours Sieur de la Morandière, who was succeeded four years later by Jacques Testard Sieur de Montigny. Charlevoix visited the post in 1721. The fort was abandoned in 1760, and taken over by the British the same year. A hundred years after the building of the original post, the Americans built Fort Howard probably on the same site. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Fort La Corne.= On the Saskatchewan, a few miles east of the forks. Built by the French about 1754. Franchère mentions the site in his _Narrative_ (1814). =Fort La Jonquière.= Built in 1751, under the direction of De Niverville, lieutenant of Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, on the Saskatchewan, probably the South Branch, “three hundred leagues” above Fort Paskoyac. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Fort Langley.= Post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, on the Fraser river near its mouth, built by Dr. John McLoughlin in 1827. First post on the lower mainland of British Columbia. The small town of Langley stands on or near the site of the fort. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_. =Fort La Reine.= Built by La Vérendrye, in 1736, on the Assiniboine, at the place where the town of Portage la Prairie stands to-day. It was the starting-point for the various explorations of La Vérendrye and his sons to the Mandan Indians on the Missouri and the south-west. It was also the headquarters of Legardeur de Saint-Pierre while he was in the west, 1751-1753. Jonathan Carver in his narrative says that the fur traders whom he met at Grand Portage in 1767 had already penetrated to Fort La Reine where they traded with the Assiniboin. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Fort La Tour.= Also known as Fort St. Jean, at the mouth of the St. John river, Bay of Fundy. Built in 1631 by Charles de la Tour, governor of Acadia. In 1645 Charnisay attacked the fort. Madame de la Tour, who commanded the little garrison in the absence of her husband, made a gallant defence. The fort was captured. Madame de la Tour was made a prisoner, and died a few weeks afterwards. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime in Canada_. =Fort Lawrence.= Built in 1750 on Chignecto Bay, at the head of the Bay of Fundy. Shortly afterwards the French built a rival post, Fort Beauséjour (_q.v._), three miles south. Lawrence became headquarters of the expedition sent under Monckton in 1755 to capture Beauséjour. A cairn and tablet mark the site to-day. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of Acadia_. =Fort Le Bœuf.= Built by Marin in 1753 in the Ohio country, where the town of Waterford, Pennsylvania, now stands. Marin died there the same year. He was succeeded by Legardeur de Saint Pierre, who had followed La Vérendrye in the search for the Western Sea. George Washington met him at Fort Le Bœuf in 1753 when he brought a message from the governor of Virginia to the French summoning them to retire from the Ohio country. The French abandoned the fort in 1759; and it was occupied by a detachment of the Royal Americans sent from Fort Pitt. Pontiac attacked and burned the fort. Reoccupied by the Americans, 1794, and maintained until 1815. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Fort Lennox.= Ile-aux-Noix, on the Richelieu river, near St. Johns. Built by Haldimand in 1778, as part of a system of defence against a possible repetition of the American invasion of 1775-1776. In that invasion Montgomery had used Ile-aux-Noix as a base for his attack on St. Johns. In 1813 it was garrisoned by British regulars. An American flotilla attacked the fort in June. It was defeated, the ships captured, and the men taken prisoners. The fort, which has been restored, is preserved and maintained by the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. =Bib.=: _Fort Lennox_ (National Sites and Monuments Board). =Fort Liard.= Hudson’s Bay Company post, built on the Liard river, at the mouth of the Black river, about 1800. Twenty years later the fort was pillaged by Indians and its people murdered. The post is apparently still in operation. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Discovery of the Youcon_. =Fort Livingstone.= In northern Manitoba, near Swan River. It was one of the early posts of the Mounted Police, and was for a time the seat of government of the North-West Territories. The National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada has marked the site by a cairn and tablet. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_. =Fort Machault.= Built by Contrecœur in 1754. On the evacuation of Fort Duquesne, its garrison was moved to Machault, and preparations made during the winter of 1758-1759 for an attack on Fort Pitt, which was prevented by the advance of Prideaux and Johnson against Niagara. Machault was captured by the English, who built a new stockade which was called Fort Venango. This was captured by the Indians in 1763, the commandant murdered, and the post burned. The Americans built Fort Franklin on the site, 1788, which was maintained to 1796. The town of Franklin grew up about the post. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Fort McLeod.= On McLeod Lake, northern British Columbia. First permanent trading post built by the North West Company west of the Rockies. Erected by Simon Fraser in 1805. Still in operation, by the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Fort McLoughlin.= On Millbank Sound, British Columbia. Built by Finlayson, Manson and Anderson, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1833. Named after Dr. John McLoughlin (_q.v._). The fort was subsequently moved to the north end of Vancouver Island, and renamed Fort Rupert. Abandoned in 1843. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_. =Fort McPherson.= Built by the Hudson’s Bay Company, on Peel river, a few miles above its junction with the Mackenzie. The winter portage leads from the Lower Ramparts of the Mackenzie west to McPherson, and over the mountains to Bell river and the Porcupine. =Bib.=: Cameron, _The New North_. =Fort Maurepas.= Built by La Jemeraye, for La Vérendrye, in 1734, on Red river, a few miles below where the town of Selkirk stands. Subsequently moved to the foot of Winnipeg river. Legardeur de Saint Pierre wintered there, 1750-1751. One of the British traders who went west in 1793 says that a French fort once stood on a high knoll near the last rapid of the Winnipeg river north side. Not a vestige remained then except the clearing. Fort Alexander of the North West Company afterwards stood near the site. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Fort Miami.= On Maumee river, a few miles above Lake Erie, where city of Fort Wayne, Indiana, stands to-day. Built by the French in 1715; surrendered to the British in 1760; rebuilt by Simcoe in 1794. Garrisoned with 124 rank and file of the 24th Regiment under Major Campbell. General Wayne demanded its evacuation, but was refused. Handed over to United States in 1796 and name changed to Fort Wayne. Brock sent an expedition against it in 1812. =Bib.=: Scott, _John Graves Simcoe_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Fort Monckton.= _See_ Fort Gaspereaux. =Fort Nanaimo.= Hudson’s Bay Company post, built in 1852 on the east coast of Vancouver Island. The discovery of coal there led to the establishment of the post. Built by Joseph W. McKay under instructions from Governor Douglas. City of Nanaimo covers site of the post. Name is of Indian origin, applied to a loose confederacy of bands, _She-ny-mo_, meaning “a big strong tribe.” =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Fort Nelson.= _See_ York Factory. =Fort Niagara.= At mouth of Niagara river, on what is now the United States side. Its history goes back to 1678, when La Salle built storehouses there and surrounded them with a palisade. Burnt in 1680. Chaussegros de Léry in 1726, under the instructions of Denonville, rebuilt the fort of stone, large enough to take a garrison of five hundred men. The materials were brought in part from Fort Frontenac in vessels built for the purpose. The fort was abandoned in 1687. Charlevoix mentions a blockhouse there in 1721, and that it was strengthened by adding four bastions in 1726. Rebuilt, 1749, as part of the ambitious French project of a chain of forts from Canada to Louisiana. Besieged and captured by Sir William Johnson in 1759. Five years later Johnson signed a treaty of peace here with the Indians. By the terms of the Treaty of Versailles the fort fell within the American lines, but was not surrendered until 1796 because certain other terms of the treaty had not been carried out by the United States. Captured by Colonel Murray in 1813. Restored by the treaty of Ghent. =Bib.=: Edgar, General Brock; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Parkman, _Frontenac and Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Fort Nipigon.= The earliest post on Lake Nipigon was that built for Du Lhut in 1684. It was in charge of his brother La Tourette as late as 1688, and was sometimes known by his name. Early in the eighteenth century another post was built at the mouth of the Nipigon river. Alexander Henry mentions its ruins in 1775. =Bib.=: Wis. _Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Fort Nisqually.= At head of Puget Sound. Built by Hudson’s Bay Company in 1833, to serve the territory between Fort Vancouver on the Columbia and Fort Langley on the Fraser. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Fort Oswego.= Originally built by Governor Burnet of New York in 1727, at his own expense—a loopholed house of stone on the site of the present city of Oswego, south shore of Lake Ontario. It was designed to attract the Indian trade from Fort Niagara, and was eminently successful. Destroyed by Montcalm in 1756. Rebuilt by Haldimand in 1759, and renamed Fort Ontario. Captured by Drummond and Yeo in the War of 1812. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Half Century of Conflict_ and _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Fort Pasquia or Poskoyac.= Built about the year 1742 by the sons of La Vérendrye, on the Saskatchewan at the place where the town of The Pas stands to-day. De Niverville was there in 1751. When Alexander Henry, the Elder, ascended the Saskatchewan in 1808, he found the remains of an old French fort at this place, and the trails leading to it were still visible. Also mentioned by Alexander Mackenzie. Remains of old French posts are also recorded, at the forks of the Saskatchewan, and on Carrot river, an affluent of the Saskatchewan. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Fort Pemaquid.= One of the frontier defences of New England. Originally a stockaded post built by Governor Andros, it was destroyed by the Abnaki in 1689, and rebuilt by Sir William Phipps in stone in 1692, and renamed Fort William Henry. Iberville appeared before the fort the same year with two war vessels, but sailed away without attacking it. In 1696 Iberville returned with a strong force and captured and demolished the fort. A point of land and a village of Maine bear the name to-day. =Bib.=: LeSueur, _Count Frontenac_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_. =Fort Pitt.= See Fort Duquesne. A Hudson’s Bay Company post of this name stood on the banks of the Saskatchewan near present town of Lloydminster. It was besieged and captured by Poundmaker in the Rebellion of 1885. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_. =Fort Presqu’isle.= Built by Marin in the summer of 1753. The city of Erie, Pennsylvania, now covers the site. Six years later a large force gathered here for the recapture of Fort Pitt, but was diverted to the relief of Niagara, where it was defeated. Presqu’isle was abandoned. Colonel Henry Bouquet from Fort Pitt took possession in 1760. Captured in 1763 by hostile Indians. The Americans under Anthony Wayne built a blockhouse on the site in 1793. Wayne died there three years later. Garrison maintained until the War of 1812-1814, and thereafter a naval station up to 1825. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Fort Providence.= There have been several trading posts of this name. One, afterwards known as Old Fort Providence, built 1790, stood on the north side of Great Slave lake, near the mouth of Yellowknife river. Probably built by Leroux under instructions from Alexander Mackenzie. About 1860 the Hudson’s Bay Company built another post, Fort Rae, farther up the north arm of the lake. Another Fort Providence stands on the banks of the Mackenzie river, not far from its outlet from Great Slave lake. Still another was on the North Saskatchewan, near where Prince Albert was afterwards built. It was in ruins in 1808. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Fort Rouge.= Built by de Louvière for La Vérendrye at the mouth of the Assiniboine in 1738. It was only a temporary post, and was abandoned soon after. The portion of the city of Winnipeg where it stood is known to-day as Fort Rouge. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Fort Rouillé.= Built by the French in 1749, in what is now the city of Toronto. Named after the French minister for the colonies. Designed to control the long portage route from Lake Ontario to Georgian Bay. Maintained for about two years. In 1757 Pouchot, the commandant at Niagara, sent La Ferté and fifty men to Rouillé to suppress a disturbance among the Indians at the fort. The remains of the fort were visible as late as 1879. The site is marked by a cairn. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Fort Rupert.= Also known as Fort Charles. Built by Captain Zachariah Gillam in 1668 at the mouth of Rupert River, James Bay. Gillam had been sent out with Radisson and Chouart to Hudson Bay to lay the foundations of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The fort was rebuilt or strengthened in 1677. Captured by the French under De Troyes in 1686, and renamed Fort St. Jacques. Retaken by the English in 1693. Still maintained by the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Fort Rupert.= _See_ Fort McLoughlin. =Fort St. Charles.= Built by La Vérendrye, on the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods, in 1732. Rebuilt and strengthened by La Vérendrye in 1736. It was one of his principal posts in connection with the search for the Western Sea. The site of the fort was discovered by an exploring party from St. Boniface College in 1902, with the skulls of Father Aulneau and the eldest son of La Vérendrye, murdered by the Sioux on the Lake of the Woods in 1736. Father Aulneau, in one of his letters, describes the fort as a stockade surrounding several rough log cabins roofed with bark. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Fort St. Frédéric.= _See_ Crown Point. =Fort St. James.= Post of the North West Company, on Stuart Lake, in northern British Columbia, built by Simon Fraser in 1806. Sir George Simpson visited the fort in 1828. =Bib.=: Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Fort St. Jean.= On the Richelieu river, within the boundaries of the present city of St. Johns. Built in 1748, and the rendezvous for military expeditions against the English on Lake Champlain and Lake George. Demolished by the French in 1760 to prevent its capture by the English. Rebuilt, 1775, and the same year captured by Montgomery after a long siege. Evacuated when the American army retreated from Canada. =Bib.=: Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_. =Fort St. Joseph.= Built about 1715 on the St. Joseph river. Coulon de Villiers was in command in 1730. Another post of the same name was built by Du Lhut, on the St. Clair river, about 1685. La Hontan succeeded him in the command, 1687, and abandoned and burnt the fort the following spring. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Fort St.= Louis. Built by La Salle in 1680 on the Illinois river, near the present town of La Salle. The governor, La Barre, who was unfriendly to La Salle, sent Baugy and Du Lhut in 1683 to seize the fort and confiscate the merchandise. La Salle appealed to the king, and La Barre was ordered to restore the fort and make full reparation to La Salle. =Bib.=: Le Sueur, _Count Frontenac_. =Fort St.= Louis. _See_ Chateau St. Louis. =Fort Ste. Marie.= Ste. Marie I stood on the banks of the Wye, near Midland, Ontario. Built by the Jesuits in 1639 as a fortified mission, it was occupied for ten years. Consisted of a stone fort and other works. Iroquois raids forced the missionaries to burn and abandon the fort. Ste. Marie II stood on Christian Island, near Penetanguishene. The fort was built in 1649 and abandoned the following year. The preservation of these sites is in the hands of the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada, which has carried out certain restoration work. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations, 1649, 1650_. =Fort St. Pierre.= In Cape Breton. Founded by Nicholas Denys, after he had been obliged to abandon Chedabucto. Taken from him in 1654 by Emmanuel le Borgne de Belle Isle. =Bib.=: Dionne, _Champlain_; Denys, _History of Acadia_. =Fort St. Pierre.= At the point where Rainy Lake discharges into Rainy river, north side. Built by La Jemeraye, under instructions from La Vérendrye, in 1731. The first of the series of posts built in connection with La Vérendrye’s search for a route to the Western Sea or the Pacific. The site of the fort is in what is known as Pither’s Point Park, in the town of Fort Frances. In clearing the brush, about the year 1860, R. J. N. Pither, of Fort Frances, found in the ground fragments of some of the stockades of Fort St. Pierre. A post of the North West Company and later of the Hudson’s Bay Company, stood on or near the site for many years. =Bib.=: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Fort Selkirk.= Built by Robert Campbell, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, at the point where the Pelly and Lewes rivers join to form the Yukon, in 1848. It was known at one time as Campbell’s Fort. Plundered and burnt by Indians in 1852. Named after Lord Selkirk, founder of the Selkirk Settlement. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Discovery of the Youcon_. =Fort Severn.= At mouth of Severn river, Hudson Bay. Built for the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1685. Rebuilt and called New Fort Severn, 1760. Captured by the French, 1690. Restored to Hudson’s Bay Company, 1693. Still in operation. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Fort Simpson.= At junction of Liard and Mackenzie rivers. Built about 1820, by the Hudson’s Bay Company. Known at first as Fort of the Forks. Present name after Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Richardson, _Arctic Searching Expedition_. =Fort Simpson.= On coast of British Columbia, near Alaskan boundary. First built by Hudson’s Bay Company about twenty miles up the Nass river in 1831, and known as Fort Nass. Name subsequently changed to Fort Simpson, in honour of Captain Æmilius Simpson, an officer in the Company’s service on the Pacific coast. The fort was moved down to McLoughlin’s Bay, now Port Simpson, in 1834. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Fort Stanwix.= Stood on the Mohawk river, guarding the end of the portage from Wood creek and Lake Oneida. An old blockhouse, Fort Williams, stood near the spot before 1756, when it was destroyed by Daniel Webb at the time of the capture of Oswego by Montcalm. The new fort was built by General Stanwix in 1758. Unsuccessfully besieged by St. Leger (_q.v._) in 1777. The town of Rome now covers the site. =Bib.=: Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_; Fiske, _New France and New England_. =Fort Vancouver.= On Columbia river. Established by Hudson’s Bay Company in 1824. Built by Dr. John McLoughlin. It was a large fort, 750 feet by 600 feet, a number of buildings surrounded by a stockade; and was for some years the headquarters of the Western department, extending from Russian America to Mexico. Supplies were brought around the Horn to the mouth of the Columbia. Grain was grown about the post; cattle, sheep, and hogs were raised; and flour, grist, and saw-mills established. The agreement on the forty-ninth parallel as the international boundary in 1846 put Fort Vancouver in United States territory, and, although it was not finally abandoned until 1849, its glory had departed. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Bancroft, _History of the North West Coast_. =Fort Vincennes.= On Wabash river. Founded about 1727 by the Sieur de Vincennes. One of the chain of forts built by the French from Canada to Louisiana by way of the Mississippi. It was particularly designed to counteract English influence among the Miami. It was in the country of the Illinois Indians, and about it in time grew up a little French settlement. Here they remained undisturbed for some time after the conquest of Quebec and the cession of Canada to Great Britain. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Fort Walla Walla.= Post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, on the Columbia river. It was the distributing point for the Snake river country. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Fort Wayne.= _See_ Fort Miami. =Fort Wellington.= In the town of Prescott, Ontario. Built in 1812-1813 as a centre of defence between Kingston and Montreal. The forces that took Ogdensburg in February, 1813, and the troops engaged in repelling the American invasion at Windmill Point in November, 1838, were assembled here. The blockhouse is now maintained by the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Fort William.= At mouth of the Kaministikwia river, Lake Superior. Named after William McGillivray of the North West Company. First known as Fort Kaministikwia. The Company moved from Grand Portage, which had been found to be within United States territory, to the mouth of the Kaministikwia, in 1801, and the fort, which was a very large one, with a number of buildings surrounded by a wall, took several years to complete. It was for many years the headquarters of the North West Company, where the annual meetings were held. Supplies were brought this far from Montreal in large canoes, and transferred to smaller canoes for the inland navigation. The fort and the life there have been described by Alexander Henry, Alexander Ross, Washington Irving, and other travellers and fur traders. The town of Fort William now covers the site. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Davidson, _North West Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Coues, _Henry-Thompson Journals_. =Fort William Henry.= On Lake George. Built by Sir William Johnson in 1755, and named by him after the then king’s grandson. Various raids were made against the fort by French and Indians, with varying success. Robert Rogers and other guerilla leaders made it their headquarters for expeditions against the French. Captured by Montcalm in 1757. The earthen mounds of the fort still stand on the shores of Lake George. =Bib.=: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe. =Fort Yale.= Founded by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1848. Stood on the Fraser river, some miles above the mouth of the Coquihalla. Town of Yale occupies the site to-day. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_. =Fort Yukon.= Built by Alexander Hunter Murray, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, at the mouth of the Porcupine river, in 1847. John Bell had descended the Porcupine to its mouth in 1844. Although Fort Yukon was on Russian territory, the Company maintained it until the sale of Alaska to the United States, when they were summarily ejected, 1869. The Company thereupon moved up the Porcupine to the Ramparts, where they built Rampart House, then supposed to be on British territory, but proved to be west of the boundary. The fort was moved twelve miles up the river, and in 1890 was again moved to the eastward. =Bib.=: Murray, _Journal_ (Canadian Archives Pub., 1910). =Forts.= _See also_ Astoria, Cataraqui, Chambly, Crown Point, Cumberland House, Detroit, Kaministikwia, Louisbourg, Michilimackinac, Moose Factory, Prince of Wales, Rocky Mountain House, Sorel, Three Rivers, Ticonderoga. =Foster, Sir George Eulas= (1847-). Born in Carleton county, New Brunswick. Educated University of New Brunswick, Edinburgh and Heidelberg. Professor of classics University of New Brunswick 1871-1879. Sat for King’s county, New Brunswick, in House of Commons, 1882-1896; for York county, New Brunswick, 1896-1900; for North Toronto, 1904-1921. Called to the Senate, 1921; Minister of finance, 1888-1896; minister of trade and commerce, 1911-1921. Delivered addresses on imperial preferential trade throughout Great Britain in 1903. Chairman of the West Indian Conference at Ottawa, 1912. A member of the Royal Commission on Natural Resources, 1912. Created K. C. M. G., 1914; G. C. M. G., 1918; Imperial Privy Councillor, 1916. Member of the Allied Economic Conference at Paris, 1916; and represented Canada at the Peace Conference, 1918. Chairman of the Canadian delegation to the first assembly of the League of Nations at Geneva, 1920, and elected one of the vice-presidents. =Bib.=: _Canadian Addresses_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; Chambers, _Can. Parl. Guide_. =Fothergill, Charles.= Editor of the _Upper Canada Gazette_, and king’s printer. The _Gazette_ had both an official and a non-official side. In the latter Fothergill attacked William Lyon Mackenzie in 1824. Became a member of the Assembly and opposed government measures. Dismissed from his office of king’s printer. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =Fouez.= _See_ St. Maurice River. =Fournier, Telesphore= (1824-1896). Studied law, and called to the bar, 1846; one of principal editorial writers on _Le National_; elected to the House of Commons for Bellechasse, 1870; minister of inland revenue, in Mackenzie government, 1873; minister of justice, 1874; postmaster-general, 1875. One of the leaders of the Quebec Liberals. Appointed judge of Supreme Court, 1875; resigned, 1895. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ =Fox Channel.= Between Melville peninsula and Baffin island. Named after Captain Luke Foxe (_q.v._) who commanded an expedition in search of the North-West Passage in 1631, and explored Fox channel. To some point in this channel he gave the name, now obsolete, of “Foxe his Farthest.” =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Fox Indians.= An Algonquian tribe which occupied part of the lower Michigan peninsula during the French régime in Canada. Driven west by the Iroquois, they took refuge in what is now Wisconsin. First visited by Perrot and other French traders in 1668. Their villages then or later were in the neighbourhood of Fox river. Visited by Allouez in 1669. In 1710 Cadillac persuaded them to return to their former home and settle about Detroit. Two years later they were practically wiped out in a fight with the Hurons and Ottawa in which the French took the side of the latter. Those who survived drifted back to Green Bay where they formed a confederacy with other tribes directed more or less against the French. About 1734 they retreated to Iowa. About the middle of the eighteenth century some of them were found on the Allegheny. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Fox River.= Flows into foot of Green Bay, Lake Michigan. Discovered by Nicolet in 1634. Visited subsequently by Radisson, Allouez and other explorers and missionaries. Fort La Baye was built at its mouth in 1717, and a considerable French settlement grew up along the banks of the river. A portage led to the Wisconsin and Mississippi. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Foxe, Luke= (1586-1635). A native of Yorkshire. Under the authority of Charles I, he sailed from Deptford for the west in May, 1631, in the pinnace _Charles_. The latter part of June he entered Hudson Strait, sailed through, across the north side of Hudson Bay, and down the west coast to the mouth of the Nelson, where he found an inscription left by Sir Thomas Button in 1613. Continuing his voyage down the west coast, he met Captain James in the Maria the last of August, and after visiting him, sailed on to Cape Henrietta Maria, where Hudson Bay proper turns down into James Bay. Here Foxe turned back and was again in England the end of October. His voyage had convinced him that the North-West Passage was not to be found on the west coast of Hudson Bay. =Bib.=: Rundall, _Narratives of Voyages towards the North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Franchère, Gabriel= (1786-1856). Born at Montreal. Joined the Pacific Fur Company, organized by John Jacob Astor, and sailed from New York for the mouth of the Columbia, 1810. Returned overland by way of the Columbia River and Athabaska Pass, reaching Montreal in September, 1814. His narrative throws an interesting light upon the Astor expedition and the events at Astoria which led up to the transfer of the fort to the North West Company. Continuing in the fur trade, established at Sault Ste. Marie in 1834; and later in New York. =Bib.=: _Relation d’un Voyage à la Côte du Nord-Ouest de l’Amérique Septentrionale_. Trans. by J. V. Huntington. For biog., _see_ Morice, _Dict. Hist._; Bibaud, _Pan. Can._ =Franchise.= Under the Constitutional Act, 1791, the right to vote in rural districts was based on a forty shilling freehold or its equivalent in any other tenure, while in towns it was granted to those who possessed a residence valued at five pounds or rented at ten pounds and had resided at least one year in the province. By the British North America Act, 1867, the power to determine the Dominion franchise was left to the federal parliament, but for some years the provincial franchises were used in Dominion elections. In 1885 Sir John Macdonald carried a federal franchise Act based on property. Manhood suffrage was in force at this time in all the provinces except Quebec and Nova Scotia. When Sir Wilfrid Laurier came into power in 1896 the Act of 1885 was repealed, and the provincial lists again brought into use for Dominion elections. =Bib.=: Kennedy, _Constitution of Canada_; Pope, _Memoirs of Macdonald_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =Franklin, Benjamin= (1706-1790). American statesman and philosopher. In 1776 he headed a commission sent by Congress to Montreal to look into the military and political situation in Canada. He reported that it was idle to attempt the capture of Canada at that time, and that all that could be done was to protect the Lake Champlain route against incursions from the north. =Bib.=: _Autobiography_; _Complete Works_ ed. by Bigelow. For biog., _see_ Lives by Parton, Hale, Morse and Bigelow. =Franklin, Sir John= (1786-1847). Served at Trafalgar, in the _Bellerophon_. Headed overland expedition of 1819-1822, from York Factory by way of Great Slave Lake, to the mouth of the Coppermine, and the Arctic coast; and second expedition, 1825-1827, in which he continued his explorations of the northern coast of the continent. Started on third expedition, by sea, to make North-West Passage. The ships had to be abandoned, and Franklin and all his men perished in the attempt to reach one of the remote northern posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Works: _Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea_, 1823; _Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea_. For biog., see Richardson, _Arctic Searching Expedition_; Rae, _Narrative_; McClintock, _Narrative of the Fate of Sir John Franklin_; Osborn, _Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir John Franklin_; Traill, _Life of Sir John Franklin_. =Franklin, Michael.= Born in England. Came to Halifax, 1752. Elected to the Assembly, 1759; appointed to the Council, 1762; lieutenant-governor, 1766. Organized the militia of the province, 1776-1777; largely instrumental in securing the peace of Nova Scotia during the Revolutionary War. Appointed commissioner of Indian affairs. Died, 1782. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Franquelin, Jean Baptiste Louis.= Born between 1651 and 1653, at Saint Michel de Villebernin. Hydrographer to the king of France. Came to Canada about 1672. Came out again in 1687 and the following year published his great map of New France. He had issued a less elaborate and authoritative map in 1681, and another in 1684. Obtained information for his 1688 map from Du Lhut, Tonty and Perrot. Returned to France, 1695. Died between 1712 and 1730. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_; Roy, _Un hydrographie du Roi à Québec_ (R. S. C., 1919). =Fraser, Duncan Cameron= (1845-1910). Born in New Glasgow, Nova Scotia. Educated at Dalhousie University, studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1873. Appointed to the Legislative Council, 1878, but resigned same year to run for the Assembly. Again called to the Legislative and Executive Councils, 1888. Sat in the House of Commons for Guysborough, 1891-1904; appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1904; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1906-1910. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_;_ Canadian Who’s Who_. =Fraser, John James.= Opposed the entry of New Brunswick into Confederation. Defeated in York county on that issue, 1866. Lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1893-1896. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Fraser, Malcolm.= Served in the army at Louisbourg and Quebec, 1758-1760, and left an interesting journal of the siege of Quebec and the battle of Ste. Foye. In 1761 was granted a _seigniory_ at Malbaie, and subsequently one at Rivière du Loup. Brought out recruits to Canada in 1775 for the Royal Emigrants. Took part in the defence of Quebec against Montgomery and Arnold. In command at Three Rivers during the pursuit of the Americans and defeated Thompson in a skirmish near there. He was still on active service in 1812. =Bib.=: Wrong, _A Canadian Manor and its Seigneurs_. =Fraser, Simon= (1776?-1862). Born at Bennington, Vermont. With his widowed mother, came to Canada as a child and settled at Three Rivers, and later at St. Andrew’s, near Cornwall. He joined the North West Company in 1792, and ten years later became a _bourgeois_ or partner. He was agent for the Company at Grand Portage in 1797, and at Fort Liard, 1804. The following year he was put in charge of the new field of New Caledonia, west of the mountains. Crossing the Rockies by Peace River, he ascended the Parsnip to a lake which he named after Archibald Norman McLeod. Here he established a small post. In the spring of 1806, with John Stuart, he crossed over to the headwaters of the Fraser river, as it was afterwards known, descended it to the Nechaco, and ascended the latter to a lake which he named Stuart, and near the outlet of which he built Fort St. James. The same year he built Fort Fraser on Fraser Lake. In the spring of 1807 he descended to the mouth of the Nechaco, where he built Fort George. In May, 1808, with Stuart, Jules Maurice Quesnel, and nineteen _voyageurs_, he set forth on his tremendous journey down the Fraser, one which because of its extraordinary dangers and difficulties and the indomitable pluck with which it was pushed through to a successful issue has few parallels in the history of exploration. He followed the river practically to its mouth, and only then discovered that it was not the Columbia as he had supposed. On his journey down the Fraser he crossed the mouth of a large tributary, which he named the Thompson, after David Thompson (_q.v._). In 1811 he was promoted to the charge of the Red River department, and was offered knighthood as a recognition of his services in the cause of exploration, but declined the honour. He was present at the Seven Oaks affair, when Governor Semple of the Hudson’s Bay Company lost his life, and was also at Fort William when Lord Selkirk captured that post. Retired from the fur trade about the time of the coalition of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Company. Died at St. Andrew’s, Cornwall, Ontario. The Hudson’s Bay Company in 1921 placed a memorial stone over his grave. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North West Coast_; Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Davidson, _North West Company_. Fraser’s journals, in somewhat different form, are found in Masson and in Bancroft. =Fraser River.= Rises in Rocky Mountains, one branch near Mount Robson and the other near Mount Brown, and flows into Strait of Georgia. Its upper waters discovered by Alexander Mackenzie, 1793; and first explored down to its mouth by Simon Fraser, 1808. Eliza, the Spanish explorer, named the river Rio Blanca in 1791, having learned of its existence from the Indians. Vancouver passed its mouth in 1792 without discovering the river. James McMillan, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, explored the mouth in 1824. The total length of the river is 695 miles. It has many tributaries, the principal being the Nechaco, Stuart, Thompson, Chilcotin, and Blackwater. =Bib.=: Fraser _Journal_ in Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; _Atlas of Canada_; Davidson, _North West Company_. =Fréchette, Louis= (1839-1908). Born at Lévis. Practised law and then journalism. Edited _L’Amérique_ in Chicago. Fought a duel in New Orleans with a Prussian at the time of the Franco-Prussian war. Returned to Quebec. Represented Lévis in the House of Commons, 1874-1878. Afterwards clerk to the Legislative Council. Chiefly known as a poet. Two of his poems were crowned by the French Academy, 1880, and he was granted the first Montyon prize. =Bib.=: Works: _Mes Loisirs_; _La Voix d’un Exilé_; _Pêle Mêle_; _Les Fleurs Boreales_; _Légende d’un Peuple_; _Les Feuilles Volantes_; _Lettres Basile_; _Originaux et Détraqués_; _Lettres sur l’Education_. For biog., _see_ Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_; Taché, _Men of the Day_; Chapman, _Le Lauréat_; Sauville, _Le Lauréat Manqué_. =Fredericton.= Capital of New Brunswick. Situated on the west bank of the St. John River. Founded by Sir Guy Carleton in 1785, and named by him after the Duke of York. Incorporated as a city, 1848. An Acadian settlement named Ste. Anne’s, dating from 1731, stood on the same spot. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Free Trade.= As a political policy has been advocated at various times by political leaders and parties in Canada, but has never been put in actual operation. It was proposed by George Brown in the fullest sense in 1850. He would “dispense with the whole customs department.” It was recommended by the Reform Convention of 1857. Sir Wilfrid Laurier at one time was in favour of “free trade as they have it in England,” but modified his views to “a tariff for revenue only.” Sir John Macdonald’s view was that free trade as an abstract proposition was indisputably sound, but that its successful application depended upon conditions that did not exist in Canada. The adoption of free trade in England in 1846 was charged with the death of Canadian industries. Elgin’s view, however, was that it was “the inconsistency of imperial legislation, and not the adoption of one policy rather than another, which (was) the bane of the colonies.” =Bib.=: Skelton, _Laurier_; Pope, _Macdonald_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_. =Frémin, James= (1628-1691). Born at Rheims; entered the Society of Jesus, 1646; and sailed for Canada, 1655. The following year he went with Dablon to Onondaga, and remained there until 1658. For some years he was stationed among the Micmacs in Cape Breton, and at La Prairie on the St. Lawrence. In 1666 he was selected with Bruyas and Pierron to reëstablish the abandoned Iroquois missions. He remained with the Mohawks until 1668, when he started for the Seneca country. The following year he set out for the home of the Cayugas, shortly before La Salle arrived at the Seneca town looking for a guide. As La Salle and the Jesuits were not on friendly terms, it has been suggested that Frémin’s absence was not unpremeditated. The same year Frémin presided at a meeting of all the missionaries at Onondaga. Soon afterwards he took charge, at the request of the governor, De Courcelles, of the new mission settlement of Iroquois at Caughnawaga, on the St. Lawrence. Here he was visited at different times by Laval, the Intendant Duchesneau, Perrot the governor of Montreal, and other notabilities of New France. Frémin died at Quebec. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =French Canadians.= Their ancestors came for the most part from the west of France, Normandy and Picardy. Emigration from the old land had practically ceased some time before Canada became British. Unlike the rest of Canada, and indeed the rest of North America north of Mexico, Quebec has owed little to immigration. Her population is almost entirely the result of natural increase. The extraordinary character of that increase may be judged from the fact that while there were 65,000 French in Canada at the conquest, the 1921 census reported nearly two and a half millions, and to these may be added another million in the United States. It has been estimated that between 1784 and 1841 the natural increase was 200 per cent. With the exception of Rumania, Quebec has the highest birth-rate in the world. Geographical and other conditions have led to the development of a race that possesses an individuality of its own, distinct from that of present-day France as it is also distinct from that of the France of Louis XIII and XIV. General Murray, speaking of the French Canadian in the early days of British rule, paid a tribute to his industry, frugality, morality and natural politeness. These are still the outstanding qualities of the French in Canada. As a race they are extraordinarily self-contained and pure. It is doubtful if in any other country such a work would be possible as Tanguay’s genealogical dictionary of the French Canadians. They have added elements of strength and beauty to the character of the Canadian people. Theirs is the most dramatic and romantic phase of Canadian history. Their literature, particularly in poetry and literary essays, compares very favourably with that of English-speaking Canadians. They have produced such explorers as Jacques Cartier, Champlain, La Salle, Radisson and La Vérendrye; missionaries like Jogues, Chaumonot, Ragueneau, Brébeuf, Lalemant Garnier and Lacombe; statesmen such as LaFontaine, Cartier and Laurier. =Bib.=: Sulte, _Histoire des Canadiens-Français_; Garneau, _Histoire du Canada_; Bibaud, _Histoire du Canada_; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Le Sueur, _Frontenac_; De Brumath, _Laval_; Bradley, _Dorchestrer_; McIlwraith, _Haldimand_; DeCelles, _Papineau-Cartier_; Davidson, _Growth of French Canadian Race_; Aubert de Gaspé, _Les Anciens Canadiens_; Salone, _La Colonisation de la Nouvelle France_; _Étude sur les Origines de la Nation Canadienne Française_; Greenough, _Canadian Folk-Life_; Grant, _French-Canadian Life and Character_; Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_; Tanguay, _Dictionnaire Généalogique_; Sulte, _Origin of the French Canadians_ (R. S. C., 1905); Nicholson, _The French Canadian_; Fiske, _New France and New England_; Lambert, _Travels in Canada_; Bracq, _Evolution of French Canada_. _See_ Bibliography in last-named book. =French Language.= In 1849 the Imperial Parliament passed an Act repealing the clause of the Union Act declaring English the sole official language of the Legislature. Lord Elgin introduced the new practice by reading his speech in both languages. As early as 1793, in the Rules and Regulations of the House of Assembly of Lower Canada, it was provided that Bills relative to the laws, customs, usages and civil rights of the province “shall be introduced in the French language;” and in the Act of 1794 establishing a Court of King’s Bench for Upper Canada, it is provided that the process to be served upon a defendant who was “a Canadian subject by treaty, or the son or daughter of such Canadian subject” (_Canadian_ here meaning French Canadian) “shall be written in the French language.” Under the Union Act of 1840 English was the official language, but French might be used either in translating documents or in debate. Under the terms of the British North America Act, 1867, either English or French might be used in debates in the Dominion Parliament or Quebec Legislature; both languages were to be used in the records and journals of those Houses; and either language might be used in any Court of Canada or of Quebec. The use of the French language in Ontario schools has been a matter of long and bitter controversy. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Constitution of Canada_; Kennedy, _Constitution of Canada_; Belcourt, _French in Ontario_. =Frenchman’s Creek.= Near Bridgeburg, Ontario. Scene of an engagement on November 28th, 1812, between British and American troops. A party of American troops landed near Frenchman’s creek, attempted unsuccessfully to destroy the bridge, and finally were forced to retreat to their own side of the river. On May 31st, 1866, a number of Fenians also landed at the same place, but found discretion the better part of valour and hastily retired. A monument marks the spot. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Frobisher, Benjamin.= A partner of the North West Company. Took an active part in the development of the western fur trade with his brothers and other Montreal merchants. Died 1787. =Bib.=: See The memorials of Benjamin Frobisher and Joseph Frobisher, his brother, on the western fur trade, in _Archives Report_, 1890, and particularly that of Oct. 4, 1784, giving the early history of the North West Company; _also_ correspondence in _Archives Report, 1888_. =Frobisher, Benjamin.= Probably, according to Masson, a son of Joseph Frobisher. Entered service of North West Company, about 1798. Mentioned as clerk of that Company, in 1804 and 1805, and took a violent part in the troubles between the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. Captured by Hudson’s Bay men in 1819, carried to York Factory and imprisoned; escaped, and in a desperate attempt to make his way back to one of the North West Company posts, died of exhaustion at Cedar Lake. =Bib.=: Wilcocke, _Death of Frobisher_ in Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_. =Frobisher, Joseph.= Brother of Benjamin and Thomas. A partner of the North West Company. Member of the fur trading firm of McTavish, Frobisher and Company. Built a fort on Red River, and penetrated to the Churchill River, 1774, where, at Frog Portage, he built a post. Gave the name of English River to the Churchill. Accompanied Alexander Henry up the Saskatchewan in 1775. Returned to Montreal, but retained a large interest in the fur trade until 1798, when he retired. Died in Montreal. His manuscript journal and diary are in the McGill University Library. =Bib.=: Henry, Travels and Adventures, ed. by Bain; Mackenzie, _History of the Fur Trade_ in his _Voyages_. =Frobisher, Sir Martin= (1535?-1594). Navigator. Made three voyages to America in search of the North-West Passage, 1576, 1577, and 1578. In the first he reached and explored Frobisher Bay, north of the entrance to Hudson Straits. The second and third voyages were made to the same bay, with no particular addition to geographical knowledge. Vice-admiral in Drake’s expedition to West Indies, 1586; led one of the squadrons against the Spanish Armada; took part in Hawkins’ expedition, 1590. =Bib.=: Collinson, _Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Frobisher, Thomas= (1744-1792). Partner of the North West Company. With Joseph Frobisher, Alexander Henry, and Peter Pond, in the North-West, 1775. In that year, explored the Churchill River as far as Isle à la Crosse Lake. He had also been west in 1772 when he built a trading post on Sturgeon Lake, north of the Saskatchewan. =Bib.=: Henry, _Travels and Adventures_; Mackenzie, _History of the Fur Trade in his Voyages_. =Frog Lake.= About ten miles north of the Saskatchewan and thirty miles from Fort Pitt. A post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and a Roman Catholic mission, were established here. In the Riel Rebellion of 1885, Big Bear and his Indians attacked the place on April 2nd, and massacred a number of people. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1885. =Bib.=: _Saskatchewan Rebellion (Canada in the Great World War, I)_ =Frog Portage.= Or Portage de Traite, leading from the Saskatchewan River, by way of Cumberland Lake, the Sturgeon-Weir River, Heron, Pelican, and Woody Lakes, to the Churchill. It was discovered by Joseph Frobisher, who built a temporary trading post there in 1774. Two years later Thomas Frobisher built a more substantial fort at the same place. He was joined there in that year by Alexander Henry, and plans were matured for intercepting the western Indians on their way down the Churchill to trade at Prince of Wales Fort. Alexander Mackenzie says that the Indians called the portage _Athiquisipichigan Ouinigam_, or the Portage of the Stretched Frog Skin. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Frontenac, Louis de Buade, Comte de Palluau et de= (1620-1698). He entered the army at the age of fifteen, and saw his first service in Holland under the Prince of Orange. In various campaigns in the Low Countries and Italy he acquitted himself with such distinction that at the age of twenty-three he had become colonel of the regiment of Normandy, and in 1646 _maréchal de camp_ or brigadier-general. The peace of Westphalia, 1648, released him from military duty, for the time being. In 1669 he commanded an army of Venetians and French in defending Crete against the Turks. Three years later he was sent to Canada as governor in succession to Courcelles. His first step was to call together the “three estates,” nobles, clergy and people, but his autocratic master made it clear that in Canada as in France representative institutions of any kind were to be discouraged. He was instructed also to tactfully check the pretensions of the Church. In practice this meant rather the Jesuits than the Sulpicians and Récollets. Frontenac’s relations with the latter were amicable, but he had more than one dispute with the Jesuits, and his tenure of office in Canada was an almost continuous struggle of wills with the energetic and ambitious bishop of Quebec, Laval. He also before long came into conflict with the Intendant Duchesneau. These disputes were brought to the attention of the Court, and as both the bishop and the intendant had friends in Paris, the governor was warned to curb his contentious spirit. Meantime he had been energetically carrying out a policy of expansion of the colony’s boundaries and jurisdiction toward the westward. With a military escort, he visited Montreal, and ascended the St. Lawrence to Cataraqui, where he met representatives of the Iroquois and found them in a very friendly mood. At the same time he carried out a project which Courcelles had proposed, by building a fort at Cataraqui. In 1682 the rivalry between the governor and intendant, which had become so fierce that Canada was almost divided into two antagonistic camps, came to a head, and both were recalled to France. Before he left, Frontenac managed to patch up what promised to be a dangerous quarrel between the Iroquois and the Ottawas, arising out of the murder of a Seneca chief; and in view of the aggressive attitude of the Iroquois he took steps to strengthen the fortifications of Montreal. His successors, La Barre and Denonville, were weaklings and made such a mess of Canadian affairs, which were then at a critical stage, that Louis XIV was glad to send Frontenac back as governor. This was in 1689, about a month after war had been declared between France and England. Frontenac was now free to attack the New England settlements, and sent out raiding expeditions under such leaders as Le Moyne de Ste. Hélène, Hertel and Portneuf. A good deal of damage was done, but the principal advantage of the raids from Frontenac’s point of view was its salutary effect on the haughty Iroquois. If Frontenac was prepared to carry war into the very heart of the English territory, he was a man to be reckoned with. In his negotiations with the Iroquois he maintained a firm attitude, in strong contrast to the temporizing policy of his predecessors, and finally sent an expedition against them. The treaty of Ryswick at last brought peace with New England and also, temporarily at least, with the Iroquois. While war was still in progress, however, Sir William Phipps had appeared before Quebec, in 1690, with his fleet and his little army of New Englanders, and summoned Frontenac to surrender the fortress, to which the governor sent a contemptuous refusal. Phipps after a skirmish or two sailed away. Frontenac died at Quebec, November 28th, 1698. Parkman said of him: “Versed in books, polished in courts and salons, without fear, incapable of repose, keen and broad of sight, clear in judgment, prompt in decision, fruitful in resources, unshaken when others despaired; a sure breeder of storms in time of peace, but in time of calamity and danger, a tower of strength ... it was he who saved the colony and led it triumphant from an abyss of ruin.” =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_; Myrand, _Frontenac et ses amis_; Lorin _Le Comte de Frontenac_; Legendre, _Frontenac_; Brady, _Frontenac, the Saviour of Canada_; LeSueur, _Count Frontenac_; Colby, _The Fighting Governor_. =Frontier College.= An interesting experiment in bringing education to the worker at his work. Initiated by a group of Canadian educationalists about the beginning of the present century, and has sent some 900 men, graduates and undergraduates of every Canadian university and of some United States universities, as instructors to more than 600 frontier locations in Canada. More than one hundred thousand workers in out of the way parts of the Dominion have been given the opportunity of mental improvement and of fitting themselves for a higher class of work. The field includes lumber camps, mining camps, railroad construction gangs, factory workers, etc. The instructors work with the men during the day and give them instruction in the evenings; they also act as agents for the distribution of books and magazines. Incidentally they are doing valuable work in developing the foreign-born worker into a good citizen and a good Canadian. =Fulford, Francis= (1803-1868). Educated at Oxford; ordained, 1828. Consecrated first Anglican bishop of Montreal, 1850, and sailed for Canada the same year. In 1860 metropolitan of the ecclesiastical province of Canada. A village in Brome county, Quebec, named after him. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._ and _Last Three Bishops_; Mockridge, _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. =Fuller, Thomas Brock= (1810-1884). Born in Kingston. Educated at the Grammar Schools at Hamilton and York and at Chambly Theological Seminary. Ordained priest, 1835; laboured in various parts of Canada; archdeacon of Niagara, 1869; bishop of Niagara, 1875. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Mockridge, _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. =Fundy, Bay of.= Explored by De Monts and Champlain in 1604. Probably visited a hundred years earlier by Basque and Breton fishermen, and possibly by the Northmen several centuries before. Known to the Portuguese as Baia Fundo (Deep Bay). Named by De Monts La Baie Française. The year 1604 witnessed not only the first exploration of which any narrative survives, but also the first European settlement on the shores of the bay. _See also_ Acadia. =Bib.=: Champlain, _Voyages_; Ganong, _Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick_ (R.S.C., 1896). =Fur Trade.= During the French régime it began at Tadoussac about 1608. Later a post was established at the mouth of the Richelieu. About 1610 from twelve to fifteen thousand skins were sent to France and sold there at one pistole each. The trading centre later shifted to Sault Ste. Louis; in 1618 to Three Rivers; then to Quebec and that part of the St. Lawrence. Following the explorations of Champlain, La Salle and others, the fur trade moved west to Detroit, Michilimackinac, Green Bay and the Mississippi, Nipigon, Kaministikwia and the western posts of La Vérendrye. _See also_ under names of trading companies—Company of Canada, Company of De Caën, etc. Soon after the cession of Canada to England, British traders began to explore the west for furs. They followed in the footsteps of French traders to the Great Lakes and the Mississippi, and west of Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, the Assiniboine and the Saskatchewan, building trading posts at strategic points and getting into touch with the various tribes. These independent traders, realizing the advantages of coöperation, formed themselves into two trading corporations, the North West Company and the X Y Company. Bitter competition between these companies ended in the absorption of the latter by the former. Meanwhile the Hudson’s Bay Company had, after confining its activities for a hundred years to the shores of Hudson Bay, moved inland to meet the competition of the North West Company. That competition also became so intense that union was found to be the only solution. _See also_ Hudson’s Bay Company; North West Company; X Y Company; Montreal Company; Pacific Fur Company; Mackinaw Company; Alexander Henry; Peter Pond; Daniel Williams Harmon; John McLoughlin; Sir James Douglas; Sir George Simpson. =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _History of the Fur Trade in his Voyages_; Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Parkman, _Works_; Henry, _Travels and Adventures_; _Henry-Thompson Journals_, ed. by Coues; Harmon, _Journal_; Franchère, _Narrative_; Larpenteur, _Forty Years a Fur Trader_; Chittenden, _History of the American Fur Trade_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Willson, _The Great Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Begg, _History of the North-West_; Davidson, _North West Company_. =Gage, Thomas= (1721-1787). Entered the army in 1741, and served in Flanders. Fought under Braddock at Monongahela, 1755, and under Abercromby at Ticonderoga, 1758. Took part in the campaign for the conquest of Canada, 1759; made military governor of Montreal after its capitulation, 1760. Succeeded Amherst, 1763, as commander-in-chief, with headquarters at New York. Sailed for England, 1773, leaving Haldimand in command. Returned the following year, as governor of Massachusetts. After the battle of Bunker Hill, 1775, recalled. =Bib.=: _Letters of the Two Commanders-in-Chief, Generals Gage and Washington_; _Detail and Conduct of the American War, under General Gage_. _See also_ Mass. Hist. Soc. _Colls._, vols. 12, 14, and 34; and _Haldimand Papers_ (Canadian Archives). For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Gale, Samuel= (1747-1826). Born in England, he came to America about 1770 as a paymaster in the army and eventually settled in New Hampshire. When the Revolution broke out, he became obnoxious to the popular side because of his Loyalist sentiments, and was twice imprisoned. Went to Canada and became provincial secretary. Accompanied Governor Prescott to England to assist in adjusting certain questions of administration. Wrote and published an _Essay on Public Credit_ which is said to have met with the approval of Pitt. Returned to Canada after several years’ absence, and died at Farnham. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Galiano, Dionisio.= Accompanied Maurelle in 1792 to North-West Coast. Carried out considerable surveys for the Spanish government, partly in conjunction with Vancouver. Commanded the Spanish battleship _Bahama_ at Trafalgar in 1805. Galiano island on the British Columbia coast, and the remarkable Galiano gallery on Gabriola island, named after him. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Galicians in Canada.= When the district of Athabasca was opened up, in the last decade of the nineteenth century, many foreign settlers flocked in, and among the earliest a number of Galicians and Ruthenians, from Central Europe, who settled in the vicinity of Fort Saskatchewan, Fish Creek, Yorkton and Rosthern. They were farmers, with little means, but in time by dint of hard work put themselves in comfortable circumstances. By the census of 1921 there were in Canada 106,721 classed as Ukrainian, of whom 24,456 were Galician and 16,861 Ruthenian. =Galinée, René de Bréhant de.= A member of a noble family of Brittany; came to Canada in 1668. With his fellow-Sulpician, Dollier de Casson (_q.v._), carried out an important exploration in 1669-1670, from Montreal up the St. Lawrence, and around the south shore of Lake Ontario to Burlington Bay; thence to the Grand River, which they descended to Lake Erie, where they wintered. In March, 1670, they continued their journey along the north shore of Lake Erie, passed through Lake St. Clair and Lake Huron, and coasting the south side of Manitoulin Island, reached Sault Ste. Marie, where they found Marquette and Dablon. They returned to Montreal by way of Lake Nipissing and the Ottawa. Galinée’s narrative of the journey was sent home to the king. He himself returned to France in 1671. =Bib.=: _Exploration of the Great Lakes, 1669-1670: Galinée’s Narrative and Map_, ed. by James H. Coyne (Ont. Hist. Soc., 1903). =Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch= (1817-1893). Son of John Galt (_q.v._). Worked for some years with the British America Land Company, which was attempting much the same scheme of settlement in the Eastern Townships as the Canada Company had been carrying out in the western parts of Upper Canada. In 1844 he became commissioner, and held the office for twelve years. In 1849 he was elected to the Legislature for Sherbrooke; opposed the Baldwin-LaFontaine government, and voted against the Rebellion Losses bill. Dropped out of public life when the capital was removed from Montreal to Toronto, but in 1853 re-elected for Sherbrooke, and held the same seat up to Confederation. He took a very active part in the movement leading up to Confederation, having urged it in speeches both in the Legislature and elsewhere in 1858. When the short-lived Brown-Dorion administration came to an end, Sir Edmund Head invited Galt to form a government, but he declined. In the Cartier-Macdonald administration, 1858, he accepted the office of minister of finance, but on the express stipulation that the new government would actively support the cause of federation. A clause was embodied in the speech from the throne announcing early discussion with the sister colonies in regard to union, and after the close of the session Galt accompanied Cartier and Rose to England to secure the approval of the British government. In 1865 he again proceeded to England as one of the commissioners to confer with the Imperial government on confederation, defence, reciprocity and other matters. He took part in both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences, and went to London in 1867 when the final terms of union were decided upon. In the first Dominion government he became minister of finance, but resigned the same year. He had always been an advocate of protection for native industries, and as early as 1858 had foreshadowed the National Policy of Sir John Macdonald. Appointed high commissioner for Canada in London, 1880; four years later resigned and succeeded by Sir Charles Tupper. =Bib.=: Works: _Canada from 1849 to 1859_; _Union of the British North American Provinces_. For biog., _see_ Skelton, _Life of Galt_; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_. =Galt, John= (1779-1839). Came to Canada, 1824; returned to England; came out again in 1826, remaining until 1829. Associated in the Canada Company, with William Dunlop, Thomas Talbot, and Samuel Strickland. Founded towns of Guelph and Goderich. Town of Galt named after him. _See_ Canada Company; Dunlop; Talbot; Strickland. =Bib.=: Works: _Ayrshire Legatees_; _Annals of the Parish_; _Sir Andrew Wylie_; _The Entail_; _Bogle Corbet_; _Stanley Buxton_; _Eken Erskine_; _The Lost Child_; _The Member_; _The Radical_; _Laurie Todd_; _Life of Byron_; _Lives of the Players_; _Autobiography_; _Literary Life and Miscellanies_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Lizars, _Days of the Canada Company_. =Galt, Sir Thomas= (1815-1901). Son of John Galt. For several years in the employ of the Canada Company. Studied law and called to the bar, 1845. Q. C., 1858. Appointed to the Court of Common Pleas, 1869, and became chief-justice, 1887. Knighted following year. Retired from the bench, 1894. =Bib.=: Skelton, _Life of Galt_. =Galt.= City of Ontario, on the Grand river. Named after John Galt, the novelist, who was commissioner of the Canada Company. The city was founded by William Dickson, a school friend of Galt, in 1816, and the post office was opened in that year. It was first known as Shade’s Mills, and changed to Galt in 1827. Incorporated as a town in 1857, and as a city in 1915. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_; Lizars, _Days of the Canada Company_. =Garneau, François-Xavier= (1809-1866). French-Canadian historian. Spent two years in Paris and London. Studied law and practised as a notary; afterwards clerk of the Legislative Assembly, and city clerk of Quebec; member of the Council of Public Instruction; president of the _Institut Canadien_. His history, which first appeared in three volumes between 1845 and 1848, is written quite frankly from the point of view of French Canada. The translation by Bell is unreliable, the translator having added material not in the original text, and quite inconsistent with Garneau’s viewpoint. =Bib.=: _Histoire du Canada_. Fifth edition, ed. by Hector Garneau. Trans. by Andrew Bell. For biog., _see_ Casgrain, _F.-X. Garneau_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ and _Bib. Can._ =Garnier, Charles= (1605-1649). Arrived at Quebec from France, and accompanied Jogues and Chatelain to the Huron mission, 1636; and journeyed with the former to the Tobacco Nation, near Nottawasaga Bay, 1639-1640. Returned to the Huron mission, where he died a martyr to his faith, slain by an Iroquois hatchet. _Bib._: Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Lalemant, _Rélation des Hurons, 1640_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Garnier, Julien= (1643-1730). Born in France, he entered the Jesuit order in 1660. Came to Quebec shortly afterwards, and was sent to the Seneca mission, in the Genesee valley, where he remained for many years. In 1710 he returned to Quebec, and spent the remainder of his life in ministering to the Indians on the St. Lawrence. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Garreau, Leonard= (1609-1656). Born at Arédieux, Limoges, France; entered the Jesuit order, 1628; studied theology at Rome; sailed from La Rochelle for Canada, 1643, with Chabanel, Druillettes and other missionaries. Sent to Huronia, he arrived there the following year, went back to Lake Nipissing, and accompanied a party of Algonquians from camp to camp. In 1646 he accompanied Garnier to the Petun mission. After the massacre of the Hurons by the Iroquois in 1649, Garreau was left alone in the Huron country; finally he followed the remnants of the tribe to St. Joseph island, and from there back to Quebec. In 1656 he started west again with Father Druillettes and a party of Ottawas. They were ambushed by the Iroquois near Montreal, and in the fight Garreau was mortally wounded. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Garry, Nicholas.= The Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company having been amalgamated in 1821, Garry, then a director of the former Company, was sent out to the North-West with Simon McGillivray, in that year, to make the necessary arrangements. Garry’s diary of this journey is published in the Royal Society _Trans._, 1900. Subsequently deputy governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1822-1835. Fort Garry was named after him. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Manitoba_ and _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Gaspé.= _See_ Aubert de Gaspé. =Gaspé Peninsula.= Between the St. Lawrence and Chaleur Bay. The name is of uncertain derivation. According to Ganong, it first appeared in 1542 in the “Routier” of Jean Alphonse as _Bay of Molues or Gaspé_. Champlain has _Gachepé_ in 1603, and _Gaspé_ in 1613. Various authorities derive the name from Abnaki or Micmac words meaning the end or extremity. Jacques Cartier may not have been the first white man to land on the shores of the peninsula, but his voyage of 1534 is the earliest definite record. For the next hundred years the Gaspé shore was visited only by occasional fishermen from Normandy or the Bay of Biscay. In 1619 the first mission was established. Nine years later Kirke defeated De Roquemont in Gaspé Bay. In 1636 Nicolas Denys made the first permanent settlement. Hovenden Walker anchored in Gaspé Bay on his way to attack Quebec in 1711; and Wolfe spent a month there in 1758 with the fleet. Nicolas Cox was lieutenant-governor of Gaspé in 1774, and was succeeded by Francis LeMoine. The office was a sinecure, but survived for about fifty years. The population of Gaspé to-day is pretty well confined to fishing villages, the interior being for the most part uninhabited. =Bib.=: Clarke, _The Heart of Gaspé_; Le Clerq, _New Relation of Gaspesia_. =Gaspereau River.= A small tidal stream, flowing into the Basin of Minas. Grand Pré, once a principal settlement of the Acadians, stands upon its banks. =Bib.=: Burpee, _By Canadian Streams_. =Gavazzi Riots.= Father Gavazzi, a former monk, had become a Protestant, and his lectures in Quebec and Montreal in 1854, purporting to expose the errors of his former faith, led to riots in both cities. In Montreal troops were called out, and through a misunderstanding shots were fired and blood was shed. Brown attacked the government for failure to suppress the riots. =Bib.=: Gavazzi, _Lectures and Life_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Hincks, _Reminiscences_. =Gazette (Halifax).= First newspaper published in what is now the Dominion of Canada. Established, 1752 by Bartholomew Green, whose father had been the publisher of the Boston _News-Letter_, the first newspaper published in America. Green brought his press and types from Boston to Halifax. He died before he could bring out the first issue, but his assistant John Bushell carried on. Among the advertisements was one of the sale of several negro slaves. =Bib.=: Wallis, _Hist. Sketch of Canadian Journalism_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 5. =Gazette (Montreal).= Established, 1778 by Fleury de Mesplet, type, press and paper having been brought to Montreal by Benjamin Franklin and the other commissioners sent by Congress to convert the Canadians to republicanism. The paper was at first printed in French, and issued from the Château de Ramezay; later in French and English, and finally in English. Still survives after an eventful career of nearly a century and a half. =Bib.=: Wallis, _Hist. Sketch of Can. Journalism_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 5. =Gazette (Quebec).= Established, 1764, by two Philadelphia printers, William Brown and Thomas Gilmour. Type, press and paper were brought from England. Printed half in English and half in French. Lived for more than a century under various publishers and editors. Represented on the whole the views of the English in Quebec, and fell under the displeasure of the Legislative Assembly. Opposed union of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. =Bib.=: Wallis, _Hist. Sketch of Can. Journalism_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 5. =Gazette (Toronto).= Established by William Lyon Mackenzie. First issue appeared May 12th, 1838. Ceased publication in December, 1840. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =General Commissioner for Canada in France.= Hector Fabre, 1882-1910; Philippe Roy, 1910. =Genet, Edmond Charles= (1765-1834). Minister of France to the United States, 1793. Sent agents to Canada to stir up disaffection among the French Canadians. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Geological Survey.= First suggested by Dr. Rae, in 1832. W. E. (afterwards Sir) Logan was appointed provincial geologist, 1842, and, the government having decided to carry out a geological survey of the province, he took charge of the work the following year. He was succeeded by Sir J. W. Dawson (_q.v._). The establishment of the survey was largely the result of petitions presented by the Natural History Society of Montreal, and the Quebec Literary and Historical Society. The first report was for the year 1843. Twenty years later, the reports 1843-1863 were summarized in a volume of 983 pages, _Geology of Canada_. The periods 1863-1866 and 1866-1869 were each covered in a single report. Thereafter, annual volumes were published down to 1906, when separate series of reports and memoirs were substituted. Two general indexes have been issued, one for the reports 1863-1884, and the second for 1885-1906. =George, Sir Rupert D.= Provincial secretary of Nova Scotia. Appointed to the Executive Council, 1838. The provincial secretaryship had been a permanent appointment by the king. In 1848, when Joseph Howe came into power, George was dismissed from office, and Howe succeeded him. He had challenged Howe to a duel in 1840. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Georgia, Strait of.= Between Vancouver Island and the mainland of British Columbia. Named by Vancouver in 1792 in honour of George III. The previous year Eliza, of the Spanish navy had named it “Gran Canal de Nuestra Senora del Rosario la Marinera.” Vancouver had called it gulf, but in 1865 Captain Richards, hydrographer, changed it to strait. Still locally known as “the Gulf.” =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Georgian Bay.= An arm of Lake Huron. Discovered by Joseph Le Caron, a Franciscan, 1615. Champlain reached the shores of the bay the same year, by way of the Ottawa river, Lake Nipissing and French river. =Bib.=: Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Germain, Charles.= Appointed missionary to the Abnaki Indians on the St. John river in 1745. Said to have been the authorized agent of the government of Quebec for the purpose of destroying British supremacy in Acadia. Assisted De Ramezay in his plans for the attack on Mines, 1747. Removed to Miramichi, 1757. After the fall of Quebec, supported the cause of the British. Received a pension of £50 a year from the government at Halifax, 1761. Retired to Quebec, taking with him a number of Indian families. Died, 1779. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins; Richard, _Acadia_. =German Colonists in Canada.= German mercenaries were used in the war between Great Britain and the rebellious colonists of America, and in 1776 German regiments under Riedesel helped to drive the Americans out of Canada. Some of these were disbanded and settled in Canada. A certain number of Germans were also included among the United Empire Loyalists and among those who came to Canada from the United States after the days of the Loyalists. By the census of 1921, there were 294,636 persons in Canada of German origin, of whom 130,545 were in Ontario, 68,202 in Saskatchewan, 35,333 in Alberta, 27,046 in Nova Scotia, 19,444 in Manitoba, and the remainder scattered throughout the other provinces. =Gerrymander.= _See_ Redistribution Bill. =Gibbons, Sir George Christie= (1848-1918). Born at St. Catharines, Ontario. Called to the bar, 1869; K. C, 1891. Chairman of the Canadian Section of the International Waterways Commission, 1905. Took a very active part in the negotiations that led up to the treaty of 1909, and the creation of the International Joint Commission. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Gibbs, Thomas Nicholson= (1821-1883). Born in Terrebonne, Quebec. Engaged in business pursuits at Oshawa. Defeated for election to the Assembly for South Ontario, 1854, but successful, 1865. Elected to represent South Ontario in the House of Commons, 1867, the defeated candidate being George Brown. Secretary of state, and minister of inland revenue, in the government of Sir John A. Macdonald, 1873. Appointed to the Senate, 1880. =Bib.=: Gemmill, _Parl. Comp._ =Gibson, David.= Involved in the Upper Canadian Rebellion, 1837-1838. He organized shooting matches to train the rebels in marksmanship. The rebels met at his house, December 3rd, 1837. His house was afterwards burned by the Loyalists. He escaped to the United States. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =Gibson, Sir John Morrison= (1842-). Educated at the University of Toronto; studied law and called to the bar of Ontario, 1867. Elected to the Ontario Assembly for Hamilton, 1879; provincial secretary, 1889; commissioner of crown lands, 1896; attorney-general, 1889-1905; lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1908-1914. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Giffard, Robert.= First _seigneur_ in New France. Mentioned at Quebec in 1627; came out with forty colonists; captured by Kirke and landed on St. Pierre Island; returned to France, 1629; established at his Beauport seigneury, 1634; a member of the Council, 1646; syndic of Quebec, 1648; gave his St. Gabriel property to the Jesuits, 1667. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Gilbert, Thomas= (1714?-1796?). Born in New England. In 1745 served as a captain at the siege of Louisbourg under Sir William Pepperell. In the French war of 1755 he was a lieutenant-colonel in the Massachusetts forces under Brigadier-General Ruggles. Took part in the expedition against Crown Point, and succeeded to the command of his regiment. In 1774 raised a regiment of Loyalists and commanded them during the Revolutionary War. Two years later he sailed with the army to Halifax, and in 1778 was proscribed and banished. He settled in Nova Scotia in 1783, and moved to New Brunswick in 1786. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Gillam, Benjamin.= Son of Zachariah. Commanded a trading expedition from Boston to Hudson Bay in 1683, and built a fort some miles up the Nelson River. Pierre Radisson captured the fort, and carried Gillam a prisoner to Quebec, where he was promptly released by the governor. Sailed for Boston, and arrested on behalf of the Hudson’s Bay Company for poaching in their territory. Turned pirate a year or two later; captured at Boston, carried to England with Captain Kidd, who had been arrested at the same time, and hanged with his fellow pirate. =Bib.=: Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Gillam, Zachariah.= A New England skipper, sent out in 1668 by Prince Rupert and his associates, to Hudson Bay, in command of the _Nonsuch_, on a voyage of exploration and trade. Medard Chouart (_q.v._) sailed with him, while Pierre Radisson (_q.v._) followed, in 1669, in the _Waveno_. Gillam’s journal of the voyage is quoted in Joseph Robson’s _Hudson’s Bay_. Made several subsequent voyages to the bay, on behalf of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1684 his ship crushed in the ice at the mouth of the Nelson River, and he and several of the crew perished. =Bib.=: Robson, _Account of Six Years’ Residence in Hudson’s Bay_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Ginseng.= An herb of the genus _Asalia_, whose aromatic root is much prized by the Chinese. Found in Canada by the Jesuits, and gathered for shipment to China. Brought five dollars a pound. The Indians engaged in the trade. Still to some extent an article of commerce. _Gipps, Sir George_ (1791-1847). Born at Ringwould, England. Educated at King’s School, Canterbury, and at the Military Academy, Woolwich. Entered the army, 1809; served throughout the Peninsular War; employed in the West Indies, 1824-1829; appointed private secretary to the first lord of the Admiralty, 1834; sent to Canada as commissioner, together with Lord Gosford and Sir Charles Grey, to attempt to allay prevailing discontent, 1835; knighted, 1835; governor of New South Wales, 1838-1846. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Lang, _New South Wales_. =Girouard, Désiré= (1836-1911). Born at St. Timothée, Quebec. Educated at Montreal College; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada. For some years sat in the House of Commons. Appointed judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1895. Wrote on the early history of the island of Montreal, La Salle and Lachine, and the Iroquois. =Bib.=: _Lake St. Louis and Cartier de la Salle_; _Les Anciens Postes du Lac Saint Louis_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Girouard, Sir Edouard Percy Cranwill.= Born at Montreal in 1867. Son of preceding. Educated at the Royal Military College. For some years on the engineering staff of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Joined the Royal Engineers in 1888; lieutenant, 1891; captain, 1899; major, 1899; lieutenant-colonel, 1904; colonel, 1909. Railway traffic manager at Woolwich, 1890-1895. Director of Soudan railways, 1896-1898. President of Egyptian Railway Board, 1898-1899. Director of railways in South Africa, 1899-1902. Commissioner of railways, Transvaal and Orange River Colony, 1902-1904. Assistant quartermaster-general at Chester, England, 1906. High commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, 1907-1908. Governor of Northern Nigeria, 1908-1909. Governor and commander-in-chief of East Africa Protectorate, 1909-1912; director-general munitions supply, 1915; director of Armstrong, Whitworth & Company, 1916-1919. Served with the Dongola Expedition, 1896-1897; and through the South African War, 1899-1902. =Bib.=: _History of the Railways during the War in South Africa_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Girouard, John Joseph= (1795-1855). Born in Quebec. Studied law, and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1816. Elected to the Assembly, 1830; a strong supporter of Papineau; took an active part in the Rebellion of 1837-1838; imprisoned at Montreal for six months. Resumed the practice of law. Associated with LaFontaine in constitutional agitation in Lower Canada. Offered a portfolio in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, but refused to accept office; took no further part in public life. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Gisborne, Frederick Newton= (1824-1892). Came to Canada from England in 1845. Joined the staff of the British North American Electric Telegraph Association, 1847, and became general manager. In 1852, laid the first submarine cable in America, joining New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island; and in 1856, laid another to Newfoundland. Conceived the idea of connecting Europe and America by a submarine cable, and succeeded in enlisting the interest of Cyrus W. Field. The cable finally completed, 1858. Appointed superintendent of the Dominion government telegraph and signal service, 1879. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Giscome Portage.= Leading from the Parsnip River to the Fraser, in northern British Columbia. Named by an independent trader, Peter Dunlevy, after his cook, about the year 1873. Both Mackenzie and Simon Fraser crossed from the Parsnip to the Fraser, the former in 1793, and the latter in 1806, but neither went by way of Giscome Portage, which was not discovered until some years later. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Givenchy, Battle of.= After Festubert (_q.v._) the Canadians were sent to reserve billets at Bethune. In June, 1915, they were back in the trenches east of Givenchy, with the task of wresting from the Germans certain positions which had proved troublesome, and straightening out an awkward salient. The operations were confined to General Mercer’s brigade, and the actual fighting mainly to the 1st Battalion. Two field guns had been brought up to the front line trenches, and, before they were put out of action, had managed to sweep away the German entanglements. A heavy mine was also exploded, and the men went over the top, rushed the German trenches and drove out the enemy. The Imperial troops on the left had, however, been held up by the wire, and the Canadians were left at the mercy of a tremendous bombardment from three sides. They hung on for a time, fighting desperately, but finally had to be withdrawn. Inadequate artillery preparation on the left had made success impossible. =Bib.=: Marquis, _The Fight at Givenchy_ (_Canada in the Great World War_, vol. iii). =Gladstone, William Ewart= (1809-1898). British statesman. In defending the repeal of the Corn Laws, and replying to complaints from Canada, he held that the true basis of imperial unity lay in common feelings, traditions and hopes. Not favourable to building of the Intercolonial, and insisted on sinking fund. Member of committee to discuss Confederation and Canadian defences. Believed Canada’s destiny to be independence. Opposed the Rebellion Losses bill in the Imperial House. In 1871 he withdrew claim on behalf of Canada upon United States for compensation for Fenian Raids. =Bib.=: Works: _The State in its Relations with the Church_; _Gleanings from Past Years_. For biog., _see_ Morley, _The Life of William Ewart Gladstone_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Gladwin, Henry.= Joined, the army, 1753; came to America as lieutenant in the 48th Regiment in 1755, and took part in the expedition under Braddock; transferred to the 80th Regiment, promoted captain, and wounded at Ticonderoga in 1758; promoted to rank of major, 1759; in garrison at Montreal, 1760-1761; in command at Detroit during siege by Pontiac; served throughout the American Revolutionary War; returned to England, 1764; major-general, 1782. Died in England, 1791. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_; Moor, _The Gladwin Manuscripts_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Glegg, J. B.= Captain and aide-de-camp to General Brock. Carried summons for surrender of Detroit; and also bore despatches to Quebec announcing the victory. =Bib.=: Richardson, _War of 1812_, ed. by Casselman; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Glenelg, Charles Grant, Baron= (1778-1866). As colonial secretary, 1835-1839, he had to deal with many important matters relating to the affairs of British North America, including the Rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada. He was opposed to colonial self-government, though his views became modified in a measure after Durham’s Report had been published. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Glengarry.= A county in Ontario, on the St. Lawrence. Named after the famous glen in Inverness, Scotland. Many Scottish Highlanders left their native country after the battle of Culloden in 1746, and emigrated to America. They were all intensely loyal, and when the Revolution broke out many moved north into Canada, settling on the Niagara frontier, the bay of Quinte, and the banks of the St. Lawrence. From the latter settlement sprang the present Glengarry County. In 1804-1805 Bishop McDonell obtained several grants of land in the district for the Highlanders of the disbanded Scottish Glengarry regiment, and for twenty-five years promoted the interests of the colonists. He raised, in 1812, the Glengarry Fencibles regiment, which rendered valuable service during the war. =Bib.=: Macdonell, _Sketches Illustrating the Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada_. =Globe.= Newspaper published at Toronto; established, 1844, by George Brown and his father Peter Brown. First issued as a daily in 1853. Absorbed _North American_ and _Examiner_ in 1855. Its declaration of principles included the entire separation of Church and State, abolition of the Clergy Reserves and restoration of the lands to the public, cessation of grants of public money for sectarian purposes, abolition of tithes and other compulsory taxation for ecclesiastical purposes, and restraint on land-holding by ecclesiastical corporations. It also stood for representation by population, a system of public education free from sectarianism, and a prohibitory liquor law. =Bib.=: Wallis, _Historical Sketch of Canadian Journalism_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 5; Buckingham, _George Brown and the Globe_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 5; Mackenzie, _Hon. George Brown_; Lewis, _George Brown_. =Godefroy de Linctot, René= (1675-1748). Married Madeleine LeMoyne. Wrote a history of the Sioux. In command at La Pointe, 1720-1726; at Detroit, 1726; at Lake Pepin on Mississippi, 1731-1733. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Goderich, Viscount.= _See_ Ripon. =Goderich.= Town in Ontario, situated at mouth of River Maitland, Huron county, Ontario. Named after Frederick John Robinson, Viscount Goderich and Karl of Ripon (1782-1859). Founded by John Gait and William Dunlop, 1828. Incorporated as a town, 1850. The name was first intended by the directors of the Canada Company to be applied to Guelph, but John Galt applied it to the present town. =Bib.=: Lizars, _Days of the Canada Company_. =Gold-mining.= _See_ Yukon; Cariboo; Porcupine; Red Lake; Rouyn. =Good, Herman James.= Corporal, 13th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Won the _Victoria Cross_ at Hangard Wood, August 8th, 1918. His company being held up by heavy fire from three machine guns, he dashed forward alone, killed several of the garrison and captured the remainder. Later he with three other men charged a battery of 5.9 in. guns under point-blank fire and captured the entire crews of three guns. =Gordon, Arthur Hamilton.= _See_ Stanmore. =Gore, Sir Charles S.= Born in Scotland, 1793; the third son of the second Earl of Arran. Entered the army, 1808; served throughout the Peninsular War; ordered to Canada, 1814; returned to Europe and present at the battle of Waterloo, 1815. Again came to Canada; in command of the troops in Lower Canada during the Rebellion of 1837-1838; subsequently knighted and advanced to the rank of lieutenant-general. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Gore, Sir Francis= (1769-1852). Served in the army; lieutenant-governor of Bermuda, 1804; lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1806-1817. Brock had a high opinion of his character and ability. Postponed secularization of Clergy Reserves by proroguing the Legislature. =Bib.=: Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_. =Gore District.= In Upper Canada; named after Governor Gore. =Gorham, John.= A native of Massachusetts. Stationed at Annapolis in command of a body of provincial troops, 1845; sent to Boston to procure aid against a threatened attack; induced to proceed to the siege of Louisbourg under Pepperell; appointed colonel. Returned to Annapolis and placed in command of the Boston troops sent to Mines with Colonel Noble. Afterwards commanded a body of Rangers raised in New England for service in Acadia. A member of the Council of Nova Scotia. Returned to Massachusetts, 1752. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins; Marshall, _Life of Pepperell_. =Gosford, Archibald Acheson, second Earl of= (1775?-1849). Governor-general of Canada, 1835-1838. He had been sent out to conciliate the French Canadians, being a man of tact and moderation, and managed to make himself very popular, but the publication in Toronto of abstracts from his secret instructions from the Colonial Office, to the effect that no concessions were to be made to the people of Lower Canada, again put the country in a ferment. He remained throughout the period of the Rebellion, and returned in 1838 to be replaced by Durham and then by Colborne. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; DeCelles, _Papineau-Cartier_. =Gosselin, Abbé Auguste Honoré= (1843-). French-Canadian historian. Born at St. Charles de Bellechasse, Quebec. Educated at Quebec Seminary and at Laval University. Ordained priest, 1866; subsequently chancellor of the Quebec Diocese, and vicar of the Basilica. Retired from the ministry to devote himself to literary and historical work, 1893. =Bib.=: =Works=: _Vie de Laval_; _Les Normands au Canada_; _Henri de Bernières_; _Le Docteur Labrie_; _Québec en 1730_; _Mgr. de Saint-Vallier et son Temps_; _Jean Nicolet_; _D’Iberville_; _Jean Bourdon_. For biog., _see_ Morgan,_ Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Gouin, Sir Lomer= (1861-). Born in Grondines, Quebec. Educated at Sorel College and Laval University, Montreal; studied law and called to the bar of Quebec, 1881. Elected to the Quebec Assembly for the St. James division of Montreal, 1897; minister of public works in the Parent administration, 1900; premier and attorney-general, 1905; knighted, 1908. Resigned as premier, 1920. Elected to House of Commons, 1921, and became minister of justice in King government the same year. Resigned, 1924. =Bib.=: _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Gourlay, Robert Fleming= (1778-1863). Born in the parish of Ceres, Fifeshire, Scotland. Attended St. Andrew’s University. Took part in an inquiry into the condition of the poor in Great Britain, and carried on an aggressive agitation for a reform of the poor laws. Came to Canada, 1817, and settled at Kingston. Becoming convinced of the need of radical changes in the land system of Upper Canada, attacked the administration with so much energy that he was finally imprisoned and, after a grossly unfair trial, expelled from the province. Returning to Scotland, devoted himself to the preparation of his work on Upper Canada; lost most of his property as the result of lawsuits; and imprisoned for a personal attack on Lord Brougham in the lobby of the House of Commons. On his release, visited the United States about 1836, and was instrumental in dissuading Ohio sympathizers from joining the movement under William Lyon Mackenzie. In 1842 his case brought before the Legislature of Upper Canada, and the House decided that his arrest had been “illegal, unconstitutional and without possibility of excuse and palliation, and the sentence declared null and void.” Did not, however, return to Canada until 1856, when he was granted a pension of fifty pounds; this he refused because he considered that his vindication had not been complete. Contested Oxford County in 1860, but defeated; returned to Edinburgh, where he died. =Bib.=: _Statistical Account of Upper Canada_. For biog., _see_ Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Governors.= _See also_ Lieutenant-Governors; Viceroys; Intendants; Premiers. =Governors of British Columbia.= James Douglas, 1858-1864; Frederick Seymour, 1864-1869; Anthony Musgrave, 1869-1871. (In 1866 Vancouver Island and British Columbia were united, and the governors administered the affairs of the combined colonies). =Governors of Canada.= James Murray, 1763-1768; Guy Carleton, 1768-1778; Frederick Haldimand, 1778-1786; Lord Dorchester (Carleton), 1786-1796; Robert Prescott, 1796-1807; Sir James H. Craig, 1807-1811; Sir George Prevost, 1812-1815; Sir John C. Sherbrooke, 1816-1818; Duke of Richmond, 1818-1819; Lord Dalhousie, 1820-1828; Lord Aylmer, 1831-1835; Lord Gosford, 1835-1838; Lord Durham, 1838; Sir John Colborne, 1839; Lord Sydenham (Poulett Thomson), 1839-1841; Sir Charles Bagot, 1842-1843; Sir Charles Metcalfe, 1843-1845; Lord Cathcart, 1846-1847; Lord Elgin, 1847-1854; Sir Edmund W. Head, 1854-1861; Viscount Monck, 1861-1867. =Governors of Cape Breton.= John Parr, 1784. Between 1786 and 1820, when Cape Breton became part of Nova Scotia, the governors of Canada were also governors of Cape Breton, being represented in the colony by administrators. _See_ Governors of Canada. =Governors of Montreal.= Paul de Chomedy de Maisonneuve, 1642-1664; Zacharie Dupuis, 1665-1668; Pierre de Saint-Paul de Lamothe, 1669-1670; Francois-Marie Perrot, 1669-1684; Louis-Hector de Callières, 1684-1698; Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, 1698-1703; Claude de Ramezay, 1704-1723; Charles LeMoyne, Baron de Longueuil, 1724-1729; Jean Bouillet de La Chassaigne, 1730-1733; Chevalier Boisberthelot de Beaucours, 1733-1749; Charles LeMoyne, Baron de Longueuil, 1749-1755; Francois de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, 1757-1760. After the cession of Canada to England, Thomas Gage, 1760-1763; Ralph Burton, 1763-1764. =Governors of New Brunswick.= Thomas Carleton, 1784-1786. Between 1786 and 1867 the governors of Canada were also governors of New Brunswick. _See_ Governors of Canada. =Governors of New France.= Samuel Champlain, 1612-1635; Charles Huault de Montmagny, 1636-1648; Louis d’Ailleboust de Coulonge, 1648-1651; Jean de Lauson, 1651-1657; Pierre Voyer, Vicomte d’Argenson, 1658-1661; Pierre Dubois, Baron d’Avaugour, 1661-1663; Augustin de Saffray, Chevalier Mézy, 1663-1665; Daniel de Rémy, Sieur de Courcelles, 1665-1672; Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac, 1672-1682; Joseph Antoine Lefebvre de La Barre, 1682-1685; Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis de Denonville, 1685-1689; Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac, 1689-1698; Louis Hector de Callières, 1699-1703; Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, 1705-1725; Charles, Marquis de Beauharnois, 1726-1747; Jacques Pierre de Taffanel, Marquis de la Jonquière, 1749-1752; Michel Ange, Marquis de Duquesne de Menneville, 1752-1755; Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, 1755-60. =Governors of Nova Scotia.= Thomas Temple, 1657; Marc Harrison, 1661; Charles Breedon, 1661-1662; Sir Thomas Temple, 1662-1667; Samuel Vetch, 1710-1713; Francis Nicholson, 1713; Samuel Vetch, 1714-1715; Richard Philipps, 1717-1749; Edward Cornwallis, 1749-1752; Peregrine Thomas Hopson, 1752-1756; Charles Lawrence, 1756-1761; Henry Ellis, 1761-1763; Montague Wilmot, 1763-1766; Lord William Campbell, 1766-1773; Francis Legge, 1773-1782; John Parr, 1782-1786. Between 1786 and 1867 the governors of Canada were also governors of Nova Scotia. _See_ Governors of Canada. =Governors of Prince Edward Island.= Captain Walter Patterson, 1769-1784. Between 1786 and 1867 the governors of Canada were also governors of Prince Edward Island. _See_ Governors of Canada. From 1867 to 1873 when it entered Confederation, the colony was governed by Lieutenant-Governors, Archibald E H. Anson, 1867-1870; William Cleaver Francis Robinson, 1870-1873. =Governors of Three Rivers.= Laviolette, 1634-1636; Antoine de Bréault de L’Isle, 1636; Marc Antoine Bras-de-fer de Châteaufort, 1636-1638; André de Malapart, 1639; Francois de Champfleur, 1639-1642; Sergeant Desrochers, 1642-1643; Francois de Champfleur, 1643-1645; Jacques LeNeuf de la Poterie, 1645-1648; Charles Le Gardeur de Tilly, 1648; Jacques LeNeuf de la Poterie, 1650-1651; de Kerbodot Duplessis, 1651-1652; Pierre Boucher, 1652; Jacques LeNeuf de la Poterie, 1652-1653; Pierre Boucher, 1653-1658; Jacques LeNeuf de la Poterie, 1658-1662; Pierre Boucher, 1662-1667; Arnoult de Loubias, 1668; René Gaultier de Varennes, 1668-1689; Claude de Ramezay, 1690-1699; François Prévost, 1699-1702; Marquis de Crisasy, 1702-1709; Louis François de Galiffet, 1709-1717; Charles LeMoyne, Baron de Longueuil, 1720-1724; Francois Desjordis de Saint-George de Cabanac, 1725-1726; Jean Bouillet de la Chassaigne, 1727-1730; Josué Maurice Dubois Berthelet de Beaucours, 1730-1733; Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, 1733-1742; Michel Bégon, 1742-1748; François de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, 1748-1757; Paul Joseph LeMoyne de Longueuil, 1757-1760. After the cession of Canada to England, Ralph Burton, 1760-1762; Frederick Haldimand, 1762-1763; Ralph Burton, 1763; Frederick Haldimand, 1763-1764; Hector Theophilus Cramahé, 1764. =Governors of Vancouver Island.= Richard Blanshard, 1850-1851; James Douglas, 1851-1764; Arthur Kennedy, 1864-1866. _See also_ Governors of British Columbia. =Governors-General of Canada.= Viscount Monck, 1867-1868; Baron Lisgar (Young), 1869-1872; Lord Dufferin, 1872-1878; Lord Lorne, 1878-1883; Lord Lansdowne, 1883-1888; Lord Derby (Stanley of Preston), 1888-1893; Lord Aberdeen, 1893-1898; Lord Minto, 1898-1904; Lord Grey, 1904-1911; Duke of Connaught, 1911-1916; Duke of Devonshire, 1916-1921; Lord Byng, 1921-1926. =Gowan, Ogle R.= (1796-1876). Born in Ireland. Edited for some years the _Antidote_, published in Dublin. Came to Canada, 1829, and settled in the county of Leeds. At once took a leading part in the politics of Canada. First elected to the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada, 1834, and continued as representative, with brief intervals, until 1861. Served in the militia during the troubles of 1837-1838; commanded the right wing at the battle of the “Windmill” and severely wounded. Challenged Hincks to a duel in 1844. Insulted Lord Elgin because of his action in connection with the Rebellion Losses bill. For twenty years grandmaster of the Orange Order. =Bib.=: _Responsible or Parliamentary Government._ For biog., _see Cyc. Am. Biog._; Davin, _Irishman in Canada_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Graham Island.= Queen Charlotte Islands. Named after Sir James Robert Graham, first lord of the admiralty, 1852-1855, by Commander James C. Prevost, who was on the Pacific coast in H. M. S. _Virago_ in 1853. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Grand Manan.= An island in the Bay of Fundy, off Passamaquoddy Bay. The name is from the Passamaquoddy or Micmac word _Mun-aa-nook_, meaning “the island,” with the French prefix _Grand_ to distinguish it from “Petit Manan” on the Maine coast. First discovered by Champlain. The name appears as “Menane” in Lescarbot, 1609; as “Manano” in Biard, 1611; as “Manthane” and “Menane,” in Champlain, 1613. On a map of 1610 it is given as “Peree,” and on another of 1642 as “Esperee.” The island is about twenty miles long and about five miles wide. By the Hawkesbury-King Convention of 1817, the island became British territory. Its picturesque scenery has made it the resort of painters and lovers of nature. =Bib.=: Ganong, _Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick_; Abbott, _Grand Manan and ’Quoddy Bay_, (_Harpers_, 1878); Day, _Grim Grand Manan_, (_Harpers_, 1912); _Jonathan Eddy and Grand Manan_, (_Acadiensis_, 1906). =Grand Portage.= Near western end of Lake Superior, about twenty miles south of Fort William. As in the case of so many other historic Canadian places, it is impossible to say who was the first white man to stand upon this famous centre of the fur trade. Radisson came this way in 1662; Du Lhut in 1678; Noyon in 1688; La Noüe in 1717; but there is no evidence that any of the four were actually at Grand Portage. It is first mentioned in a memoir by Pachot, 1722; and the earliest authenticated visit to the spot is that of La Vérendrye, 1731. When Jonathan Carver visited the place in 1767 he found a number of traders already there. Alexander Henry was there in 1775 and notes that it was the scene of hostile competition. The North West Company had a trading post at Grand Portage for some years, and it grew steadily in importance until finally abandoned, 1801, in favour of Fort William. The name was applied both to the trading post on the shore of Lake Superior, and to the portage thence to the Pigeon river. Dr. Bryce describes the place as it was about the beginning of the present century, in his _Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson_. To-day an excellent motor road crosses Pigeon river near the old portage, on its way from Duluth to Fort William. =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _History of Fur Trade_ in his _Voyages_; _Henry-Thompson Journals_, ed. by Coues; Henry, _Travels and Adventures_; Carver, _Travels_; Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Buck, _Story of Grand Portage_ in _Minnesota Hist. Bull._, vol. v. =Grand Pré.= A village on the shores of the Basin of Minas, at the mouth of the Gaspereau river. Stands upon or near the site of the old village of the same name, founded about 1675, one of the principal settlements of the Acadians. The scene of many conflicts between the French and English; and of the final expulsion of the Acadians. _See_ Acadians. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_ and _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Grand Trunk Railway.= One of the main results of the railway policy of Francis Hincks. About the middle of the nineteenth century work was in progress on the St. Lawrence, the Great Western and the Northern railways. The next project was a trunk line from Quebec or Montreal through to Hamilton, from which point the Great Western already ran to Windsor, opposite Detroit. The great railway contractors, Peto, Brassey, Betts and Jackson, offered to undertake the work, and to organize a company in England to provide the capital. Hincks made a contract with them substantially on these terms. Meanwhile Galt, Holton and other Canadians had become interested in a purely Canadian railway scheme. After a good deal of political jockeying, the English and Canadian interests were brought together. In 1852 the Grand Trunk Railway Company was incorporated, and in 1853 work was begun on construction. At one time 14,000 men were directly employed on the work. Before the end of the year the St. Lawrence and Atlantic section was completed; in 1854 the Quebec and Richmond section was opened; the next year the line from Lévis to St. Thomas, P.Q., and Montreal to Brockville; in 1856 Brockville to Toronto and Toronto to Stratford. Two years later the road was completed to London; in 1859 the Victoria Bridge was built, and the line extended from St. Mary’s to Sarnia; and in 1860 the eastern section carried to Rivière du Loup. That year the Grand Trunk was completed from Lake Huron to the Atlantic. From the beginning it found itself in difficulties, partly because the railway was controlled in England instead of in Canada, and partly from a variety of other causes; and the Canadian government had to come repeatedly to its relief with loans and guarantees. Nevertheless, “the Grand Trunk did Canada good service,” says O. D. Skelton, “well worth all the public aid that was given.” In the eighties the Grand Trunk absorbed a number of small lines and built extensions, to meet the competition of the Canadian Pacific. In 1895 Charles Melville Hays became general manager, and put new life into the system; in 1909 he became president, and three years later met a tragic death in the _Titanic_. In the next decade the Grand Trunk’s financial position became so precarious that the Canadian government, faced with the alternative of annual loans or subsidies or taking over the system, decided on the latter; the Grand Trunk in 1920 was taken over by the Dominion, and became absorbed in the Canadian National Railways in 1923. =Bib.=: Brown, _History of Grand Trunk Railway_; Lanning, _Historical Sketch of the Grand Trunk Railway_ (in _Canada_: an _Ency._, vol. 2); Skelton, _The Railway Builders_; Lovett, _Canada and the Grand Trunk, 1829-1924_. =Grand Trunk Pacific Railway.= The Grand Trunk had at different times considered various suggestions for western expansion, but nothing came of them until rapid settlement and development of farming in the prairie provinces seemed to make it imperative. In 1902 it was announced that the Grand Trunk was considering the building of a line from North Bay west to the Pacific. When they applied for government assistance, opposition developed, particularly because the projected line did not open up the undeveloped north country of Ontario and Quebec. The government proposed an alternative scheme of a line from Moncton to the Pacific, running through the heart of New Brunswick, and opening up the north country. This larger project was divided into two; the government would build the eastern half from Moncton to Winnipeg and lease it to the Grand Trunk Pacific; and the Grand Trunk would build and operate the western section with the aid of a government guarantee. In spite of bitter opposition, the agreement went through, and work upon the new transcontinental began in 1904. Both the east and west sections were completed about 1915. The Grand Trunk Pacific, however, failed to take over the eastern section, and eventually the Canadian government found it necessary to add both east and west sections to the national railway system. _See_ National Transcontinental. =Bib.=: Skelton, _The Railway Builders_. =Grant, Alexander= (1725-1813). Descended from a prominent family of Invernesshire, Scotland. In his early years served both in the army and navy. Served under Amherst on Lake Champlain in 1759. Later commanded the Fleet on the Great Lakes between Niagara and Michilimackinac. Member of Legislative Council under Simcoe. Administered the government of Upper Canada as senior member and president of the Executive Council, on death of General Hunter, 1805. =Bib.=: Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Doughty and McArthur, _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. =Grant, Cuthbert.= One of the leading traders of the North West Company in the west, in the early days. With Peter Pond on the Athabaska, and sent by him, 1786, to establish a post near mouth of Slave River; at Fort Chipewyan, 1789; at Fort Qu’Appelle, 1793; with David Thompson on the Assiniboine, 1797. Died, 1798 or 1799. =Bib.=: _Henry-Thompson Journals_, ed. by Coues Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Grant, Cuthbert.= Son of foregoing. Scottish half-breed, in western fur trade. Educated at Montreal, and entered service of North West Company. Led the half-breeds in the Seven Oaks affair. Some years later settled near White Horse Plains, on the Assiniboine, and appointed Warden of the Plains by the Council of Assiniboia. Became himself a member of the Council. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Manitoba_ and _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Grant, George Monro= (1835-1902). Born at Albion Mines, Nova Scotia. Educated at University of Glasgow. Entered Presbyterian ministry in Nova Scotia. Accompanied Sandford Fleming overland to British Columbia, 1872. Principal of Queen’s University, 1877, and built it up to the first rank among Canadian universities. He took a keen interest in public questions, and did not hesitate to express his views on public platforms. Fought resolutely against commercial union, as a discrimination against the motherland and tending to bring Canada into subjection, at first commercially and then politically, to the United States. A warm supporter of Sir John Macdonald in Confederation, in his railway policy and in other great national questions. It was of Grant the story was told that when Sir John playfully reproached him with not being a staunch political friend, he replied that he always supported him when he was right. “Ah!” retorted the old statesman, “but what I need is men who will support me when I am wrong.” =Bib.=: Works: _Ocean to Ocean_; _Advantages of Imperial Federation_; _Our National Objects and Aims_; _Religions of the World in Relation to Christianity_; _Picturesque Canada_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Grant and Hamilton _Principal Grant_. =Grant, Sir William= (1752-1832). Commanded volunteers at siege of Quebec, 1775; attorney-general of Canada, 1776; chief-justice of Chester, 1798; solicitor-general, 1799-1801; master of the Rolls, 1801-1817. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Granville, George Leveson-Gower, second Earl= (1815-1891). Entered Parliament, 1836; secretary for foreign affairs, 1851-1852, 1870-1874, 1880-1885; colonial secretary, 1868-1870 and 1886. Helped Cartier and Mcdougall to make an advantageous bargain with the Hudson’s Bay Company in connection with the transfer of Rupert’s Land to Canada. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Gray, John Hamilton= (1814-1889). Born in Bermuda. Entered political life in New Brunswick in 1850, as member for St. John county, and became attorney-general in the provincial government. Took part in the negotiations leading up to Confederation, attending both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences. Speaker of the Assembly, 1866. Sat in the first Dominion Parliament as member for the city of St. John. In 1872 appointed to the Supreme Court of British Columbia. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Gray, John Hamilton= (1811-1887). Born in Prince Edward Island. Entered the army, 1831, and served for twenty-one years, retiring, 1852. Returning to Prince Edward Island, elected to the provincial Legislature, and became premier in 1863. The following year presided at the Charlottetown Conference, and also attended the Quebec Conference. Made a C. M. G., 1871. Sometimes confused with preceding. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Prince Edward Island_. =Gray, Robert= (1755-1806). American captain and explorer. Made a voyage to the North-West Coast, 1787. At Nootka, Vancouver Island, 1788-1789. On his second voyage, entered the mouth of the Columbia river on May 11th, 1792. Named it after his ship. United States based their claim to the Oregon country partly on his discovery. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_. =Great Bear Lake.= In Northern Canada. Area, 11,821 square miles. Name first applied to the river which discharges the lake into the Mackenzie, on account of bears seen in the vicinity, the “great” referring to the size of the lake not of the bears. Discovered by men of the North West Company, and a post established on or near the lake about 1800. Fort Franklin built on south-west shore, 1825, where Franklin wintered with Richardson and Back. Fort Confidence built by Dease and Simpson, 1873, at eastern end of Dease Bay, on the lake. =Bib.=: Franklin, _Second Expedition_; Simpson, _Narrative of Discoveries_; Bell, _Great Bear Lake_ (Geol. Survey, 1899); Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Great Lakes.= _See_ under names of individual lakes: Superior; Huron; Michigan; Erie; Ontario; St. Clair. =Bib.=: Curwood, _The Great Lakes_; Channing, _Story of the Great Lakes_; Russell, _Lakes of North America_. =Great Slave Lake.= In Northern Canada. Area, 10,719 square miles. Known to the Indians as _Athapuscow_ or _Athapapuscow_. Present name originated from Slave Indians. The Crees had driven the Dogrib Indians north and nicknamed them “Slaves.” Discovered by Samuel Hearne (_q.v._), in 1771, and named by him _Athapapuscow_. A post built there, 1786, by Leroux and Grant of the North West Company. Three years later Alexander Mackenzie passed through the lake on his way to the mouth of the Mackenzie river. Visited later by many other explorers and fur traders, being on the route to the far north and north-west. =Bib.=: Hearne, _Journey to Coppermine_; Mackenzie, _Voyages_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Great War.= _See_ War of 1914-1918. =Great Western Railway.= Charter granted, 1834, and renewed, 1845. Absorbed by the Grand Trunk in 1882. Ran from Hamilton to the international boundary opposite Detroit. =Bib.=: Trout, _History of Canadian Railways_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 2. =Green Bay.= On the west side of Lake Michigan. Generally known to the French as La Baye des Puants. First visited by Jean Nicolet in 1634; also by Radisson in 1656; by Perrot in 1668; by La Salle in the _Griffon_ in 1679; by Du Lhut in 1688 and Lahontan the same year; by Charlevoix the historian in 1717. It was for years the scene of labour of Jesuit missionaries; of the fur trade; and on the route of travel from the Great Lakes to the Mississippi. The early commandants at the post of La Baye, on Green Bay, were Philippe d’Amours Sieur de la Morandière, and Jacques Testard Sieur de Montigny. Other posts were built later, and in time a small French settlement grew up about them. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Green, Benjamin= (1713-1772). Accompanied the expedition against Louisbourg as secretary, 1745; remained there as government secretary until 1749; removed to Halifax, and appointed a member of the Executive Council of Nova Scotia. Treasurer of the province for many years. Administrator of the government, 1776. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Green, Francis= (1742-1809). Born in Boston. Son of preceding. Obtained a commission in 40th Regiment; in 1757 joined his regiment at Halifax; and the following year took part in the siege of Louisbourg. At Quebec in 1760; and served for several years in the West Indies. In 1776 he left Boston with his children and settled in Halifax, where he became sheriff of the county of Halifax, and later Senior Judge of the Court of Common Pleas. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Greenway, Thomas= (1838-1909). Born in Cornwall, England. Came to Canada with his parents, 1844. Educated at the public schools of Huron county, Ontario. Engaged in business for ten years at Centralia. Defeated on two occasions for election to the House of Commons, but elected, 1875; did not offer for re-election. Removed to Manitoba, 1878, and engaged in farming. Elected to the Assembly, 1879; leader of the Liberal opposition, 1887; premier, 1888; his government defeated, 1899. Elected to the House of Commons, 1904. Appointed a member of the Dominion Railway Commission, 1898. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Gregg, Milton Fowler.= Lieutenant, Royal Canadian Regiment. Won the _Victoria Cross_ for most conspicuous bravery and initiative near Cambrai, September 27th to October 1st, 1918. He captured an enemy trench and, although wounded, went back alone under terrific fire for bombs. Returning, and again wounded, he reorganized his men and led them with the greatest determination, finally clearing the enemy trenches, taking twenty-five prisoners and twelve machine-guns. =Gregory, John.= Born in England. Came to Montreal, and engaged in the fur trade. Associated with A. N. McLeod, Alexander Mackenzie, Peter Pangman, and others, in opposition to the North West Company. Subsequently became a partner of the Company. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Gregory, William.= Born at Manooth, Ireland. Began the study of the law at the Middle Temple, 1739. First chief-justice of Quebec, 1764-1766. He quarrelled with Governor Murray over the Walker affair and was recalled. Little is known of his life before or after his term of office in Canada. F. J. Audet has unearthed the fact that he was imprisoned for debt in London in 1760 and again in 1769. He defended in 1767 Daniel Disnay, who had been implicated in the Walker case. In 1775 he seems to have been a judge of the Superior Court of South Carolina. =Bib.=: Audet, _Les juges en chef de la province de Québec_ (_Revue du Droit_, 1925). =Grenfell, Wilfrid Thomason= (1865-). Born at Parkgate, Cheshire, England. Educated at Marlborough College, Oxford. Studied medicine, and in 1890 accepted the office of superintendent of the Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen. Sailed for Labrador in 1892, and has made this inhospitable coast the scene of his life’s work, founding mission hospitals, a series of cooperative stores, an orphanage, and various industrial schemes for the benefit of the white and native inhabitants of Labrador. C.M.G 1907; C.V.O. 1911., =Bib.=: _Labrador: the Country and the People_; _Vikings of To-day_; _The Harvest of the Sea_; _Off the Rocks_; _Down North on the Labrador_. For biog., _see_ Waldo, _Grenfell: Knight Errant of the North_. =Grenville, William Wyndham, Baron= (1759-1834). Entered Parliament, 1782; paymaster-general, 1783; colonial secretary, 1789. Had very definite views on colonial government. Sent Dorchester draft of a bill for the government of Quebec designed to adapt the British model to Canadian conditions. The Canada Act as finally adopted took somewhat different lines. Created Baron Grenville, 1790; secretary for foreign affairs, 1791; first lord of the treasury, 1806. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Grey, Henry George, third Earl= (1802-1894). Secretary for the colonies, 1830-1833; secretary for war, 1835-1841; succeeded to the earldom, 1845; again secretary for the colonies, 1846-1852. He fully appreciated the unwise policy of Metcalfe in turning the parliamentary opposition from the governor’s advisers to the governor himself. When Elgin offered his resignation in connection with the Rebellion Losses Bill, he refused to accept it, holding very properly that it would merely encourage the extremists who had been responsible for the riots. His enlightened views on responsible government in the colonies were expressed in despatches to Elgin, Harvey of Nova Scotia, and other governors. “It is,” he wrote Harvey, “neither possible nor desirable to carry on the government of any of the British provinces in North America in opposition to the opinion of the inhabitants.” =Bib.=: _The Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell’s Administration_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Grey, Albert Henry George Grey, fourth Earl= (1851-1917). Born Howick, England. Educated at Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of British House of Commons, 1880-1886; administrator of Rhodesia, 1896-1897; director of British South Africa Company, 1898-1904. Succeeded Lord Minto as governor-general of Canada, 1904-1911. During his term of office, the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created, the Universities of Alberta, British Columbia and Saskatchewan founded, the tercentenary of the birth of Quebec celebrated, the Waterways treaty signed at Washington, and the International Joint Commission created, new trade agreements with Germany, Belgium, Holland and Italy, and the Imperial Conference in London. =Bib.=: _Hubert Hervey: a Memoir_; Begbie, _Albert Fourth Earl Grey_; Dawson, _Earl Grey’s Speeches in Canada_. For biog., _see Who’s Who_. =Grey, Sir Charles Edward= (1785-1865). Educated at Oxford University; called to the bar, 1811; commissioner in bankruptcy, 1817; judge of the Supreme Court of Madras, 1820; knighted, 1820; sent to Canada as one of three commissioners to investigate causes of prevailing discontent, 1835; elected to the House of Commons, 1838; governor of the Barbadoes, 1841-1846; governor of Jamaica, 1847-1853. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Griffon.= Vessel built by La Salle in 1679 on the Niagara river above the falls. It was the first sailing ship on the upper lakes. Sailed for Lake Michigan and was lost on the return voyage. =Bib.=: Severance, _An old Frontier of France_. =Groseilliers.= _See_ Chouart. =Guelph.= A city of western Ontario, situated on the Speed River, in the county of Wellington. Founded by John Galt (_q.v._), 1827, and named by him after the family name of the Royal House of Brunswick. Incorporated as a city, 1879. =Bib.=: Lizars, _Days of the Canada Company_. =Guelph Agricultural College.= Established, 1874, by the Ontario government. An experimental farm is connected with the college. Students are instructed in scientific methods of agriculture in all its branches. A great deal of practical instructive work is also done with the farmers of the province. _See also_ Agriculture. =Gugy, Conrad= (1730-1786). Born at the Hague; son of a Swiss officer in the Dutch service. Educated for the engineers; disposed of his commission and settled in Quebec. Subsequently secretary to Sir Frederick Haldimand and a member of the Legislative and Executive Councils. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Gugy, Conrad Augustus.= Educated at Cornwall under John Strachan. Served for a time in the army; afterwards studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada. Elected a member of the Assembly. Led the troops at the assault of St. Eustache in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Subsequently adjutant-general and commissioner of police. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Guienne Regiment.= Sent out to Canada in 1755 with other regiments under Baron Dieskau. Saw service on Lake Champlain, at Fort Frontenac, in the capture of Oswego, on the Plains of Abraham, and in the battle of Ste. Foy. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Bradley, _Fight with France_. =Guignas, Michel= (1681-1752). Entered the Jesuit order in 1702. Came to Canada in 1716. and was sent to the Ottawa mission at Michilimackinac. In 1727 he was sent to take charge of the mission to the Sioux. Captured by Indians in 1728. Again at the Sioux post, 1732-1737. Returned to Quebec in 1740, and died there. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Guilford, Frederick North, second Earl of= (1732-1792). Entered Parliament, 1754; chancellor of the exchequer, 1767; premier, 1770; resigned in 1783. Helped to frame the Quebec Act. Kennedy in his _Constitution of Canada_ has noted the anomaly of a reactionary like North defending a bill that contained such unusually generous provisions to the French Canadians, while at the same time he or his government were “goading their own flesh and blood into the shambles of civil war.” Proposed a military settlement in the Eastern Townships. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Gunn, Donald= (1797-1878). Born in Falkirk, Scotland. Entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1813. Left the service, 1823, but continued to reside in the Red River Settlement. Appointed one of the judges of the Court of Petty Sessions, and for a time president of the Court. Appointed a member of the Legislative Council of Manitoba, 1870. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_. =Guyard, Marie.= _See_ Marie de l’Incarnation. =Gzowski, Sir Casimir Stanislaus.= Born in St. Petersburg in 1813. He studied military engineering, was given a commission, but on the breaking out of the Polish revolution he joined his countrymen, fought through the war, surrendered with other officers, and was exiled to the United States. He arrived at New York in 1833, studied law at Pittsburg and was admitted to the bar. In 1841 he moved to Toronto, and between that date and 1853 filled various engineering positions in the government service. Later formed a partnership with Sir Alexander Galt, L. H. Holton and Sir David Macpherson for the construction of the Grand Trunk between Toronto and Sarnia, and other large contracts. Prepared reports for the government on water communications, the enlargement of the Welland Canal, and the Baie Verte canal scheme. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Habeas Corpus.= The British Act was passed in 1679, compelling judges to grant a writ of habeas corpus when applied for, the writ being based upon the 29th Section of Magna Charta which gives protection against arbitrary imprisonment. Its application to Canada was a bone of contention at the time of the passage of the Quebec Act. In the instructions to Carleton it is recommended for adoption by the Legislature of the province. Haldimand crushed every movement in its favour. Du Calvet demanded it in 1784. It was subsequently made a part of the law of Canada. =Bib.=: Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents relating to Canada_; _Dict. Eng. Hist._; Kennedy, _Constitution of Canada_. =Habitants.= The farmers of Quebec. They were and are more independent than the corresponding class in France. Montcalm compared them to the small gentry of the old land. Visitors of different periods have borne uniform tribute to their hospitality, courtesy, kindliness and moral qualities. =Bib.=: Greenough, _Canadian Folk-Life_; Fréchette, _Christmas in French Canada_; Burpee, _Canadian Life in Town and Country_; Fiske, _New France and New England_; Lambert, _Travels in Canada_; Rivard, _Chez Nous_; Hémon, _Maria Chapdelaine_; De Gaspé, _Les Anciens Canadiens_. =Habitation de Québec.= The first building in Quebec. Erected by Champlain, 1608. Stood about where the Church of Notre Dame des Victoires stands to-day. An illustration of the _Habitation_ is in Champlain’s _Voyages_. _See also_ Chateau St. Louis. =Bib.=: Champlain, _Voyages_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Hagarty, Sir John Hawkins= (1816-1900). Born in Dublin. Educated at Trinity College there. Came to Canada, 1834. Studied law, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1840. Appointed puisne judge of the Court of Common Pleas, 1856; transferred to the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1862; appointed chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas, 1868; chief-justice of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1878; chief-justice of Ontario, 1884. Served as administrator of the province, 1882. Retired from the bench, 1897. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Hagerman, Christopher Alexander= (1792-1847). Born in Adolphustown, Ontario. Educated at Kingston; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1815. Served during the War of 1812-1814 with the militia, being for a time aide-de-camp to the governor-general. Collector of customs at Kingston, and member of the Executive Council, 1815. Elected a member of the Assembly, 1819. Appointed temporarily judge of the King’s Bench, 1828; solicitor-general, 1829. Removed from office by the colonial secretary on the representations of William Lyon Mackenzie, with whom his relations had been very far from friendly. Subsequently restored to office. Appointed attorney-general, 1837, and as such opposed the union of Upper and Lower Canada; puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1840. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion and Last Forty Years_; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Haida Indians.= Popular name for the Skittagetan of Queen Charlotte Islands and the south end of Prince of Wales Island, where they have lived for many generations. Earliest account by Juan Perez, 1774. Bodega and Maurelle visited them the next year. La Perouse, Dixon, Vancouver, and other captains visited them from time to time. Noted as the most skilful carvers of totem poles, etc., painters and canoe and house builders of the tribes of the North-West Coast. =Bib.=: Harrison, _Ancient Warriors of the North Pacific_; Dawson, _Queen Charlotte Islands_; Dixon, _Voyage around the World_; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Haldimand, Sir Frederick= (1718-1791). Born in Switzerland. Saw service with the Prussian army as a youth, and was present at the battle of Mollwitz. Also with the Swiss Guards in the Netherlands. He was now a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1754 accepted a commission in the Royal American regiment for service in America. He commanded the second battalion, stationed at Philadelphia. Sent to Albany and later to the southern colonies to recruit men. In 1758 he exchanged to the fourth battalion, and joined the expedition against Canada under Abercromby, that unfortunate expedition that ended so ingloriously. Abercromby having been recalled, Amherst sent Haldimand the following summer to rebuild Oswego which Montcalm had destroyed in 1756. Here he was attacked by the French under La Corne de St. Luc, but forced them to retreat. In 1760 he accompanied Amherst and the army down the St. Lawrence to Montreal, and witnessed the final capitulation of Canada, he himself being sent in to take possession of the city. Here he remained for nearly two years under General Gage. In 1762 succeeded Burton as governor of Three Rivers, Burton having been ordered to join his regiment in the West Indies. The same year he was promoted to colonel, and became naturalized as a British subject. While at Three Rivers he reopened the St. Maurice Forges. In 1763 Burton resumed his governorship, and Haldimand returned to Montreal, but before the close of the year was back in command at Three Rivers, Burton having succeeded Gage as governor of Montreal; he busied himself among other things in suppressing irregular trading with the Indians. In 1767 he succeeded Bouquet as military commander in Florida, which at that time extended to the Mississippi. Six years later, with the rank of major-general, he succeeded Gage in the command at New York. While he was there the famous “tea party” took place in Boston. The subsequent closing of the port of Boston was against his prudent advice. In New York he needed all his tact to keep on friendly terms with Governor Tryon, as had been the case with Governor Johnstone in Florida. In 1775 he was recalled, and given the appointment of inspector-general of forces in the West Indies. He was at the same time raised to the rank of general in America and lieutenant-general in the army. In 1778 he succeeded Carleton as governor-general of Canada. As his biographer has said, Haldimand missed the dramatic moments in the Canadian history of his period. It was his destiny to play a less romantic part than Wolfe or Carleton, to defend the heritage they had won, under difficult conditions and with a very inadequate force. He must keep a watchful eye upon the new republic to the south, without much faith in the loyalty of either the French or the Indian tribes. Nevertheless, his attitude toward both was tactful and just. One of his minor problems was the feeding and housing of several thousand Loyalist refugees; another to keep the peace between rival military officers in his own service. To add to his difficulties he was surrounded by volunteer spies who misrepresented all his acts to the colonial minister. In adopting the necessary measures of civil government he had little effective help from his unwieldy council. A foe to monopolies of every description, he had every selfish trader barking at his heels. Among his practical measures for both war and peace were the strengthening of the fortifications at Quebec, and the making of canals on the upper St. Lawrence at Coteau and the Cascades; the taking of a census, supplying Canadian timber to the navy, and the founding of the first Canadian public library, at Quebec. In 1784 he returned to England, having spent six years in Canada, very much to the advantage of the colony. He died in his beloved Switzerland. It has been said of him, “a pessimist concerning the future of Canada, he yet accomplished more for the firm establishment of that future than any one of her optimistic governors.... A disaffected province, a weak colonial minister, called for a strong man, able to use strong measures on his own responsibility. Indian ferocity needed a restraining hand, but Indian rights must be respected. The Vermont negotiations would have belittled Great Britain, if not conducted with honour and dignity, while the homeless Loyalists appealed to sympathy that had to be tempered with the nicest judgment. The manner in which Haldimand fulfilled all these requirements entitles him to a greater meed of imperial gratitude than he has yet received, and to a far higher place than has yet been accorded him among the makers of Canada.” =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_; McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_. =Half-breeds.= Offspring of whites and Indians, almost invariably a white father and an Indian mother. Where the father was French, the children were also known as _Métis_ or _Bois Brûlés_. It was the practice in the fur trade, where white women, particularly in the earlier years, were almost unknown, for the traders to take wives from among the Indian women. These marriages were not solemnized and were seldom considered binding. When the trader finally retired from the western fur country and returned to the civilized east, he usually left his Indian wife and half-breed children behind him, making some provision for their maintenance, and often contracting a new marriage with a white woman in the east. Daniel Williams Harmon, in his _Journal_, says quite frankly that he has decided to follow in this respect the custom of the country. When the time came to leave the Indian country, he found, however, that he had become too attached to his wife and children to leave them behind, and took them back with him to Lower Canada. The French half-breeds were excellent canoemen and woodsmen, and invaluable in the fur trade. They have been condemned by David Thompson, Ross Cox, and other leaders of the fur trade, as immoral, irresponsible and gluttonous, charges from which Archbishop Taché warmly defends them in his _Sketch of the North-West of America_. Sir John Richardson in his _Arctic Searching Expedition_ compares the French half-breed unfavourably with the Scotch half-breed. It is only fair to say that the critics of the half-breed freely admit his cheerfulness under extremely depressing circumstances, his skill and daring in navigation, and his readiness when necessity arises to go hungry without grumbling. =Bib.=: Cox, _Adventures on the Columbia River_; Thompson, _Narrative_; Ross, _Fur Traders of the Far West_. =Haliburton, Arthur Lawrence, Baron= (1832-1907). Son of Thomas Chandler Haliburton. Born at Windsor, Nova Scotia, and educated at King’s College, Windsor, he studied law and was called to the bar in 1858. Entered the commissariat service of the British army, 1855, and became deputy assistant commissary-general, 1859. In 1870 he was transferred to the war office as assistant director of supplies and transport, and in 1878 succeeded Sir W. H. Drake as director. He became assistant under-secretary of state for war in 1888 and permanent under-secretary for war in 1895. Made a G. C. B., 1897. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Atlay, _Memoirs of Lord Haliburton_. =Haliburton, Robert Grant= (1831-1901). Son of Thomas Chandler Haliburton. Born at Windsor, Nova Scotia; educated at King’s College, Windsor. Studied law, and called to the bar, 1853. In 1875 one of the commissioners for the settlement of the land question in Prince Edward Island. Founded the Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science. Went to London in 1871, and bought the _St. James Magazine_, changing the title to _United Empire Review_. Returned to Canada, 1876. In 1881 gave up his law practice owing to ill health, and devoted his energies to travel and scientific studies in tropical countries. In 1887-1888 discovered a pigmy race in north Africa, and carried out exhaustive researches in this and other branches of science. =Bib.=: _Confederation or Annexation_; _The Past and Future of Nova Scotia_; _The Future and the Resources of Canada_. For list of his numerous scientific papers, _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_, 1898. =Haliburton, Thomas Chandler= (1796-1865). Humourist, historian, jurist and statesman. Born at Windsor, Nova Scotia. Educated at the Grammar School and at King’s College there, 1815. Called to the bar, 1820, and practised for a time at Annapolis. Represented the county of Annapolis in the Nova Scotia Legislature, 1826-1829, and in 1829 appointed district judge of the Court of Common Pleas, succeeding his father. In 1841 transferred to the Supreme Court. Resigned in 1856, and removed to England, where, three years later, entered Parliament as member for Launceston. In Parliament he acted as the representative rather of British North America than of his English constituency, and never missed an opportunity of putting forward the colonial point of view. Oxford gave him the honorary degree of D. C. L. in 1858. Died at his home, Gordon House, on the Thames. In their earlier years he and Joseph Howe had been warm friends, but in later years they drew apart, Howe developing into a strong democrat and Haliburton a staunch tory. Both, however, were devoted to their native province, and anxious to further its welfare in every possible way. Haliburton and Howe had many points in common intellectually, though the former had unquestionably more originality, and more nearly approached the rank of genius than any other Canadian. =Bib.=: Works: _An Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia_; _The Clockmaker, or the Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville_; _Bubbles of Canada_; _Reply to the Report of the Earl of Durham_; _Letter-bag of the Great Western, or Life in a Steamer_; _Attaché, or Sam Slick in England_; _Old Judge, or Life in a Colony_; _English in America_; _Traits of American Humour_; _Wise Saws and Modern Instances_; _Americans at Home_; _Nature and Human Nature_; _Address on the Present Condition, Resources, and Prospects of British North America_; _Season Ticket_. For selections and criticism _see_: Chittick, _Thomas Chandler Haliburton_; Baker, _Sam Slick_; Wallace, _Selections from Sam Slick_; Burpee, _Fragments of Haliburton_; Baker, _History of English Canadian Literature_; MacMechan, _Headwaters of Canadian Literature_. Brief biographies are found in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Morgan, _Bib. Can._; Allibone, _Dict. Eng. Lit._; Calnek and Savery, _History of the County of Annapolis_; Chasles, _Études sur Littérature des Anglo-Américains_; Crofton, _Haliburton: a Centenary Chaplet_. _See also_ last-mentioned volume for a bibliography of the various editions of his works and a list of articles, in books and magazines, on the man and his works; _also_ A. H. O’Brien’s exhaustive bibliography in R. S. C., _Trans., 1909_. =Halifax.= A seaport, and the capital of Nova Scotia; founded in 1749 and named after the Earl of Halifax, then president of the Board of Trade. The first settlers were brought out from England in that year by Governor Cornwallis, in thirteen transports; the following year it was made the capital of the province (then including New Brunswick), instead of Annapolis; in 1842 incorporated as a city; became with its fortifications, observatory stations, harbour mines, etc., one of the fortresses of the Empire, and the chief British naval station in North America; garrisoned by Imperial troops until 1905 when they were withdrawn and replaced by a Canadian garrison. Scene of a disastrous explosion on December 17th, 1917. It has been the home of such great Canadians as Howe and Haliburton, Johnstone and Tupper, Cunard and Thompson. =Bib.=: MacMechan, _Halifax in Books_, a collection of pen-pictures of Halifax and its people by many writers from Edmund Burke to Rudyard Kipling; Eaton, _Chapters in the History of Halifax_; Tom Moore, _Letters_; Moorsom, _Letters from Nova Scotia_; Sleigh, _Pine Forests_; Marryat, _Frank Mildmay_; Dickens, _American Notes_; Johnston, _Notes on North America_; Cozzens, _Acadia_; Sladen, _On the Cars and Off_; Haliburton, _Nova Scotia_; Thomas B. Akins, _History of Halifax_ (Nova Scotia Hist. Soc. _Trans._ vol. 8); Mackay, _Sketch of City of Halifax_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 5; Regan, _Sketches and Traditions of the North-West Arm_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Halifax Award.= The treaty of Washington having provided for a commission to settle the compensation due Canada by the United States for the use of her fisheries, in 1877 the United States appointed E. H. Kellogg, Canada appointed Sir Alexander Galt, and these two agreed upon M. Delfosse, Belgian minister to Washington, as a third. The commission met at Halifax, and after long and careful deliberation, decided that Canada should be paid $5,500,000, the American commissioner dissenting. The award was paid, after considerable delay. _See_ Washington, Treaty of. =Bib.=: _Record of the Proceedings of the Halifax Fisheries Commission, 1877._ =Hall, Frederick William.= Company-sergeant-major 8th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Awarded posthumous _Victoria Cross_. On April 24th, 1915, near Ypres, when a wounded man called for help, he made two attempts to reach him in face of a very heavy enfilade fire. In the act of lifting up the wounded man to bring him in, he fell mortally wounded in the head. =Halliburton, Sir Brenton= (1773-1860). Born in Rhode Island. Son of following. Studied law and after some years’ practice elevated to the bench, subsequently becoming chief-justice (1833-1860). Knighted, 1859. He presided at the trial of Joseph Howe for libel in 1835. In 1840 his son, John Croke Halliburton, challenged Howe to a duel because of supposed insulting references to his father. The duel took place, but neither of the antagonists was injured. =Bib.=: Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Hill, _Memoir of Sir Brenton Halliburton_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Halliburton, John= (1739-1808). United Empire Loyalist. Formerly of Rhode Island. A surgeon in the British navy during the Revolution. Emigrated to Halifax, and practiced medicine there. A member of the Council. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Haly, Sir William O’Grady= (1811-1878). Entered the army, 1828. Served with distinction in the Crimea and in India. Created K. C. B., 1855. Appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in British North America, 1873. Acted as administrator of the government of Canada during the absence of Lord Dufferin, 1875. Attained the rank of general, 1877. Died in Halifax. =Hamilton.= City of Ontario, on Burlington Bay, west end of Lake Ontario. Laid out and settled, 1813, by George Hamilton, from whom it takes its name. Incorporated as a city, 1846. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer_; Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Hamilton, Charles= (1834-1919). Born Hawkesbury, Ontario. Educated at Oxford. Became bishop of Niagara (Church of England), 1885-1896; bishop of Ottawa, 1896-1909; archbishop of Ottawa, 1909; metropolitan of Canada, 1909. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Hamilton, Henry.= Of Irish descent, he entered the army in 1754, and was commissioned lieutenant of the 15th Regiment, 1756. Served under Amherst at Louisbourg, and under Wolfe at Quebec, and in the West Indies, 1761-1763. Lieutenant-governor of Detroit, 1775-1779; occupied Vincennes, on the Wabash, 1779, was captured there by the Americans, 1779, and imprisoned. Retired from the army, 1783; lieutenant-governor of Quebec, and president of the Legislative Council, 1784-1785, and administrator during the absence of Haldimand. Under his administration provision for trial by jury in civil cases was incorporated in the ordinance for regulating the procedure in courts. Recalled on Haldimand’s representations, having incurred his enmity by his advocacy of the extension of British institutions in Canada. Governor of Bermuda, 1790-1794; and of Dominica, 1794-1796. Died there in 1796. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents of Canada_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Hamilton, John= (1801-1882). Born in Queenston, Ontario. Removed to Kingston, 1840. Throughout his life largely interested in inland navigation, and the first to introduce iron vessels on Canadian waters. Sat in the Legislative Council of Upper Canada, 1831-1841; in the Legislative Council of Canada, 1841-1867; and in the Senate from 1867 until his death. On the completion of his fiftieth year of continuous service in the Upper Chamber, presented with an address of congratulation by his fellow-senators. =Bib.=: _Can. Parl. Companion._ =Hamilton, Pierce Stevens= (1826-1893). Studied law and called to the Nova Scotia bar, 1851. Entered journalism, and edited _Acadian Recorder_, 1853-1861. Appointed chief commissioner of mines for Nova Scotia. An early advocate of Confederation. =Bib.=: Works: _Union of the Colonies of British North America_; _Feast of Ste. Anne and other Poems_. =Hamilton, Robert.= Entertained the Duke of Kent at his house at Queenston in 1792. Member of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada, 1793. Simcoe accused him of republicanism. Visited London in 1795 and obtained legal advice as to certain moot points in the land legislation of the young colony. Appointed, 1794, lieutenant of the county of Lincoln. =Bib.=: Scott, _John Graves Simcoe_. =Hanbury, David T.= English traveller and explorer. In 1902 he carried out an ambitious journey through the Barren Grounds of Northern Canada, from Great Slave lake to the Thelon river, down that stream, and north overland to Backs river and the Arctic coast west of Adelaide peninsula. He explored Kent peninsula, and is credited with the discovery of the long narrow inlet that almost converts the peninsula into an island. In the published narrative of his travels he throws a good deal of light on the manners and customs of the Eskimo, and learned from them among other things that the tragic story of the massacre of their countrymen by Hearne’s Chipewyan guides in 1771 had been passed down from generation to generation. =Bib.=: _Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada._ =Handy, Henry S.= Commanded a number of American sympathizers, during the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in Upper Canada. The movement came to nothing, and never had any serious foundation. Handy took possession of Sugar Island, in the Detroit river, but was forced by lack of supplies to bring his men back to Detroit. Several months later he made another attempt in Michigan, but the conspiracy again collapsed without having done any damage, except to American prestige. The conduct of the United States federal authorities seems to have been irreproachable, but that cannot be said of the people and officials of Michigan, who openly or secretly gave countenance to a movement to invade a friendly neighbouring country. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Hanington, Daniel= (1804-1889). Sat for over half a century in one or other of the branches of the New Brunswick Legislature. Elected to Assembly, 1834, for Westmoreland, which he represented up to 1862. A member of the Executive Council under Sir Edmund Head; Speaker of the Assembly, 1854; appointed to the Legislative Council, 1867, and president of that body, 1883-1886. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Hanington, Daniel Lionel= (1835-1909). Born at Shediac, New Brunswick. Called to the bar, 1861; in 1870 entered the New Brunswick Assembly, representing Westmoreland until 1874; and reëlected, 1878; member of the Executive Council, 1878; premier of the province, 1882; resigned, 1883. In 1892 appointed a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Hanna, James.= Made a voyage to the North-West Coast in 1785. Said to have been the first voyage for sea-otter skins. Purchased from the Indians for trinkets, they were sold in China at enormous prices. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Hanna, Michael= (1821-1882). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada, 1839, and completed his studies at St. Mary’s College. Ordained to the priesthood, 1845. Held various charges in Nova Scotia. Subsequently became vicar-general of the diocese of Halifax; and archbishop, 1877. Died in Halifax. =Hanna, Robert.= Company-sergeant-major, 29th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Won the _Victoria Cross_ by conspicuous bravery at Lens, August 21st, 1917. Under heavy machine-gun and rifle fire he led a party of men against a strong enemy position heavily protected by wire, personally disposing of four men, capturing the position and silencing the machine-gun. =Hannay, James= (1842-1910). Historian. Born at Richibucto, New Brunswick. Studied law and called to the bar, 1867. He had also engaged in journalism, and in 1867 was appointed official reporter of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick. Assistant editor of St. John _Daily Telegraph_, 1872-1883. Subsequently connected with the Montreal _Herald_ and Brooklyn _Eagle_. In 1888 returned to St. John as chief editor of the _Daily Telegraph_. Contributed historical ballads and essays to _Stewart’s Quarterly_ and other periodicals. =Bib.=: _History of Acadia_; _Wilmot, Tilley_; _Life and Times of Sir Leonard Tilley_; _History of the War of 1812_; _History of New Brunswick_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Hardy, Arthur Sturgis= (1837-1899). Born at Mount Pleasant, Ontario. Studied law, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1865; practised his profession at Brantford; Q. C., 1876. Elected to the Ontario Legislature, 1873; provincial secretary, 1877; commissioner of crown lands, 1889; premier, 1896. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Biggar, _Sir Oliver Mowat_. =Hargrave, James J.= Chief factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In charge of York Factory for many years, then moved to Red River. Made chief trader, 1833, and chief factor, 1844. An authority on the Red River colony and all that pertained to it. Corresponded with Sir George Simpson. =Bib.=: _Red River_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Harmon, Daniel Williams.= Born in Vermont. Entered service of North West Company, 1800, at Montreal, and left immediately for the western fur country. Returned to the east in 1819, bringing with him his _Journals_, covering this period, which were edited by Daniel Haskel, of Burlington, Vt., and published at that place in 1820; reprinted in New York, with a brief introduction, 1903. Returned to the West, and remained there several years, finally settling with his native wife and family on the shores of Lake Champlain. One of his daughters conducted a private school in Ottawa for many years. The original manuscript of his _Journals_ turned up a few years ago in New York, and a photostat copy is now in the Public Archives at Ottawa. =Bib.=: _Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America._ For biog., _see_ Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Harrison, Robert Alexander= (1833-1878). Educated at Upper Canada College. Studied law, and appointed to Crown Law department of Upper Canada, 1854. Retired, 1859, and practised in Toronto. Member for Toronto in first Dominion Parliament, 1867-1872. Chief-justice of the Court of Queen’s Bench, Ontario, 1875-1878. One of the arbitrators in Ontario boundary dispute, 1878. Author of many legal works; and edited _Poker_, a humorous paper, 1859-1860. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Harrison, Samuel Bealey.= Appointed by Sydenham provincial secretary for Upper Canada, 1841. Described as a Moderate Liberal. Brought down resolutions on responsible government. Baldwin had confidence in his judgment and sound common sense. Constitutional Society of Orillia asked for his dismissal as an extreme Reformer. In 1843 resigned as provincial secretary as a protest against the removal of the capital from Kingston to Montreal. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Harvey, Frederick Maurice Watson.= Lieutenant, Strathcona’s Horse, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ On March 27th, 1917, at Guyencourt, when an attack by his regiment was being held up by enemy machine-gun fire at close range from a wired trench, he rushed forward alone, jumped the wire, shot the machine-gunner and captured the gun. =Harvey, Sir John= (1778-1852). Entered the British army, and saw active service in Holland, France, at the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, India, and Egypt. In 1812 deputy adjutant-general of the army in Canada, and defeated the American generals Chandler and Winder at Stoney Creek. Took part in the battles of Lundy’s Lane, Fort Erie, and Crysler’s Farm. In 1815 aide-de-camp to the Duke of Wellington, and fought at Waterloo. In 1837-1841 governor of New Brunswick; governor and commander-in-chief of Newfoundland, 1841-1846; and governor of Nova Scotia, 1846-1852. He held broad views on the subject of responsible government. Corresponded with Lord Grey in regard to the Intercolonial Railway, in which project he took a deep interest. Was instrumental in bringing about a peaceful solution of the dangerous controversy between Maine and New Brunswick known as the Aroostook War. Buried at Halifax. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Haultain, Sir Frederick William Gordon= (1857-). Born in Woolwich, England. Educated at Montreal High School, Peterborough Collegiate Institute, and the University of Toronto. Called to the bar of Ontario, 1882; removed to the North-West Territories and settled at Fort McLeod, 1884. Elected to the North-West Council, 1887, and to the first Territorial Assembly, 1888. Member of the Advisory Council, 1888; Territorial premier, 1897; held office until the formation of the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1906. Chief-justice of Saskatchewan, 1912. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_; Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Haviland, T. H.= (1822-1895). Born at Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Studied law and called to the bar of Prince Edward Island, 1846; elected to the Assembly for Georgetown the same year; represented Prince Edward Island at the Quebec Conference; member of the Legislative Council, 1870; colonial secretary in the provincial government, 1859-1862, 1866-1867, 1870-1872; solicitor-general, 1865; Speaker of the Assembly, 1863-1864; provincial secretary, 1873-1876; called to the Senate, 1873; lieutenant-governor of Prince Edward Island, (1879-1884). =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ =Hayes Route.= The main route of the fur traders, from Hudson Bay to Lake Winnipeg and the interior. It was adopted at a very early date, the more obvious route by way of Nelson river having proved impracticable. The Hayes route runs up Hayes river to Oxford Lake, and thence by a series of small lakes and rivers over the height of land and down the Echimamish river to Little Playgreen Lake, and Lake Winnipeg. York Factory stands at the Hudson Bay end of the route, and Norway House at the entrance to Lake Winnipeg. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Hays, Charles Melville= (1856-1912). Served in various capacities in connection with several American railway companies. In 1889 general manager of the Wabash Railway and in 1894 president. Two years later became general manager of the Grand Trunk. Resigned, 1901, to become president of the Southern Pacific. Returned to the Grand Trunk the same year as second vice-president and general manager; president, 1909. Largely responsible for the expansion of the Grand Trunk, and the initiation of the transcontinental railway project. President Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, 1905. Drowned in the _Titanic_ disaster. =Bib.=: Skelton, _The Railway Builders_; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Hazen, Sir John Douglas= (1860-). Born in Oromocto, New Brunswick. Educated at the University of New Brunswick; studied law and called to the bar of New Brunswick, 1883. Alderman of Fredericton and mayor for two years. Elected to the House of Commons for St. John city and county, 1891; but defeated, 1896. Elected to the New Brunswick Assembly for Sunbury, 1899; chosen leader of the opposition in the Assembly; premier and attorney-general, 1908. Elected to House of Commons for St. John, 1911; and became minister of marine and fisheries same year. In 1916 attended Imperial War Conference. Appointed, 1917, chief-justice of the Appeal Division of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick and judge of the Chancery division of the same court. K. C. M. G., 1918. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Hazen, Moses.= Born in New England. United Empire Loyalist. Came to Canada after the close of the Revolutionary War, as a lieutenant in the 44th Regiment; became a justice of the peace; and, with Gabriel Christie, secured a seigniory on the Richelieu river. =Hazen, Robert Leonard= (1806-1874). Born in St. John, New Brunswick. Studied law and called to the bar, 1832; sat for St. John in New Brunswick Assembly, 1837-1848; in Legislative Council, 1848-1867; member of Executive Council without portfolio, 1844-1854, and again, 1856-1857; called to the Senate, 1867; judge of Vice-Admiralty Court of New Brunswick, 1846-1874. A reactionary in the matter of responsible government. =Bib.=: _Can. Parl. Comp._, 1873; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Head, Sir Edmund Walker= (1805-1868). His grandfather, the first baronet, was a United Empire Loyalist, whose estates were confiscated. Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, 1830-1837; lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1847; governor-general of Canada, 1854-1861. He is credited with having suggested Ottawa to the Queen as the capital of Canada. His term of office was one full of political interest and significance, the eve of Confederation. He was, in the opinion of Lord Elgin, his predecessor, “a gentleman of the highest character, the greatest ability, and the most varied accomplishments and attainments.” On the other hand the biographer of George Brown describes him as a reactionary. Afterwards appointed a civil service commissioner, and elected governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Lewis, _George Brown_. =Head, Sir Francis Bond= (1793-1875). Served in the Royal Engineers at Waterloo. Travelled in South America, 1825-1826. Lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1835-1837. He was governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1862-1868. Made privy councillor, 1867. In Upper Canada his sympathies were with the so-called Family Compact rather than with the Reformers. His views on executive responsibility were frankly stated. He maintained that “responsibility to the people, who are already represented in the House of Assembly, is unconstitutional,” and that it was the duty of the Council to serve the governor, not the people. In this attitude he was supported by the colonial minister, Lord Glenelg. Head professed a desire to remedy all real grievances, while maintaining the constitution inviolate. In 1836 he called Baldwin, Dunn, and Rolph to his Council, but these with the three older Councillors resigned in a body when they found that the governor proposed to consult them only when he should think fit. From this time his relations with the Assembly and the popular party grew steadily worse. He dissolved the House, and in the succeeding election managed to secure a majority favourable to his own views of government. “The elections,” says Durham, “were, in a number of instances, carried on by the unscrupulous exercise of the influence of the government, and by a display of violence on the part of the Tories, who were emboldened by the countenance afforded to them by the government.” And Durham holds him responsible for the rebellion that broke out in 1837. “It certainly appeared too much as if the rebellion had been purposely invited by the government, and the unfortunate men who took part in it deliberately drawn into a trap by those who subsequently inflicted so severe a punishment on them for their error.” He was a man of considerable literary ability, but hardly a success as a governor of Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Works: _Narrative_; _The Emigrant_; _Journeys in the Pampas and Andes_; _Life of Bruce, the Traveller_; _Life of Burgoyne_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada and Rebellion of 1837_; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Lizars, _Humours of ’37_; FitzGibbon, _A Veteran of 1812_; Robinson,_ Sir John Beverley Robinson_; Ryerson, _Story of My Life_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Durham, _Report_; _Lord Glenelg’s Despatches to Sir F. B. Head_, London, 1839; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Hearne, Samuel= (1745-1792). Came to Fort Prince of Wales on the Hudson’s Bay Company’s ship _Prince Rupert_. Under instructions from the Company, and after two abortive attempts, set forth in December, 1770, on his memorable journey to the mouth of the Coppermine river, which he reached in July of the following year. Returning by way of Great Slave Lake, arrived at Fort Prince of Wales in June, 1772. Of much of the country travelled over in his journey we know nothing more to-day than is to be gathered from his narrative. Two years later sent to the Saskatchewan, where he built Cumberland House. On his return in 1775, he was appointed governor of Fort Prince of Wales, and was still in charge when the fort was captured by La Perouse in 1782. Brief accounts of his journey were published after his return from the Coppermine, and some of his statements severely criticised by Alexander Dalrymple. The complete account of the expedition did not appear until three years after his death. =Bib.=: Works: _Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean_, etc., _1769-1772_ (Lond., 1795). New ed., edited by J. B. Tyrrell, Champlain Soc., 1910; French trans. by M. Lallemant in 2 vols. (Paris, 1799). Also, abridged in Mavor’s collection of _Voyages_, xxiv, 1-66. Brief accounts of Hearne and his explorations will be found in Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Willson, _Great Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Leacock, _Adventurers of the Far North_. =Heavysege, Charles= (1816-1876). Born in Liverpool, England. Came to Canada, 1853. Settled in Montreal, and engaged in his trade of cabinet-making. Afterwards connected with the staff of the _Witness_. Author of a number of dramas, the most remarkable of which was _Saul_. =Bib.=: For his works, _see_ James, _Bibliography of Canadian Poetry_. For biog., _see_ Burpee, _Charles Heavysege_ (R. S. C., 1901); Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =Hébert, Anne.= Eldest daughter of Louis Hébert, Quebec; married to Stephen Jonquest in the autumn of 1617, Father Le Caron officiating. This was the first marriage in New France. Died, 1619. =Bib.=: Després, _Louis Hébert et sa famille_. =Hébert, Louis.= An apothecary in Paris, he followed Poutrincourt to Acadia in 1604; re-visited France in 1607; returned to Acadia, and remained there until 1613. He seems to have been the medical officer at Port Royal, and also to have interested himself in agriculture. Lescarbot says that he took great pleasure in working the soil, and Professor Colby describes him as the “first true colonist of Acadia.” Returned to France, and in 1617 came to Quebec with his family, becoming the first permanent settler in New France. Both in Acadia and at Quebec he enjoyed the friendship and esteem of Champlain. In 1621 he went to Tadoussac as the lieutenant of De Caën; was afterwards made Royal Procurator; and in 1626 secured the seigniory of St. Joseph, on the St. Charles river, with the title of Sieur d’Espinay. Of this pioneer Canadian there are to-day many descendants in the province of Quebec. Died, 1627. =Bib.=: Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Després, _Louis Hébert et sa famille_. =Hector, Sir James= (1834-1907). Geologist to the Palliser expedition, 1857-1860. Starting from Port Carlton, in the winter of 1857-1858, he travelled up the North Saskatchewan to Fort Pitt, Fort Edmonton, Rocky Mountain House, and into the first range of the mountains. The following summer he explored the mountains, examining Vermilion, Kananaskis and other passes, reaching the sources of the Kootenay, North Saskatchewan and other streams. Named a number of mountain peaks and other natural features. It was while exploring the river now known as the Kicking Horse that he was kicked by his horse and so furnished a name for the stream. In 1859 he ascended the Athabaska through what is to-day Jasper Park; later crossed the mountains and descended the Columbia to the sea. Elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society of Canada in 1894. He was then in charge of the Colonial Museum of New Zealand at Wellington. Hector Lake, Hector Mountain and Hector Pass named after him. Revisited Canada and the Rockies in 1904. _See also_ Palliser. =Hector, Mount.= North of Laggan, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway through the Rockies. Height above sea level 11,205 feet. Named after Sir James Hector. First climbed in 1895 by Professor Fay, P. S. Abbot, and C. S. Thompson. Hector Lake lies at its foot. =Bib.=: Outram, _In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies_. =Helmcken, John Sebastian= (1832-1920). Studied medicine and admitted a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, 1848. Appointed surgeon at Vancouver Island by Hudson’s Bay Company; first magistrate appointed in the colony. As magistrate stationed at Fort Rupert, where the miners were very unruly. In 1856 elected for Esquimalt district to the first Legislature of the colony; took a very active part in its deliberations; and became Speaker. Member of Executive Council, 1864-1871. Opposed Confederation in 1870. Sent to Ottawa the same year as one of the delegates to negotiate terms of union. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Begg, _History of British Columbia_. =Hendry, Anthony.= Born in the Isle of Wight. Having been outlawed in 1748 for smuggling, he succeeded two years later in entering the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and was sent to York Factory on Hudson Bay. In 1754 he volunteered to go inland and explore the country. Left York Factory in June, 1754, and followed the Hayes route to Oxford lake, and then by a series of waterways to the Saskatchewan. Here he visited a French trading post. La Corne, the officer in charge, was absent, but he met him on his return journey. Hendry struck overland, crossed the South Saskatchewan, and travelled over the plains to the country of the Blackfeet, with whom he wintered, returning in the spring of 1755 to York Factory. His is the first account of the manners and customs of the Blackfeet. _See also_ Cocking. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. Hendry’s Journal edited for the Royal Society of Canada, _Trans., 1907_. =Hennepin, Louis.= Born in Ath, Belgium, about 1640. Entered order of Récollets. Sailed for Quebec, 1675. Stationed at Fort Frontenac, 1676. Accompanied La Salle to the West, 1678. From Fort Crèvecœur (Peoria, Ill.), in 1680, descended the Illinois and explored the upper waters of the Mississippi. Captured by the Sioux and carried to their country. After eight months, rescued by Du Lhut (_q.v._), passed the winter at Michilimackinac, and returned to Quebec, 1682. Apparently satisfied with his adventures in the wilderness, returned to Europe, and settled in Holland, where he devoted himself to the preparation of a series of narratives of his explorations, real and imaginary. Died there about 1706. =Bib.=: Works: _Description de la Louisiane_, etc.; _Nouvelle Découverte_, etc.; _Nouveau Voyage_, etc. For biog., and bibliog. details of Hennepin’s works, _see_ Thwaites’ edition of the _New Discovery_, 1903. _See also_ Parkman, _La Salle_. =Henry, Alexander, the Elder= (1739-1824). One of the pioneer fur traders in north-western America. Born in New Jersey. Came to Montreal with Amherst’s army in 1760, and the following year secured a fur trading permit and made his way to Michilimackinac. His _Travels and Adventures_ open in that year and describe his experiences in the west for the following sixteen years. Parkman’s account of the massacre at Michilimackinac in 1763 is drawn from Henry’s narrative. Passed the winter at Sault Ste. Marie, went down with the Indians to Niagara in 1764, returned to Detroit, and back again to Michilimackinac. Spent 1765 fur trading on west side Lake Michigan, and next few years in an attempt to mine copper on Lake Superior. He journeyed west by way of Grand Portage, and was overtaken by Peter Pond and the Frobishers on Lake Winnipeg, reaching the Saskatchewan in October, 1775. He was plundered by a Cree river baron named Chatique, spent the winter trading, hunting and exploring on the western plains, and made his way back to Montreal in the spring. Sailed for Europe in 1776, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, and had an opportunity of describing his adventures to Marie Antoinette. Afterwards settled in Montreal as a merchant. Became a dormant partner of the North West Company. Retired in 1796. King’s Auctioneer in Montreal, 1812-1824. He was for some years a member of the Beaver Club. =Bib.=: _Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories_, New York, 1809; new ed. with biog., and other notes, by James Bain, Toronto, 1901. Another edition by M. M. Quaife, 1921. _See also_ Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_, and Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Henry, Alexander, the Younger.= Nephew of preceding and associated with him at Montreal in 1787. Entered service of North West Company about 1792. His _Journal_, the original manuscript of which is in the Library of Parliament at Ottawa, and which was published in 1897 with introduction and elaborate notes by Elliott Coues, contains an account of his western travels and experiences, 1799 to 1814. Wintered until 1808 at various posts in what is now the province of Manitoba; then for several years in the Saskatchewan country; and in 1813 sent to the Columbia where he took over Astoria from the Americans. He was primarily a fur trader but his exceedingly frank and racy narrative throws much light not only on the manners and customs of Indians and traders, but also on the history and topography of the west in the early part of the nineteenth century. Drowned, with Donald McKenzie, near Fort George, at the mouth of the Columbia, May 22nd, 1814. =Bib.=: Works: _New Light on the Early History of the Greater North-West: The Manuscript Journals of Alexander Henry and David Thompson_, ed. by Elliott Coues, New York, 1897. _See also_ Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Henry, John.= Sent by Sir James Craig to the New England states to report on the state of public opinion and the probability of war. He turned traitor, sold his correspondence with Craig’s secretary to the American secretary of state. President Madison used it to stir up public feeling against England. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Edgar, _General Brock_. =Henry, William Alexander= (1816-1888). Represented county of Sydney in Nova Scotia Legislature. Became a member of the government of Nova Scotia in 1852. Solicitor-general, 1854, and in 1856 provincial secretary. Resigned following year. Solicitor-general again in 1859, and in 1863. Attorney-general, 1866. A delegate from Nova Scotia to both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Herald.= Newspaper published at Montreal. Established, 1808, as a weekly. Became in 1847 a daily in summer and a tri-weekly in winter. Edward Goff Penny (_q.v._) was for many years its proprietor and editor. =Heriot, George= (1766-1844). Born in Island of Jersey. Came to Canada, and appointed a clerk in the ordnance department at Quebec, 1799; deputy postmaster-general of British North America, 1800; and afterwards postmaster-general. Served in the War of 1812; second in command under De Salaberry at Châteauguay; major-general, 1841. =Bib.=: Works: _History of Canada_; _Travels through the Canadas_. For biog., _see Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Herschel Island.= Off Arctic coast of Canada, west of mouth of Mackenzie river. Discovered by Sir John Franklin in 1821, and named after Sir William Herschel (1738-1822) the celebrated English astronomer. For years the winter quarters of the Arctic whalers. A post of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Cape Herschel, Devon Island, also named after Sir William Herschel; Herschel Bay and Island, Ellesmere Island, named after his son, also a famous astronomer. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; White, _Place-Names in Northern Canada_. =Hertel, François.= Sent by Frontenac in 1689 in charge of a Three Rivers party to attack the English colonies. Joined Portneuf in the attack on Fort Loyal. He had been carried off as a lad by the Iroquois, and had learned their method of warfare. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Hervey, William= (1732-1815). British soldier. Spent the eight years, 1755-1763, in North America. In a return dated April, 1762, he is listed as a captain in the 44th Regiment, stationed at Three Rivers, and major of Brigade. =Bib.=: _Journals of the Hon. William Hervey in North America and Europe from 1765 to 1814, with Order Books at Montreal, 1760-1763_. =Hey, William= (1733-1797). Born Wrigham, England. Began the study of law at the Middle Temple, 1750, and called to the bar, 1755. Succeeded William Gregory as chief-justice of Quebec, 1766. Went to England, 1773, in connection with the Quebec Act, and did not return to Canada until 1775. Left Canada finally the same year, having been elected to the British House of Commons for Sandwich in 1774. Vacated his seat in 1776, and appointed a commissioner of customs, retaining the position until 1797. A man of high character and ability, who had been consulted a great deal by the government in preparing the Quebec Act. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Lucas, _History of Canada_; Bradley, _Making of Canada_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents of Canada_; Audet, _Les juges en chef de la province de Québec_ (_Revue du Droit_, 1925). =Hickson, Sir Joseph= (1830-1897). Born at Otterburn, England. After some years’ practical experience on various English railways, came to Canada, 1862, as chief accountant of the Grand Trunk. Subsequently promoted to the office of secretary of the company; general manager, 1874. Between that year and 1890, when he retired, succeeded in bringing the Grand Trunk to a high rank among the railways of the continent. _See also_ Grand Trunk Railway. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =High Commissioner for Canada.= _See_ Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch; Tupper, Sir Charles; Strathcona and Mount Royal; Perley, Sir George Halsey; Larkin, Peter C. =Highways.= _See_ Roads. =Hill, James Jerome= (1838-1916). Born near Guelph, Ontario. Moved to Minnesota. Raised a company for service in American civil war. Agent North-Western Packet Company, 1865. Organized, 1870, Red River Transportation Company, which first opened communication between St. Paul and Winnipeg. Associated with Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona) and others in the syndicate that secured control of the St. Paul and Pacific Railway, subsequently known as the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway, and eventually merged in the Great Northern Railway. President of the latter for many years and mainly responsible for its development into a system extending from Lake Superior to Puget Sound. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Pyle, _Life of James J. Hill_; Vaughan, _Sir William Van Horne_. =Hill Seventy.= August 15th, 1917, as part of the great advance at Lens, after exhaustive training and preparation, the Canadians, 1st, 2nd and 4th divisions, following a terrific barrage, moved forward against the Germans, penetrating their lines to a depth of one mile on a frontage of two miles, and capturing not only Hill Seventy but the villages of St. Laurent, St. Elizabeth, St. Emile and a portion of St. Auguste. A feature of the battle was the use of oil drums, which threw immense quantities of burning oil into the enemy trenches. The detailed accounts of this engagement bring out very distinctly the marked contrast with conditions in the earlier years of the war, the extraordinary increase in volume and precision of the artillery, and the machine-like coördination of infantry, artillery and air service. Desperate counter-attacks were launched by the enemy, in which altogether forty-eight battalions took part, but they failed to wrest Hill Seventy from the Canadians. =Bib.=: Dawson, _The Siege of Lens_ (_Canada in the Great World War_, vol. iv.). =Hincks, Sir Francis= (1807-1885). Born in Cork, Ireland. Came to Canada, 1830. Engaged in banking in York for several years. Became associated with Robert Baldwin, whose political views coincided with his own. In 1833 appointed an examiner to look into the accounts of the Welland Canal. Secretary of Constitutional Reform Society of Upper Canada, 1836. Established the _Examiner_ at Toronto, 1838, in which he advocated the principles of responsible government. He had visited Montreal and Quebec in 1835 and become acquainted with LaFontaine, Morin and other leaders of the moderate party in French Canada, with whom he later carried on a correspondence in the interests of constitutional reform. Elected for Oxford, 1841. In the Legislature attacked certain provisions of the Act of Union, particularly the fixing of a civil list for Canada by the Imperial Parliament, the unjust basis of representation in both Upper and Lower Canada, and the suppression of the French language as an official medium which he denounced as an “unjust and cruel provision.” He gradually drew away from Baldwin, his political point-of-view being rather to take advantage of present concessions than to oppose everything that did not represent his ultimate ideal. He thought half a loaf better than no bread. In 1842 appointed inspector-general by Bagot. Remained in office in LaFontaine-Baldwin government. In the session of 1843 he took a very active part in debate, being responsible for fiscal and commercial legislation. Burnt in effigy by an Orange mob in Toronto because of legislation aimed at secret societies. When the administration retired, he went back to journalism, editing the _Times_, Montreal. In 1844 he established the _Pilot_, Montreal, and used it as an effective weapon against the party in power. In newspaper work as in public life he aroused bitter antagonism among his opponents, one furious Orangeman, Colonel Ogle, challenging him to a duel. At the same time he wrote a series of letters to the London _Morning Chronicle_ answering the arguments of Gibbon Wakefield. He was defeated in the next election and remained out of the Legislature until 1848, having been re-elected for Oxford the previous year while he was absent on a visit to Ireland. Again inspector-general. The adoption of free trade in England had had a depressing effect on commercial life in Canada, because of the loss of the preference to Canadian agricultural exports. Hincks realized the need of a vigorous policy to revive the industries of the country. He encouraged railway building, and advocated reciprocity with the United States. Defended Rebellion Losses bill, 1849. That year he visited England for the purpose of strengthening the credit of Canada in the London market, in which purpose he was eminently successful. To enable British investors to understand the situation in Canada he published in London a pamphlet entitled _Canada and its Financial Resources_. After his return to Canada he reconstructed the Reform government and became joint premier with Morin. The ministry defeated in 1854. Described by Shortt as a man of more political wisdom than Baldwin. Sydenham had a high opinion of his financial abilities. In 1855 he accepted the office of governor-in-chief of Barbados and the Windward Islands, an interesting departure, but an isolated one, in offering imperial appointments to colonial statesmen. Subsequently he became governor of British Guiana. On his retirement in 1869 made K. C. M. G. In 1870 returned to Canada as finance minister in the Macdonald government, and remained in office until 1873, when he retired finally from public life. =Bib.=: _Political History of Canada_; _Reminiscences_. For biog., _see_ Davin, _Irishman in Canada_; Dent, _Can. Por._, and _Last Forty Years_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Lewis, _George Brown_. =Hind, Henry Youle.= Born in Nottingham, England, 1823. Travelled in Mexico, 1846. Came to Canada, 1847, and appointed lecturer in chemistry and natural philosophy at the Toronto Normal School, Toronto. Five years later became professor of chemistry and geology in Trinity College. Geologist to the Red river exploring expedition, 1857; and had charge of the expedition of 1858 to explore the country between Red river and the Saskatchewan. In 1860 carried out an exploration of a portion of Labrador peninsula. In 1854 resigned his chair at Trinity, and undertook a preliminary geological survey of New Brunswick; and in subsequent years carried out similar work for the government of Nova Scotia. In 1876 engaged by the Newfoundland government to report on northern cod banks, but abandoned this work to assist the Canadian government in preparing their case for the Halifax Fisheries Commission. =Bib.=: Works: _Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857, and the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Expedition of 1858_; _Sketch of the Overland Route to British Columbia_; _Explorations in the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula_; _Eighty Years’ Progress of British North America_ (by Hind and others). For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._ and _Can. Men_; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Historic Landmarks Association of Canada.= _See_ Canadian Historical Association. =Historical Portraits.= It is obviously impracticable to do more here than indicate very briefly the principal sources. Large collections of Canadian historical portraits will be found in the Public Archives of Canada, the John Ross Robertson Collection in the Toronto Public Library, the Royal Museum of Archæology, Toronto, the Houses of Parliament and Parliamentary Library, Ottawa, the McGill University Library, McCord Museum, Montreal, Château de Ramezay, Montreal, the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, the various Provincial or Legislative Libraries, and the principal university libraries and historical societies. Historical portraits will also be found scattered through the printed transactions of Canadian learned societies, and in many individual works. Also, it should be added, in the collections and printed transactions of such American historical societies as those of New York, Massachusetts, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin and California, and the great national libraries of the United States, England and France. =Bib.=: _Guide to the J. Ross Robertson Historical Collection_; Kenney, _Catalogue of Pictures in the Public Archives of Canada_. =Historical Societies.= In addition to the Canadian Historical Association (_q.v._) Sections I and II of the Royal Society of Canada are in part devoted to Canadian history; and there are at present the following provincial organizations: the Ontario Historical Society (est. 1888); the Nova Scotia Historical Society (est. 1878); the New Brunswick Historical Society (est. 1874); the British Columbia Historical Association (est. 1922); the Alberta Historical Society. The Manitoba Historical Society (est. 1879), and the Prince Edward Island Historical Society (est. 1881) are in a state of suspended animation. There are also a number of local historical societies, among which may be mentioned the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec (est. 1824); the Société Historique de Montréal (est. 1858); the Kingston Historical Society (est. 1893); Brant Historical Society, Brantford, Ont. (est. 1908); Essex Historical Society, Windsor, Ont. (est. 1904); Lennox and Addington Historical Society, Napanee, Ont. (est. 1909); Huron Institute, Collingwood, Ont. (est. 1904); Kent Historical Society, Chatham, Ont. (est. 1912); London and Middlesex Historical Society, London, Ont. (est. 1901); Thunder Bay Historical Society, Fort William, Ont. (est. 1908); Stratford and Perth Counties Historical Society, Stratford, Ont. (est. 1922); Waterloo Historical Society, Kitchener, Ont. (est. 1912); Wellington Historical Society, Guelph, Ont. (est. 1924); Wentworth Historical Society, Hamilton, Ont. (est. 1890); Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa (est. 1898); Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Toronto (est. 1895); Women’s Wentworth Historical Society (est. 1899); Brome County Historical Society, Knowlton, Que. (est. 1897); Historical Association of Annapolis Royal (est. 1919); Antiquarian and Numismatic Society of Montreal (est. 1862); Dundas, Stormont and Glengarry Historical Society, Cornwall, Ont.; Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute, St. Thomas, Ont.; Historical Society of Calgary (est. 1923); Lundy’s Lane Historical Society, Niagara Falls, Ont. (est. 1887); Missisquoi Historical Society, Bedford, Que.; Niagara Historical Society, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ont. (est. 1895). =Bib.=: _Handbook of American Historical Societies_. =Hobson, Frederick.= Sergeant, 20th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Awarded posthumous _Victoria Cross_. Near Lens, August 15th, 1917, when a Lewis gun in a very important position was buried by an enemy shell, and the crew with one exception killed, he, though not a gunner, rushed from his trench, dug out the gun and got it into action. A jam caused the gun to stop firing. Though wounded, he turned the gun over to the gunner, and rushing forward at the advancing enemy held them in check with bayonet and clubbed rifle until the Lewis gun was again in action, and he was killed by a rifle shot. =Hochelaga.= An Iroquoian town situated, in 1535, on Montreal Island. The site is now covered by the city of Montreal. Marked by a monument in 1925. Cartier visited the town in the year mentioned, and describes it as encircled by a triple row of palisades, with galleries for the defenders. Within stood some fifty large oblong lodges, each housing several families. In 1603, when Champlain visited the place, nothing remained of the town, and Indians of a different stock occupied the island. =Bib.=: Carrier, _Bref récit_, etc.; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Fiske, _New France and New England_; White, _Handbook of Indians of Canada_. =Hocquart, Gilles.= Intendant of New France. Son of Jean-Hyacinthe Hocquart, chevalier, and seigneur d’Essenlis et de Muscourt. Held for a time the office of commissary of marine, and in 1729 obtained from the king a commission as commissary-general of New France. Arrived at Quebec in 1729; and in 1731 succeeded Dupuy as intendant. After nearly twenty years of service in New France, during which he devoted his energies unselfishly to the welfare of the colony, returned to France in 1748, and for some years filled the office of intendant at Brest. Appointed a councillor of state, 1753. =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903); Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_. =Hodgins, John George= (1821-1912). Born in Dublin. Came to Canada, 1833. Educated at Upper Canada Academy, Victoria College, and Toronto University. He is described as the right-hand man of Egerton Ryerson in his educational policy. Appointed to department of education of Upper Canada, 1844; secretary of provincial board of education, 1846; deputy superintendent of education, 1855; deputy minister of education, 1876-1889; librarian and historiographer of the education department, 1889-1912. =Bib.=: Works: _Documentary History of Education in Upper Canada_; _Legislation and History of Separate Schools in Upper Canada_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Hodgson, Sir Robert= (1798-1880). Born in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Educated at Windsor, Nova Scotia, and called to the bar of Nova Scotia and of Prince Edward Island, 1819. Appointed judge of Probate and attorney-general for Prince Edward Island, 1828; president of the Legislative Council, 1840. Appointed chief-justice, 1852, and judge of the Court of Vice-Admiralty, 1853; resigned both offices to accept the lieutenant-governorship of Prince Edward Island, 1874. Held office until 1879. Died in Charlottetown. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Prince Edward Island_. =Holland, Edward.= Sergeant, Royal Canadian Dragoons. _Victoria Cross._ Served through the South African War with the Canadian Contingent. During the action at Komati river, November 7th, 1900, he did splendid work with his Colt gun, and kept the Boers off the twelve-pounders by its fire at close range. When he saw that the enemy were too near for him to escape with the gun carriage as his horse was already blown, he calmly lifted the gun off the carriage and galloped away with it under his arm. Promoted subsequently to rank of major. =Holland, Samuel= (1728-1801). United Empire Loyalist. Born in the Netherlands. Had been surveyor-general of the colonies north of Virginia. Served as a major in the French war, and in the expeditions against Louisbourg and Quebec. Was near Wolfe when he fell on the plains of Abraham. Emigrated to Canada after the revolution, where for nearly fifty years he carried out the duties of surveyor-general. Succeeded by his nephew, Joseph Bouchette (_q.v._). Became a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. In 1780 he bought a farm and mansion near Quebec, and there in 1791 he entertained Prince Edward, Duke of Kent. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_; Chipman, _Life and Times of Major Samuel Holland, Surveyor-general, 1764-1801_, (_Papers and Records_, Ont. Hist. Soc., 1924). =Holmes, Benjamin E.= One of leaders of the Liberal party in Lower Canada. An Irishman of broad and patriotic views. Elected for Montreal, 1841. An authority on banking, and a strong advocate of public improvements, an intelligent immigration policy, and an efficient system of education. At farewell banquet to LaFontaine in 1851. =Bib.=: Davin, _The Irishman in Canada_. =Holmes, Charles= (1711-1761). Served in Carthagena expedition, 1741; and in action with Spanish fleet in Gulf of Florida, 1748. Member of Byng court-martial, 1757. Appointed rear-admiral, 1758. Third in command under Sir Charles Saunders (_q.v._) before Quebec, 1759, and ably seconded him in making effective use of the fleet both before the city and above it. Commander-in-chief in West Indies, 1760-1761. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Woods, _Logs of the Conquest of Canada_ and _The Fight for Canada_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Holmes, Thomas William.= Private, 4th Canadian Mounted Rifles, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ On October 26th, 1917, near Passchendaele, when the advance was being held up by heavy machine-gun and rifle fire from an enemy “pill-box,” he ran forward, single-handed, armed with bombs, and destroyed the crews of two machine-guns; then securing another bomb, he returned under heavy fire and forced the nineteen occupants of the “pill-box” to surrender. =Holton, Luther Hamilton= (1817-1880). Entered public life, 1854, as one of the members for Montreal; elected to Legislative Council, 1862; resigned, 1863, and returned to the Assembly as member for Châteauguay, which he represented to the time of his death; signed annexation manifesto in 1849; associated at one time with the _Parti Rouge_, but afterwards adopted less radical views; accepted portfolio of commissioner of public works in the short-lived Brown-Dorion government, 1858; minister of finance in the Macdonald-Dorion administration, 1863-1864. Opposed Confederation. An associate of George Brown. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Mackenzie, _Hon. George Brown_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; _Confederation Debates_. =Home Rule in Ireland.= Resolution proposed in Canadian Parliament in 1882 and almost unanimously adopted. Warmly supported by Edward Blake. _See_ Costigan. =Bib.=: Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_. =Honey, Samuel Lewis.= Lieutenant, 78th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Posthumous _Victoria Cross_. During the Bourlon Wood operations, September, 1918, when all other officers of his company had become casualties, he took command and skilfully reorganized under very severe fire, continuing the advance and gaining the objective. Finding his company was suffering casualties from enfilade machine-gun fire, he rushed the position single-handed, capturing the guns and ten prisoners. After dark he went out alone and located an enemy post, and led a party which captured it and three guns. Continued in the succeeding days to display the same high example of valour and self-sacrifice. Died of wounds received on the last day of the attack. =Hooker, Mount.= On the east side of Athabaska pass. Named by David Douglas, the botanist, in 1827, and estimated by him to be nearly 17,000 feet above the sea. This and Mount Brown assumed for years to be the highest peaks in North America. Mount Hooker is actually about 10,000 feet. Its identity uncertain. Douglas’ description points to a mountain that rises immediately above the pass, and known to the early fur traders as McGillivray’s Rock. The Geographic Board of Canada has decided in favour of another and higher peak, several miles from the pass. =Bib.=: Burpee, _On the Old Athabaska Trail_; Thorington, _Glittering Mountains of Canada_. =Hope, Henry.= Commissary-general at Quebec, 1784. Promoted to brigadier-general, and lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1785-1789. A favourite of Haldimand’s. Administered the government from 1785 until Dorchester’s arrival in 1787. In 1786 he had been offered, but declined, the lieutenant-governorship of New Brunswick. Reported against the proposal that the Loyalists in Upper Canada should be given a separate government. Died at Quebec, 1789. One of the Quebec gates was named in his honour. =Bib.=: Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents of Canada_. =Hopkins, Caleb.= One of the leaders of the Clear Grits in Upper Canada. A farmer of considerable energy and natural ability. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_. =Hopson, Peregrine Thomas.= Early entered the army and advanced rapidly. Commander-in-chief of Louisbourg, when the place was restored to the French, 1749. Came to Halifax and appointed a member of the Council. Governor of Nova Scotia, 1752; went to England, 1753. Raised to the rank of major-general, 1757. Commanded an expedition against the French West India Islands, 1758; died before Guadaloupe, 1759. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =House of Assembly.= _See_ Legislative Assembly. =House of Commons.= Name first applied to a legislature in Canada by the British North America Act, Sec. 17. Its powers, privileges and duties are set forth in that Act. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Constitution of Canada_. =Houses of Parliament.= First Lower Canadian Legislature met in Quebec, 1792, in the chapel of the bishop’s palace, and continued to sit there until 1838, when moved to Montreal. First Upper Canada Legislature met in Newark (Niagara); later moved to York (Toronto). Building destroyed by Americans in War of 1812-1814. Later in a brick building at foot of Berkeley Street. Legislature of Nova Scotia first met 1758 in a grammar school house in Halifax. The Province building was completed, 1818. Legislature of New Brunswick first met in St. John, 1786. Following year moved to Fredericton. First Legislature of Prince Edward Island met Charlottetown, 1773. After the union of Upper and Lower Canada, the Legislature sat in Kingston, 1841, in a building afterwards the general hospital. In 1844 it moved to Montreal, and sat there until 1849, in a building formerly a market, which stood in what is now Youville Square. After the signing of the Rebellion Losses bill the building was destroyed by a mob. Parliament then sat alternately in Quebec and Toronto, and in 1866 moved to Ottawa. Parliament buildings there were built, 1859-1865, and the central building destroyed by fire, 1916. Corner-stone of new building laid by Duke of Connaught, 1916, and foundation stone of memorial tower by Prince of Wales, 1919. _See also_ Seat of Government. =Howard, Joseph.= An early merchant of Montreal, particularly interested in the western fur trade. Dr. Atherton (_Montreal, 1535-1914_) says that Howard, Chinn and Bostwick was probably the first British firm of merchants in Montreal. Howard left the firm and went into business on his own account. Accused of complicity in the attack on the unpopular magistrate Walker, he was tried and acquitted. =Howe, Edward.= Member of the Council of Nova Scotia, 1744. Took part in the affair at Mines under Colonel Noble, 1747; severely wounded and taken prisoner, but afterwards exchanged. Judge of the Court of Admiralty. Confidential agent of the government in dealing with the Indians. Treacherously murdered by Indians, at the instigation, it is said, of Le Loutre in 1751. Richard (_Acadia_) gives an entirely different version of his death. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Howe, George Augustus, third Viscount= (1724-1758). Came to Halifax, 1757, in command of 60th Regiment. Transferred to command of 55th same year, and promoted brigadier-general. Accompanied Abercromby to Lake George, 1758, and fell July 8th, while leading his men in a skirmish at Fort Ticonderoga. A brilliant general. Had he lived, the battle of Ticonderoga might have had a very different issue. _See_ Abercromby; Ticonderoga. =Bib.=: Smith, _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _Fight for North America_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Howe, John= (1774-1835). United Empire Loyalist. A native of Boston, he emigrated to Halifax after the Revolution. Had conducted the _Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter_, in Boston, and established a newspaper in Halifax soon after his arrival. Appointed king’s printer, and later postmaster-general for the maritime provinces. His son Joseph said of him: “For thirteen years he was my instructor, my playfellow, almost my daily companion. To him I owe my fondness for reading, my familiarity with the Bible, my knowledge of old colonial and American incidents and characteristics. He left me nothing but his example and the memory of his many virtues, for all that he ever earned was given to the poor. He was too good for this world; but the remembrance of his high principles, his cheerfulness, his child-like simplicity, and truly Christian character, is never absent from my mind.” =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Howe, Joseph= (1804-1873). Born in Halifax. Son of preceding, from whom he acquired a taste for good reading, and in whose office he also learned the trade of a printer. In 1827 purchased the _Weekly Chronicle_, Halifax, and changed its name to the _Acadian_. Edited it for a short time, then sold it and acquired the _Nova Scotian_. A man of tireless energy and ambition, and determined to make his paper a power in the province, he wrote its editorials, collected its news, and introduced a new feature by reporting and publishing the debates in the Assembly. In extending its circulation he visited various parts of Nova Scotia, and thus acquired an intimate knowledge of the different districts and the characteristics and views of the people. He had already written a good deal of occasional verse, and now brought out in his newspaper a series of letters entitled _Rambles_, which did much to arouse the pride of Nova Scotians in the resources and scenery of their province. About this time also he, with Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Lawrence Doyle and several other brilliant young writers, conducted a department in the paper called “The Club,” in which public questions and public men were discussed with freedom and incisiveness. In 1829 he published Haliburton’s history of Nova Scotia, and the same year began to take an active interest in provincial politics, his views steadily swinging toward responsible government. In 1835, following an attack in his paper on Halifax magistrates for corruption, he was sued for libel, decided to plead his own case, and, although the chief-justice charged the jury against him, he was unanimously acquitted. The following year he was elected to the Assembly for Halifax with William Annand. He entered public life with an unusual endowment: a tremendous capacity for hard work, a buoyant and optimistic temperament, a keen sense of humour, a wide range of reading aided by a retentive memory, an easy and natural style both of writing and public speaking, and that touch of real eloquence and personal magnetism that mark the difference between a politician and a statesman. He made his presence felt in the Legislature from the outset, and soon came to be regarded as the leader of the democratic party. He put through a series of resolutions calling for responsible government, and embodied them in an address to the crown. The colonial secretary, in his reply, conceded many of the points demanded, but would not admit the principle of executive responsibility. Both the governor and the Executive Council, thwarted in every way the aims of the popular party. In 1840 the governor, Sir Colin Campbell, was recalled, and Lord Falkland sent out in his place. Howe accepted a seat on his Council. In 1842 he was elected Speaker of the Assembly, and the same year appointed collector of customs at Halifax. In 1843 he resigned the Speakership. He had always taken a deep interest in education, and advocated the establishment of a system of compulsory education and a central undenominational college. In the election of 1843 J. W. Johnston had a small majority. Howe resigned his seat on the Council, and set himself the task of defeating what he considered a reactionary conspiracy between the Tories and the governor. Bitterly attacked Falkland in both prose and verse. Howe assumed editorial management of the _Morning Chronicle_ and the _Nova Scotian_. Sir John Harvey, who succeeded Falkland, offered Howe a seat on the Council, but he declined. Reëlected, 1847, and became provincial secretary in Uniacke government. Had the satisfaction of seeing the granting of that full measure of responsible government for which he had been contending. Strongly advocated the building of railways in the province, and in 1850 sailed for England to explain the Intercolonial project to the home government. Obtained imperial guarantee, and secured coöperation of New Brunswick and Canada. Elected for Cumberland county, 1851. Became chief commissioner of railways. Defeated by Tupper in Cumberland, 1855. Returned by acclamation for Hants following year. Became provincial premier, 1859. Fishery commissioner to carry out provisions of reciprocity treaty, 1854. Defeated with his party, 1863. Opposed Confederation and declined to attend the Charlottetown Conference, 1864. Created the Anti-Confederation League, and carried his opposition to England. Swept the province in both the provincial and Dominion elections on the anti-Confederation issue. Carried on for a time an agitation for repeal of the union, but recognizing its fruitlessness abandoned the movement. Entered Dominion cabinet, 1868, as president of the Privy Council. Reëlected for Hants. Visited Winnipeg in 1869 in an effort to allay ill-feeling in the Red river country. Became lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1873. =Bib.=: _Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe_, ed. by Chisholm; _Poems and Essays_. For biog., _see_ Fenety, _Life and Times of Joseph Howe_; Bourinot, _Builders of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Grant, _Joseph Howe_; Grant, _Tribune of Nova Scotia_. =Howe, William, Viscount= (1729-1814). Brother of George Augustus, Viscount Howe (_q.v._), and Admiral Lord Howe. Commanded 58th Regiment at capture of Louisbourg, 1758. Commanded light infantry under Wolfe at Quebec, 1759. Captured posts at Samos and Sillery. Took part in the defence of Quebec, 1759-1760. Commanded brigade in Montreal expedition, 1760. At siege of Belle Isle, 1761. Adjutant-general at conquest of Havana, 1762. Major-general, 1772; lieutenant-general, 1775. Represented Nottingham in British Parliament, 1758-1780. Succeeded Gage as commander-in-chief in America, 1775. On the whole his conduct of the campaign was weak. Commanded British forces at Bunker Hill. Abandoned Boston and occupied New York. Defeated Washington at White Plains, 1776, and at Brandywine, 1777. Recalled, 1778. Promoted general, 1793. Succeeded to viscountcy, 1799. Became governor of Berwick, and later of Plymouth. =Bib.=: _Narrative_. For biog., _see Cyc. Am. Biog._; Rhodes, _History of the United States_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Howland, Sir William Pearce= (1811-1907). Born at Paulings, New York. Came to Canada in 1830. Represented West York in the Legislature, 1857-1868. Member of Macdonald-Sicotte ministry, 1862, as minister of finance; receiver-general, 1863-1864; postmaster-general, 1864-1866. Accompanied Galt to Washington to discuss reciprocity in 1865; minister of finance, 1866-1867. Minister of inland revenue in first Dominion Cabinet, 1867. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1868; retired, 1873; knighted, 1879. Headed one of the syndicates that offered to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_; Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_. =Howse, Joseph= (1773-1852). An employee of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1810 he crossed the Rocky mountains by the pass that bears his name, and travelled down to near Kalispell, Montana, where he built a trading post, “the only post west of the Rockies constructed by the Hudson’s Bay Company prior to the union with the North West Company in 1821.” In 1814 he took part in the conflict with the North West Company on the Red river, was captured and held prisoner for a time in Fort Gibraltar. Author of a _Grammar of the Cree Language_, published in 1844, and elected a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. Died at Cirencester, England. =Howse Pass.= In Rocky Mountains; source of North Saskatchewan river. Discovered by Duncan McGillivray, 1800. First traversed by David Thompson in 1807. Subsequently named after Joseph Howse, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who is sometimes confused with Jasper Hawse or Howse of the North West Company, after whom Jasper House was named. Howse pass was for some years the thoroughfare of the fur trade through the Rockies, until the Piegan interfered and forced Thompson to open up the more northerly route by Athabaska pass. =Hubbard, William.= United Empire Loyalist. Went to St. John from New England in 1783, and was a grantee or founder of that town. Settled in the county of Sunbury, New Brunswick, and became registrar of deeds and wills, deputy surrogate, and a member of the Assembly. Appointed to the bench, and chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas. Died, 1813. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Hubert, Jean François.= Bishop of Quebec, 1788-1797. His views on education before the committee of 1787 in Canada were reactionary and opposed to the progressive views of his coadjutor Bailly. He, however, accepted as reasonable the government’s veto on the introduction of ecclesiastics from France. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_. =Hudson, Henry.= Made four notable voyages: the first, in 1607, for the Muscovy Company, in search of a north-eastern passage to China; the second, in 1608, for the same Company, and in search of the same passage; the third, in 1609, at the expense of the Dutch East India Company, begun, like the two former, in search of a north-eastern passage, but changed to a quest of a north-western passage; the fourth, in 1610, in search of a north-western passage, the expense borne by three English gentlemen. In his first voyage, he explored the coast of Spitzbergen; in the second, part of Nova Zembla; in the third, the Hudson river; and in the last, Hudson Strait and part of the bay. Wintered, 1610-1611, at the foot of James Bay, and on the return voyage was set adrift with eight companions in a small boat, and never again heard of. “Of all the dark mysteries of the merciless ocean,” says Sir W. F. Butler, “no mystery lies wrapped in deeper shadow than that which hangs over the fate of Hudson.” =Bib.=: Asher, _Henry Hudson, the Navigator_; Read, _Historical Enquiry concerning Henry Hudson_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. _See also_ bibliog. list in Asher. =Hudson Bay.= Excluding Fox Channel and Hudson Strait, but including James Bay, it is approximately 1,000 miles from north to south and 600 miles from east to west, with an area of about 567,000 square miles. Hudson Bay proper has a fairly uniform depth of about seventy fathoms, but James Bay is very shallow, and even small vessels cannot approach the shore. Explored by Henry Hudson, 1610, and named after him; by Sir Thomas Button, 1612; Gibbons, 1614; Bylot and Baffin, 1615; Hawkridge, 1617; Jens Munk, 1619; Foxe and James, 1631. The net result of these voyages, eliminating those of Gibbons and Hawkridge as unimportant, was as follows: Hudson discovered for the first time the general features of the strait, and the eastern coast of the bay down to its extreme foot. Button made known the rough outlines of the west coast, from Wager Bay to Port Nelson. Foxe and James both contributed to a more exact delineation of the coast covered by Button, and both almost simultaneously, though quite independently, explored the hitherto unknown coast from Port Nelson to Cape Henrietta Maria, while James alone explored the eastern shores of James Bay. Bylot and Baffin explored the northern coasts of the bay, and Munk apparently discovered the mouth of the Churchill. Although the primary object of all these voyages—the discovery of the North-West Passage—was not accomplished, they resulted in a very important piece of exploration, the charting of the entire coast-line of one of the largest and most remarkable of inland seas. In 1668 the first trading ship of the Hudson’s Bay Company, the _Nonsuch_, with Médard Chouart on board, sailed into the bay, and the first trading post of the Company was built at the mouth of Rupert river. Two years later Pierre Esprit Radisson, who with Chouart had reached the bay overland from the south in 1662, and who had been largely instrumental in creating the Hudson’s Bay Company, also sailed for the bay, and built the first of several posts at the mouth of the Nelson, afterwards known as York Factory. At later dates other trading posts, Prince of Wales or Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill, Fort Albany at the mouth of the Albany, Fort Severn at the mouth of the Severn, and Moose Factory at the mouth of the Moose, were established. Chouart’s post was first named Charles Fort, in honour of the king, and afterwards Rupert House. For many years the title to the country about the bay was disputed by France, and expeditions were sent north from Canada to capture the Company’s posts. Finally, all the posts were restored, and France abandoned her claim. _See_ Iberville and De Troyes; also under names of explorers and trading posts. In comparatively recent years the Dominion government has sent out both by sea and land a number of expeditions to complete the exploration of the bay and strait, and to report upon the period of navigability of the strait, ice conditions, the mineral and other resources of the country, its flora and fauna, and so forth. See reports listed below. =Bib.=: Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Asher, _Henry Hudson the Navigator_; Gosch, _Expedition of Jens Munk_; Christy, _Voyages of Foxe and James_; Coats, _Geography of Hudson’s Bay_; Robson, _Six Years’ Residence in Hudson’s Bay_; Dobbs, _Account of Countries Adjoining Hudson’s Bay_; Gordon, _Report on Hudson’s Bay Expedition_; Wakeham, _Second Hudson’s Bay Expedition_; Low, _Expedition to Hudson Bay_; Bernier, _Report on Dominion Government Expedition to Arctic Islands and Hudson Strait_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. _See also_ General Indexes to the Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada. =Hudson Bay Route.= The practicability of a rail and water route from the Canadian prairies to Europe by way of Hudson Bay has been a matter of investigation and discussion for many years. Government expeditions were sent by sea to investigate the period of navigability of Hudson Strait; and survey parties covered the ground from the Saskatchewan to the Bay, to report upon the best routes for a railway, and the most suitable port. The railway having been decided upon, work was commenced in 1911, and discontinued during the War. The mouth of the Nelson was selected as the terminal port, and considerable work was done there in dredging, the building of docks, etc. In 1920 there had been laid 332 miles of rail, and 214 miles were in operation, out of a total of 424 miles. It is now part of the Canadian National System. =Bib.=: Skelton, _The Railway Builders_. =Hudson Strait.= Connecting Hudson Bay with the Atlantic. Named after Henry Hudson. By whom it was first discovered is uncertain. Sebastian Cabot is said, but with slight probability, to have entered the strait in 1498. Dr. Asher, who made a study of the Portuguese voyages, believed that they traversed the strait and entered Hudson Bay between 1558 and 1567. Frobisher was near the strait in 1578, and Davis entered it in 1587, as well as Weymouth in 1602. Hudson sailed through in 1610, and after him a host of other navigators, followed by the ships of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Hudson’s Bay Company.= Charter granted by King Charles II in 1670 to “The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson’s Bay.” The early history of the Company outlined under Hudson Bay. Exploration and particularly the search for the long-sought North-West Passage was made the principal obligation, in return for which the Company was given the lordship over an immense empire, all the territory whose rivers drained into Hudson Bay, in other words the three prairie provinces of Canada with northern Ontario and Quebec, and a considerable part of the states of Minnesota, North Dakota and Montana. It should be added that, following successive and successful French raids to the Bay, and succeeding treaties, the British government put a more restricted interpretation on the Company’s territories, otherwise known as Rupert’s Land. It is probably not unfair to say that the Company never seriously felt its obligation. Nevertheless, it did send several expeditions by water to search for a passage in the north-western part of the bay, and it also to some extent at least explored the interior, or rather its employees did, sometimes with the Company’s approval and sometimes entirely on their own initiative. Among these land expeditions were those of Henry Kellsey, Anthony Hendry, Matthew Cocking and Samuel Hearne. The surveys and astronomical work of Philip Turnor, Peter Fidler and, in his earlier years, of David Thompson, may also be credited to the Company. _See_ under these names. For many years the operations of the Company were confined to the shores of the bay. They found that the Indians could be persuaded to bring their furs down to Prince of Wales Fort, York Factory and the other posts, and there was no incentive to go inland at considerable cost and discomfort and even danger to themselves. Finally, it became apparent that the traders from Montreal, afterwards incorporated as the North West Company, were rapidly taking the trade away from them, by bringing goods to the Indians instead of forcing them to travel long distances with their furs. Hearne was sent to the Saskatchewan in 1774 to build Cumberland House, on Cumberland lake. This was a strategic point of immense importance, on the portage route from the Saskatchewan north to the Churchill, and at once put the Hudson’s Bay Company on an equality with its rivals. From that time the contest for the fur trade became increasingly keen. Posts of the two Companies were often built side by side on some remote lake or river, and the rival traders fought for furs, sometimes good-naturedly, sometimes with bitter animosity. There was an inevitable incentive to use liquor as a bribe with the Indians, with demoralizing results to both natives and traders. Finally, the situation became intolerable, in such tragic incidents as the Seven Oaks affair, when Governor Semple of the Hudson’s Bay Company lost his life. In 1821 the two Companies were united under the name of the older, and with larger resources of men and money spread farther afield than either had hitherto thought possible. At the height of its power the trading posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company extended from Labrador to the Pacific and from the Arctic to California. In 1869 the Company after prolonged negotiations with the British and Canadian governments, surrendered its territorial rights to Canada for £300,000 together with the reservation of one-twentieth of the fertile belt and certain areas surrounding its trading posts. Ultimately these lands proved much more valuable than the money compensation. The unfortunate way in which the negotiations were carried out, without consulting or even notifying the settlers on Red river, helped to bring about the Rebellion of 1869-1870. In 1920 the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the chartering of the Company was celebrated at Winnipeg with elaborate pageants and other ceremonies. In recent years the Company has established a number of general stores in the western Canadian cities. These, with its extensive land interests, and the still active fur trade, give it a much greater interest in Western Canada than it had in either the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries. _See_ North West Company; X Y Company; Fur Trade; Radisson; Selkirk; Simpson; Douglas; McLoughlin. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Willson, _Great Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Bryce, _Romantic History of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; Ross, _Red River Settlement_; Hargrave, _Red River_; Begg, _History of the North-West_; Cowie, _Company of Adventurers_; Schooling, _The Hudson’s Bay Company, 1670-1902_. =Hughes, Sir Sam= (1853-1921). Born at Darlington, Ontario. For some years a public school teacher; then engaged in journalism. Served in Fenian Raids, 1870, and in South Africa, 1899-1900. Promoted colonel, 1902. Sat for North Victoria in House of Commons, 1892-1904, and for Victoria and Haliburton, 1904-1921. Minister of militia and defence, 1911-1916. His dynamic energy and resourcefulness were invaluable in the early part of the war in getting Canada’s army trained and overseas at the earliest possible moment. K.C.B., 1915; major-general, 1912; lieutenant-general, 1916. His son G. B. Hughes rose to rank of major-general in the Great War. =Bib.=: Greene, _Who’s Who and Why_. =Huguenots.= A few came to Canada in the early years of the French régime, the most distinguished being De Monts (_q.v._). After 1628 they were expressly forbidden by Richelieu to settle in Canada, though they might trade there provided they did not openly practice their religion. On the pros and cons of the policy of exclusion, _see_ Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_. =Hull, William= (1753-1825). Served during the Revolutionary War; major-general of militia in Massachusetts and a member of the federal senate; appointed governor of Michigan, 1805; commander of the north-western army of the United States, 1812. Early in the war, crossed the Detroit river, occupied Sandwich, and issued a bombastic proclamation to the people of Canada. Retreated to his own side, and forced to surrender Detroit with his entire army to General Brock, 1812; sent to Montreal as prisoner of war; released on parole; tried by court-martial, and sentenced to be shot; sentence commuted. =Bib.=: _Cyc., Am. Biog._; Campbell, _Life and Services of General William Hull_; Cruikshank, _General Hull’s Invasion of Canada in 1812_ (R. S. C., 1907-1908). =Hull.= Town in province of Quebec, on Ottawa river, opposite city of Ottawa. Founded, 1800, by Philemon Wright, who came from Woburn, Massachusetts. Named after Hull, England, which had been the home of Wright’s father. Visited and described by Ross Cox, the fur trader, in 1817. See his _Adventures on the Columbia River_. Incorporated as a city, 1875. =Hume, Joseph= (1777-1855). Entered Parliament, 1812, but on account of his independent principles compelled to resign his seat. Again elected, 1818, and continued a member of the House of Commons until his death. A strong Radical, and effected many useful reforms. Carried on a correspondence with William Lyon Mackenzie and Papineau, and represented their interests in British Parliament. Urged amnesty for Mackenzie after the Rebellion. An associate of Sydenham’s in the British House. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =Hundredth Regiment.= Quartered at Quebec in 1806, under the command of Murray. The previous year a dozen officers and 200 men had been drowned in a wreck off the coast of Newfoundland. Another regiment of the same name was raised in 1858; known as the Royal Canadian; later part of the Leinster Regiment. Recruited originally in Canada for service during the Indian Mutiny. =Bib.=: _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 4. =Hungabee, Mount.= One of the famous mountains of the Valley of the Ten Peaks and Lake Louise, in the Canadian Rockies, south of the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Height, 11,305 feet. First climbed in 1903 by H. C. Parker with two Alpine guides, C. and H. Kaufmann. The name, which means the “chieftain,” was given by Walter D. Wilcox in 1894. =Bib.=: Wilcox, _Rockies of Canada_. =Hungry Year.= The year 1787 was so called in Upper Canada because of the failure of the harvest, a catastrophe anywhere, but particularly in a pioneer country. =Bib.=: Scott, _John Graves Simcoe_. =Hunt, Thomas Sterry= (1826-1892). Born in Norwich, Connecticut. Came to Canada, 1847, at the invitation of Sir William E. Logan, to accept the position of chemist and mineralogist to the Geological Survey, which he held until 1872. Helped to lay the foundations of the Survey; and did an immense amount of valuable field work. Also occupied the chair of chemistry in Laval University, 1856-1862; and in McGill University, 1862-1868. In 1872 professor of geology in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Author of several scientific works, and a large number of papers contributed to learned societies and scientific periodicals. Died in New York. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Hunter, Peter= (1746-1805). Lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, and commander of the forces in Canada 1802. Had previously been governor of Barbadoes, had seen service in the army, and reached the rank of major-general. Died at Quebec. =Bib.=: Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_. =Hunters’ Lodges.= An American secret society, used in 1838 as a cloak for a movement to invade Canada. They crossed the river to attack Prescott in November, took refuge in a stone windmill, and were forced to surrender. =Bib.=: Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Hunting Permits.= _See_ Licenses =Huntington, Herbert.= Appointed to Executive Council of Nova Scotia, 1837. A sturdy advocate of reform and a supporter of Joseph Howe. Left out when Council reconstructed the following year. Sent as delegate to England to urge the concession of responsible government. Candidate for Speaker, 1843. Advocated system of non-sectarian education. Member of Uniacke government, 1848, as financial secretary. =Bib.=: Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Huntington, Lucius Seth= (1827-1886). Born at Compton, Quebec. Studied law, and engaged in journalism, in the Eastern Townships. Elected to the Legislature for Shefford, 1861; solicitor-general, 1863-1864. Advocated independence of Canada. Brought charges against Macdonald government in connection with Pacific Scandal. Became president of the Council, in the Mackenzie government, 1874-1875; and postmaster-general, 1875-1878. Defeated for Shefford, 1882, and retired from public life. Died in New York. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Buckingham and Ross, _Alexander Mackenzie_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =Huron Indians.= Name applied by the French to a confederacy of four Iroquoian tribes. For origin of name, _see_ Hodge. First visited by Champlain and Father Le Caron in 1615. When French missionaries and explorers first went among them, they occupied the country about Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay. They had been at enmity with the Iroquois for many years, and had repeatedly ravaged their country. Finally the Iroquois determined to make an end of the Hurons. They invaded their country in force in 1648, and in 1650 had destroyed all their villages, killed most of the inhabitants, and driven the remnant far to the westward. They tortured some of the Jesuit missionaries, and broke up the missions. A few of the Hurons escaped to Quebec, and settled at the mission of Lorette. In the seventeenth century their population was estimated at from 20,000 to 35,000. In 1905 there remained a total of 832, in Canada and the United States. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Huron, Lake.= Area, 23,200 square miles. Discovered by Le Caron, 1615, and first seen by Champlain the same year. He called it _Mer douce_. Father Membré named it _Lac d’Orleans_, and Hennepin used the same name. Known as _Lac Karegnondi_ in 1656. Appeared as _Lac des Hurons_ on de l’Isle’s map of 1790. The route of missionaries, explorers, and fur traders lay along the north shore of the lake, or the south shore of Manitoulin Island, to Michilimackinac and Sault Ste. Marie, at the western end. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Huronia.= On Georgian Bay. The land of the Hurons in the seventeenth century, and the scene of the Jesuit missions and martyrdom. The first missionaries were Récollets. In 1626 they turned over the difficult field to the more militant Jesuits. Brébeuf was the first to reach the new mission field. Daniel and Davost followed in 1634, the history of the mission having been interrupted in the interval by Kirke’s capture of Quebec. The first headquarters of the missionaries was at St. Joseph. Here they remained for three years, labouring among the Hurons, at first with some success, later under exceedingly discouraging conditions. Other missionaries arrived at Huronia from time to time, Chaumonot and Lalement and Ragueneau, Garnier, Chabanel and Garreau. In 1647-1649 the Iroquois broke up the mission. Abandoning the mainland, the Jesuits established themselves for a time on Isle St. Joseph (Christian Island). In 1650, finding their position impossible, they led the remnants of their converts down to Quebec. _See also_ Jesuits. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_; Marquis, _The Jesuit Missions_. =Hutcheson, Bellenden Seymour.= Captain, Canadian Army Medical Corps. _Victoria Cross._ On September 2nd, 1918, during the attack on the Quéant-Drocourt Support Line, he dressed the wounds of a seriously wounded officer under terrific machine-gun and shell fire. Having brought him to safety, he rushed forward, in full view of the enemy and under very heavy machine-gun and rifle fire, and carried a wounded sergeant into a shell hole where he dressed his wounds. With complete disregard of personal safety he remained on the field until every wounded man had been removed. =Hutchinson, Foster.= Brother of Thomas Hutchinson, governor of Massachusetts. United Empire Loyalist. Graduated at Harvard in 1743. Raised to the bench of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, he was one of the last royal judges of the colony. Emigrated to Halifax in 1776 with his family. Died in Nova Scotia, 1799. His son, of the same name, became an assistant judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, and died in 1815. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Iberville, Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d’= (1661-1706). Third son of Charles Le Moyne, Sieur de Longueuil. Entered the French navy, returning to Canada in 1683. Three years later accompanied De Troyes in the expedition against the English on Hudson Bay, and took part in the capture of Moose Factory, Fort Rupert, and Albany. Returned to Quebec in 1687; and the following year was again on the bay. In 1689 captured the _Hampshire_, and brought her to Quebec with her cargo of furs. In 1690 took part in the raid on Schenectady; and the same year captured Fort Severn on Hudson Bay. In 1694 sailed to the bay with a French fleet, and captured Fort Nelson. Two years later captured Pemaquid; and, sailing to Newfoundland, captured St. John’s and raided the villages along the coast. In 1697 again sailed to Hudson Bay, defeated a superior fleet, and recaptured Fort Nelson. The following year sailed from Brest in command of an expedition to discover the mouth of the Mississippi and plant a colony there, in both of which he was successful. Most of the remaining years of his life were spent in building up the colony of Louisiana. Returned to France, 1702, in ill health. Led an expedition against the British in the West Indies in 1706, and on July 6th died at Havana. _See also_ Le Moyne. =Bib.=: Reed, _First Great Canadian_; Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_; Desmazures, _Histoire du Chevalier d’Iberville_; Gayarre, _History of Louisiana_; Margry, _Découvertes des Français_; Wallace, _Louisiana under the French_; Martin, _History of Louisiana_; Bacqueville de la Potherie, _Histoire de l’Amérique Septentrionale_; Jerémie, _Relation du Detroit et de la Baye d’Hudson_ (Bernard, _Recueil de Voiages au Nord_.) _See also_ bibliography at the end of Reed’s work. =Icelanders.= Because of the probability that the first white man to set foot on the continent of America was Leif son of Eric the Red, an Icelander and the discoverer of Greenland, it is peculiarly appropriate that Icelanders should make their home in Canada. The first colony of Icelanders settled in the Canadian North-West in 1875, arriving there by way of Nova Scotia. Many afterwards made their homes in Manitoba, where they have learned to be appreciated as the best possible type of settler. They have their own newspapers, but none the less do not stand apart from the rest of the people as have the Doukhobors and some other groups. They have added to Canadian life and literature a distinct note of vigour and originality. By the census of 1921 there were in Canada 15,876 people of Icelandic origin. =Île à la Crosse.= Lake and trading post. The lake is on the upper waters of the Churchill river, in about long. 108°. Its name is derived from the Indian game of lacrosse, which was very popular there. The first trading post was built on a peninsula on the western side of the lake by Thomas Frobisher in 1776. Other forts were built there later by the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company, the lake being a strategic point in the western fur trade. Many references to the post are found in the narratives of the fur trade. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Île Royale.= A large island in Lake Superior, on the United States side of the boundary, and included in the territory of the state of Michigan. Mentioned in Carver’s _Travels_ and other early narratives. By the treaty of peace, 1783, the islands Royale and “Philippeau” belonged to the United States. When the international commission was running the line in 1822-1827, this latter island gave them a great deal of trouble. Mitchell’s and other early maps showed it as a large island near Île Royale, but no such island existed. The American commissioner tried unsuccessfully to prove that what was intended was a group of small islands near the Canadian shore. The British commissioner argued that the island was a myth, and that its supposed existence arose from the deceptive appearance of land in the direction assigned to the island. Another and more probable theory is that Île Royale having been seen independently from the north and the south, and laid down with separate names on different maps, came to be regarded as two separate islands. =Bib.=: Rand-McNally, _Atlas of America_. =Illinois Indians.= Of Algonquian stock. Closely related to the Miami (_q.v._). First mentioned in the Jesuit _Relation_ of 1660 as living south-west of Green Bay. They ranged throughout the country between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi, and down the west bank of that river as far as the Des Moines; and have been described by Allouez, Marquette, Hennepin, Rasles, and other early French explorers. They were the allies of the French against the Iroquois in the days of Frontenac. About 1724, indignant because the French were taking sides with their enemies the Foxes, they sent a delegation to France with Father Beaubois to plead their cause. Their eloquence and dignity made a deep impression in France. Harassed on one side by the Sioux and Foxes and on the other by the Iroquois, their numbers were reduced from six to eight thousand, at the end of the seventeenth century, to less than two thousand about 1750. The murder of Pontiac by one of their warriors brought upon them a war of extermination. To-day only a handful remain, in Oklahoma. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Immigration.= During the French régime in Canada colonization was encouraged spasmodically by the crown, that being generally one of the obligations of the trading corporations, though not always one that was taken very seriously. _See_ Company of New France; Company of Rouen and St. Malo, etc. The first immigrants in the British period were from New England, and became merchants in Montreal and Quebec, engaging largely in the fur trade. After them came the United Empire Loyalists, settling for the most part in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Upper Canada. Nova Scotia had also had earlier settlers both from Scotland and New England. Immigration was, at a later date, encouraged from the British Isles by the governments of Canada and the Maritime Provinces. In 1847 and 1848 a large number of Irish immigrants came to Canada, bringing the plague with them, resulting in a heavy mortality both among themselves and among others with whom they came in contact. At a considerably later period the Dominion government offered inducements for the settlement of desirable people from the continent of Europe, particularly from the northern countries, and from the United States. For foreign colonies in western Canada, _see_ Doukhobors, Galicians, Mormons. For restrictive and other regulations, _see Canada Year Book_, 1922-1923, p. 98. =Bib.=: Whitton, _Immigration Problems in Canada_. =Imperial Conferences.= First held in London, April, 1887. Canada was represented by Sir Alexander Campbell and Sandford Fleming. Among the questions discussed were those of inter-Imperial defence and trade, the Pacific cable, etc. A conference was held in Ottawa in 1894 (_see_ Colonial Conference, 1894); and another in London in June, 1896, Canada being represented by Sir Mackenzie Bowell and Sandford Fleming. At an adjourned meeting in October, 1896, Sir Donald Smith and Hon. A. G. Jones represented the Dominion, Mr. Fleming being present in an advisory capacity. On the occasion of Queen Victoria’s diamond jubilee, December, 1897, another conference was held in London, Joseph Chamberlain presiding, and the self-governing colonies being represented by their premiers. Again, in 1902, June-July, the colonial premiers met in London, under the presidency of Joseph Chamberlain. The London Conference of 1907, April 15th-May 14th, presided over by Lord Elgin, discussed various Imperial questions, but was chiefly memorable because of the decision to hold similar meetings every four years, and to provide a permanent bureau at London devoted specifically to the interests of the Empire. Conferences were held in London, May 23rd-June 20th, 1911; February 12th-May 15th, 1917; June 20th-August 5th, 1921; October, 1923. =Bib.=: _See Canadian Annual Review_. =Imperial Federation.= Advocated by Thomas Pownall, governor of Massachusetts Bay, in 1764. He proposed a scheme by which “Great Britain may be no more considered as the Kingdom of this Isle alone, with many appendages of provinces, colonies, settlements, and other extraneous parts, but as a grand marine dominion, consisting of our possessions in the Atlantic and in America united into one Empire.” Subsequently proposed by Joseph Howe, in 1855, and again in 1863; also by Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Edward Blake, Sir Charles Tupper, and other Canadian statesmen and writers. Lord Elgin had declared in 1847 that Imperial unity did not depend on the exercise of dominion, the dispensing of patronage, or the maintenance of an Imperial hotbed for forcing commerce and manufactures. Yet he conceived of an empire not confined to the British Isles, but growing, expanding, “strengthening itself from age to age, and drawing new supplies of vitality from virgin soils.” The Imperial Federation League was formed in Canada in 1885, and in 1896 the name was changed to British Empire League. _See also_ Denison. =Bib.=: Denison, _Struggle for Imperial Unity_; Macphail, _Essays in Politics_; Brassey, _Imperial Federation and Colonization_; Ewart, _Kingdom of Canada, Imperial Federation_, etc.; Parkin, _Imperial Federation_; Young, _A Pioneer of Imperial Federation in Canada_; Milner, _Speeches in Canada_; _The Empire and the Century_; Argyll, _Imperial Federation_. =Imperial Federation League.= Formed in Canada at a meeting in Montreal, in May, 1885. A conference to the same end had been held in London, in July, 1884. The league in Canada changed its name, in 1896, to the British Empire League in Canada, at the suggestion of Sir Charles Tupper. _See_ Denison. =Indians.= Contacts between White Man and Indian in Canadian history have been so numerous and varied that it is difficult even to suggest their character. They range in time from Jacques Cartier to the present day, and in place from Cape Breton and Labrador to Vancouver Island and the Yukon. The Indians have fought sometimes with and sometimes against both French and English in Canada. They have helped or hindered the labours of practically all Canadian explorers. Their history is closely interwoven with that of the fur trade, in both the French and British régimes. They have been the subject of missionary labours since the days of the Récollet and Jesuit fathers of New France. One gets more or less light on their character and personality in the narratives of such men as Champlain, Lescarbot and Charlevoix, LaSalle, Radisson and LaVérendrye, the Jesuit _Relations_, and later travellers and missionaries such as Carver, Henry, Mackenzie, Thompson, Hearne, Harmon, Paul Kane, DeSmet, Bishop Bompas, James Evans and Père Lacombe. _See also_ under names of individual tribes. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Brinton, _The American Race_; Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_; Catlin, _Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians_; Drake, _Aboriginal Races of North America_; Lafitau, _Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquains_; Maclean, _Canadian Savage Folk_; Morgan, _Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines_; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_. =Indian Tribes.= _See_ Abnaki; Algonquian; Assiniboine; Blackfeet; Caughnawaga; Cayuga; Chinook; Chipewyan; Chippewa; Cree; Creek; Delaware; Déné; Echemin; Erie; Fox; Haida; Huron; Illinois; Iroquois; Kootenay; Mandan; Mascoutcn; Menominee; Miami; Micmac; Mississagua; Mohawk; Montagnais; Neutral Nation; Nipissing; Oneida; Onondaga; Ottawa; Pottawotomi; Sauk; Seneca; Sioux; Tuscarora; Winnebago. =Inglis, Charles= (1734-1816). Born in Ireland. Emigrated to America; taught school in Pennsylvania for a time, and then took holy orders. In 1764 became assistant to Dr. Auchmuty, rector of Trinity Church, New York, and in 1777 succeeded him as rector. His sympathies being with the mother country, removed to Nova Scotia after the Revolution, and thence to England. Returned and became first bishop of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over practically all British North America, 1787. One of the notable events of his episcopate was his establishment of King’s College, Windsor. In 1793 his huge diocese was divided by the creation of the diocese of Quebec, of which Jacob Mountain (_q.v._) became first bishop. =Bib.=: Mockridge, _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Institut Canadien.= A literary and scientific society, founded at Montreal in 1844, and incorporated in 1852. It included among its early members most of the leaders of the more progressive and independent element in Quebec political life, among them A. A. Dorion, Eric Dorion, Joseph Doutre, Rodolphe Laflamme, and Wilfrid Laurier. The success of the parent society led to the founding of similar Instituts throughout the province. Although popular among the laity, these societies encountered the determined opposition of the Roman Catholic Church, led by Bishop Bourget of Montreal. The outside societies yielded to clerical pressure, but the Montreal Institut stood upon its rights. The fight went on for many years, but finally most of the Roman Catholic members dropped out, and the books and papers were transferred to the Fraser Institute. =Bib.=: Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =Intellectual Development.= While a work of this kind is not the fitting place to describe in detail the intellectual development of the Canadian people, or to critically estimate the achievements or give the biographical particulars of those whose place in Canadian history has been purely intellectual, it would be equally improper to overlook the fact that an essential and tremendously important part of the history of Canada is the development of its intellectual life. Of the outstanding figures in Canadian literature, those who because of the value or character of their work may be regarded as having helped to mould Canadian character and Canadian life, these at least should be mentioned: Michel Bibaud (1782-1857) historian; Auguste Gosselin (1843-) historian; François-Xavier Garneau (1809-1866) historian; Octave Crémazie (1827-1879) poet; Pamphile LeMay (1837-1918) poet; Louis Fréchette (1839-1908) poet; Jean Baptiste Antoine Ferland (1805-1865) historian; William Chapman (1850-1917) poet; Henri Raymond Casgrain (1831-1904) historian; Antoine Gérin-Lajoie (1824-1882) historian and poet; Philippe Aubert de Gaspé (1786-1871) novelist; Benjamin Sulte (1841-1923) historian; Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796-1865) humorist and historian; James De Mille (1833-1880) novelist; Charles G. D. Roberts (1860-) poet and novelist; Bliss Carman (1861-) poet; Charles Heavysege (1816-1876) dramatist; Archibald Lampman (1861-1899) poet; William Wilfred Campbell (1860-1919) poet; William Kirby (1817-1906) novelist; Isabella Valency Crawford (1851-1887) poet; William Henry Drummond (1854-1906) poet; Emile Nelligan (1882-) poet; Albert Lozeau (1875-1924) poet; Paul Morin (1889-) poet; John McCrae (1872-1918) poet; Marjorie Pickthall (1883-1922) poet and novelist. =Bib.=: Baker, _History of English-Canadian Literature to Confederation_; Marquis, _History of English-Canadian Literature_ (_Canada and its Provinces_); Edgar, _English-Canadian Literature_ (_Cambridge History of English Literature_); MacMechan, _Head-Waters of Canadian Literature_; Logan, _Highways of Canadian Literature_; Lareau, _Histoire de la littérature canadienne_; Halden, _Études de littérature canadienne française_; Bourinot, _Intellectual Development of the Canadian People_. =Intendant.= An office created originally by Richelieu, in France, and transferred to New France. The first intendant of Canada was Robert, appointed in 1663, who was succeeded two years later by the ablest occupant of the office, Jean Talon. The intendant was charged with the supervision of practically all the civil affairs of the colony, including the administration of justice, but his most important function, from the point of view of the court, was to act as a virtual spy upon the acts of the governor. Inevitably, harmony was impossible between these two officials, and the history of New France is punctuated with their perpetual quarrels. The intendants of New France were: Louis Robert, 1663; Jean Talon, 1665-1668; Claude de Bouteroue, 1668-1670: Jean Talon, 1670-1672; Jacques Duchesneau, 1675-1682; Jacques De Meulles, 1682-1686; Jean Bochart de Champigny, 1686-1702; François de Beauharnois, 1702-1705; Jacques and Antoine-Denis Raudot, 1705-1711; Michel Bégon, 1710-1726; Edmé Nicolas Robert, 1724; Guillaume de Chazelles, 1725; Claude Thomas Dupuy, 1726-1728; Gilles Hocquart, 1731-1748; François Bigot, 1748-1760. =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903); Parkman, _Old Régime_; Munro, _The Office of Intendant in New France_ in _The American Historical Review_, October, 1906. =Intercolonial Railway.= In one form or another had been projected for many years. Recommended in Durham’s _Report_. A company was formed in London, 1845, and a survey made by Major Robinson, but nothing further done at the time. Surveys proposed by the government of Canada in 1863. Three engineers were to be appointed, one by the Imperial government, one by Canada, and one by the Maritime Provinces. They all nominated the same man, Sandford Fleming, by whom the surveys were accordingly carried out. Difficulty was experienced in selecting the route. Three were surveyed, one by the valley of the St. John, a second along the coast, and the third through the centre of New Brunswick. The second was finally selected, partly for political, partly for strategic reasons. The railway was made a condition of the union of the Maritime Provinces with Canada, and the work of construction was pushed forward, the line being formally opened July 1st, 1876. In 1871 the Prince Edward Island Railway was begun, and in 1873 it became a portion of the Intercolonial system. Other extensions and branches were built or acquired, the line finally running from Sydney and Halifax to Montreal. Now part of the Canadian National Railways (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Fleming, _The Intercolonial_; Fleming, _Historical Sketch of the Intercolonial Railway_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 2; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Hannay, _Wilmot-Tilley_; Skelton, _The Railway Builders_. =International Boundary Commission.= Created, 1892, for the purpose of surveying and marking the international boundary between the Yukon and Alaska; and between other parts of Canada and the United States; and correcting certain inaccuracies in previous surveys. The work of the Commission was governed by the terms of the treaties of 1892, 1908 and 1910. The work of determining and mapping the boundary from its intersection with the St. Lawrence to the mouth of Pigeon river was entrusted by the treaty of 1908 to the International Waterways Commission. Consists of two members, one Canadian and the other American. Its work is now (1926) practically completed. Has issued various reports and maps from time to time. Earlier international boundary commissions were those constituted under the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Articles of the treaty of Ghent; under the Sixth Article of the Ashburton treaty; and under the Alaska Boundary Convention. Their reports will be found in _Treaties and Agreements affecting Canada, 1814-1913_. =International Joint Commission.= Created by the treaty of 1909 between Great Britain and the United States. Commission consists of six members, three appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Canadian government, and three by the president. Duplicate offices, each in charge of a secretary, in Ottawa and Washington. Commission has jurisdiction over cases involving the use of boundary waters between Canada and the United States. Also acts as an investigatory body under Article IX of the treaty; and under Article X has final jurisdiction over any question at issue between the two countries that may be referred to it by their governments. The Commission continues indefinitely, unless the treaty is denounced by one or other of the high contracting parties. It has investigated or settled a number of important problems, and has proved itself to be a very flexible and satisfactory means of solving international questions between two neighbouring nations. Has issued numerous orders, opinions and reports. =Bib.=: Burpee, _The International Joint Commission_. =International Joint High Commission.= Met at Quebec, August-October, 1898, and at Washington from November into the following year. The British delegates were Baron Herschell, representing the British government, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Sir Richard Cartwright, Sir Louis Davies and John Charlton, representing Canada, and Sir James Winter and A. B. Morine representing Newfoundland; the United States members being Senator George Gray, Senator Charles W. Fairbanks, John A. Kasson, Nelson Dingley, General John W. Foster and T. Jefferson Coolidge. The Commission discussed a number of questions, the Alaska boundary, reciprocity, war vessels on the Great Lakes, the Bering Sea seal fisheries, the Atlantic Coast fisheries, shipments in bond, alien labour laws, etc., but finally failed to reach an agreement on any of them. The Alaska Boundary was felt to be too intricate and delicate a problem to be involved in other questions; no common basis seemed available in the matter of reciprocity; and failure in these directions brought with it failure in all the minor questions. =Bib.=: Tracy, _Tercentenary History of Canada_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =International Waterways Commission.= Created by agreement between the governments of Canada and the United States in 1902, for the purpose of investigating and reporting upon various questions affecting the relations of the two countries along their common frontier. Consisted of six members, three appointed by the government of Canada and three by the president of the United States. Carried out a number of investigations, and published various reports. Among its principal recommendations was the creation of the International Joint Commission. Although it continued for several years after the constitution of that body for the purpose of completing the work upon which it was engaged, its period of service virtually ended with the signing of the treaty of 1909. =Bib.=: _Compiled Reports of the International Waterways Commission_. =Interprovincial Boundary Commissions.= In 1871 the task of delimiting the northern and western boundaries of the province of Ontario was entrusted to two commissioners, one for the Dominion and the other for Ontario. The proposals of the Dominion commissioner being unsatisfactory to Ontario, correspondence followed between the Ontario and Dominion governments, and in 1874 it was agreed to refer the question to arbitration. The arbitrators were L. A. Wilmot for the Dominion and W. B. Richards for Ontario. The former died and the latter resigned, and were replaced by Sir Francis Hincks for Canada and R. A. Harrison for Ontario, who chose Sir Edward Thornton as the third arbitrator. In 1878 the case was argued, and the arbitrators unanimously agreed on an award materially extending the area of the province. The Dominion government delayed accepting the award, and in 1881 approved of an extension of the boundaries of Manitoba that complicated the situation. Quebec also took a hand in the matter by demanding an extension of her boundaries. The delay in settlement led to difficulties in the disputed territory between the people and officials of Manitoba and Ontario. In 1883 it was agreed to refer the question to the Judicial Committee of the Imperial Privy Council. The case was argued in 1884, and the Judicial Committee substantially confirmed the original award. In 1889 an Imperial Act was passed defining the boundaries between Ontario and Manitoba. Many years afterward the boundaries of all three provinces were extended north to Hudson Bay. In 1913 a commission was created to delimit the boundary between the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. This Commission has now completed its field work. Part I of its Report was issued in 1917 and Part II in 1924. Part III is to follow. _See also_ Labrador Boundary. =Bib.=: _Documents relating to the Boundaries of Ontario_; Mills, _Report on the Boundaries of Ontario_; Lindsey, _Report on the Boundaries of Ontario_; Biggar, _Sir Oliver Mowat_; _Report of Alberta-British Columbia Boundary Commission_. =Interprovincial Conferences.= The first conference of premiers or other representatives of the various provinces was held at Quebec in October, 1887. All the provincial premiers attended except the premier of British Columbia. Various questions of common interest were discussed, and resolutions adopted dealing with proposed amendments to the British North America Act. Since that date similar conferences have been held from time to time, in various cities of the Dominion. =Irish in Canada.= Nicholas Flood Davin, in commenting upon a statement in an English magazine to the effect that the English and Scotch were the great pioneers of Canada, outside the French, says: “The Irishman was here as early as others; he fought against the wilderness as well as others; his arm was raised against the invading foe as well as that of others,” and he proceeds to show that in statesmanship and war, in literature and commerce, the Irish have held their own in Canada. Among them were Dorchester, Thomas Talbot, James FitzGibbon, Edward Blake, Thomas D’Arcy McGee, Robert Baldwin, Sir Francis Hincks, Dufferin. A painful incident was the Irish famine in the forties and the Irish immigrants that came out to Canada bringing the plague with them. By the census of 1921 there were 1,107,817 persons of Irish origin in Canada, out of a total population of 8,788,483. =Bib.=: Davin, _The Irishman in Canada_. =Iroquet.= A chief of the Petite Nation and a leader of the Huron Indians. Urged Champlain to attack the Iroquois in 1603, and entered into an alliance with the French. He was a man of humane instincts. In 1615 he adopted a young Iroquois prisoner as his son instead of following the usual practice of burning him at the stake. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Iroquois.= A confederation of tribes, at first five, the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca, to which the Tuscarora was added after 1726, as well as the remnants of many other tribes. They were known to the English colonists as the Five Nations, and later as the Six Nations. They called themselves _Oñgwanonsioñni_, “we are of the extended lodge.” When they first came into contact with Europeans, they occupied the country between Lake Champlain and the Genesee river, and this remained their home territory, but they ranged far and wide, carrying their conquering raids eastwards to the Kennebec, westwards to Lake Michigan, north to the Hudson Bay watershed and south to the Tennessee. In the long periods of conflict between New England and New France they allied themselves as a rule with the English against the French. They were the enemies of the Hurons and Algonquians who were friendly to the French. Champlain attacked them first in 1609, thus laying the foundations of infinite trouble to the colony. Courcelles, Frontenac, La Barre, and other governors, sent expeditions against them, with varying success. At the end of the period of French rule they had come to be regarded and regarded themselves, as the traditional foes of the French. They fought on the British side in the War of 1812-1814. Obtained grant of land on the Grand river in Upper Canada. They numbered about 16,000 in 1677, and after dropping to 10,000 in the next century, they returned to their original strength at the opening of the twentieth century. About two-thirds are on reservations in Canada; the remainder in New York. _See_ Senecas; Mohawks; Onondagas; Cayugas; Oneidas; Caughnawagas. _Also_ Champlain; Frontenac; Courcelles; La Barre; Brock; Brant. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_; Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_; Colden, _History of the Five Nations_; McKenzie, _The Six Nations Indians in Canada_; Hale, _Iroquois Book of Rites_; Parkman, _Old Régime, Jesuits in North America, Frontenac_ and _Half-Century of Conflict_; Fiske, _New France and New England_. =Irving, Jacob Æmilius= (1797-1856). Born at Charleston, South Carolina. Entered the army at an early age; severely wounded at Waterloo; presented with freedom of Liverpool for gallant conduct during the French war. Came to Canada, 1834; served during the Rebellion of 1837; appointed first warden for the district of Simcoe; and to the Legislative Council of Canada, 1843. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Irving, Paulus Æmilius= (1714-1796). Served under Wolfe at Quebec; administered government of Canada, 1765; appointed lieutenant-governor of Guernsey, 1771; and afterwards governor of Upnor Castle, Kent. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Isbister, Alexander K.= (1820-1883). Born in the territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company; employed by the Company, 1838-1840, in the Mackenzie river district. Went to England, about 1841; educated there, and practised law in London. A half-breed himself, he ably pressed the cause of the Indians and half-breeds upon the attention of the British government. Also gave evidence before the parliamentary Committee of 1857. Suggested annexation by Canada of western territory. For some years master of the Stationers’ School in England and Dean of the College of Preceptors. Left a large sum of money to found scholarships in connection with the University of Manitoba. =Bib.=: _Report on Hudson’s Bay Company_, 1857; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Isle aux Noix.= On the Richelieu river. A fort built originally by the French. Captured by Haviland in 1760. Reconstructed by Haldimand in 1778. Known as Fort Lennox. Loyalists from the revolting colonies had been sheltered there in 1775. Strengthened in 1812. Now preserved as a national memorial. =Bib.=: McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_. =Israel’s Poort.= Battle in the South African War, April 25th, 1900. The Canadians were engaged, under Colonel Otter. After an advance over the open veldt, where they were subjected to the galling fire of Boer sharpshooters, they rushed the high bald kopje which the enemy held in force, and drove them from it at the point of the bayonet. Otter was severely wounded, and there were a number of other casualties. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_, vol. 1. =Jack, William Brydone= (1819-1886). Born in Scotland. Educated at St. Andrew’s University. Came to New Brunswick as professor of mathematics at King’s College, 1840. When King’s College received its charter as University of New Brunswick in 1861, appointed president. Retired from office, 1885. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Jackson, Sir Richard Downes.= Served in Peninsular campaign; commander-in-chief of forces in Canada. Administrator for Lower Canada, 1839; and 1841-1842; after the death of Sydenham, for all Canada. Died at Montreal. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =James Bay.= Southern extension of Hudson Bay, discovered in 1610 by Henry Hudson who wintered there, 1610-1611, with the _Discovery_. The bay was named after Captain Thomas James (1593-1635?) of Bristol, who explored the west coast in 1631. It is about 350 miles long by about 125 miles wide, and very shallow. Rupert House, Moose Factory, Fort Albany, Fort George, and East Main, Hudson’s Bay Company posts, are on its shores. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Jameson, Anna Brownell= (1794-1860). Married Robert Simpson Jameson (_q.v._). She wrote very entertainingly, and her sketches of life in Upper Canada throw an important light on a very interesting period of Canadian history. =Bib.=: Works: _Diary of an Ennuyée_; _Characteristics of Women_; _Visits and Sketches_; _Essays_; _Sacred and Legendary Art_; _Legends of the Madonna_; _History of Our Lord_; _Early Italian Painters_; _Sketches in Canada_; _Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada_. For biog., _see_ Dent, _Can. Por._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Jameson, Robert Simpson.= A member of the English bar. Reporter in Lord Eldon’s Court, 1824. Married Anna Brownell Murphy, 1826. Judge in the Island of Dominica, 1829; retired, 1833, and returned to England. Appointed attorney-general of Upper Canada by the Imperial government, 1833, and took up his residence at York. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1833. Member of the Assembly, 1835-1837. Appointed vice-chancellor of the Court of Equity. Died in Toronto, 1854. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Jarvis, Edward James= (1789-1852). His father was a grantee of St. John, arriving there in 1783. Became a member of the House of Assembly. The son was a member of the Executive Council of New Brunswick, and afterwards chief-justice of Prince Edward Island, 1828-1852. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Jay’s Treaty.= Between Great Britain and the United States; negotiated November 19th, 1794. Provided for the evacuation by Great Britain of the western posts; the settlement by commission of pecuniary claims between the two countries; the appointment of a joint commission to determine the identity of the St. Croix river; and closer commercial relations. Negotiated by John Jay on behalf of the United States, and Lord Granville representing Great Britain. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_; Pope, _Treaties with the United States affecting Canada_. =Jefferson, Thomas= (1743-1826). Third president of the United States. He wrote in 1812: “The acquisition of Canada as far as Quebec will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us experience for the attack on Halifax and the final expulsion of England from this continent.” The purchase of Louisiana from France in 1803, and the sending of Lewis and Clark on their overland expedition to the Columbia in 1804-1806, for both of which he was mainly responsible, were to have far-reaching consequences so far as Canada was concerned. =Bib.=: His _Works_, ed. by Henry A. Washington, were published by order of Congress, in 9 vols., 1853. _See also_ Randolph, _Memoirs, Correspondence and Miscellanies of Jefferson_. For biog., _see_ Randall, _Life of Jefferson_; Tucker, _Life of Thomas Jefferson_; Parton, _Life of Thomas Jefferson_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Jervis, John.= _See_ St. Vincent. =Jesuit Relations.= The _Relations_ were published originally in Paris, by the provincial of the order, in small annual volumes. The original narratives were written in Canada, or in one or other of the remote mission fields, by the devoted missionaries, and are invaluable as a record of the condition and character of the various Indian tribes in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They have been used extensively by Parkman, Rochemonteix, and a host of other historians, old and new, in both languages. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 1610-1791_, ed. by Thwaites, Cleveland, 1896-1901, 73 vols.; _Relations des Jésuites_, Quebec, 1858, 3 vols. =Jesuits.= The first missionaries of the order, Lalemant, Massé, and Brébeuf, arrived in Canada in 1625. Work among the Algonquians began that year; and among the Hurons in 1626. The mission to the Iroquois dates from 1642. With the Iroquois mission are particularly associated the names of Jogues, Le Moyne, Ragueneau, Frémin, and De Carheil; and with the mission to the Hurons, those of Brébeuf, Lalemant, Chabanel, Gamier, and Chaumonot. Splendid examples of devotion to their religious ideals in carrying Christianity to the Indians, they also did much praiseworthy work among their own countrymen in New France in the cause of education and higher moral standards. With the civil and military authorities their relations were not always happy, because their ideals did not always harmonize with the practical theories of the politicians and traders. In November, 1925, the relics of Brébeuf, Lalemant and Garnier were solemnly removed from the chapel of the Hotel-Dieu in Quebec to the Jesuit chapel. _See also_ Albanel; Allouez; Aulneau; Biard; Boniface; Brébeuf; Bressani; Bruyas; Buteux; Carheil; Chabanel; Chaumonot; Crespieul; Dablon; Dalmas; Daniel; Druillettes; Frémin; Garnier, C.; Garnier, J.; Garreau; Guignas; Jogues; Lalemant, C.; Lalemant, G.; Lalemant, J.; Lamberville, John; Lamberville, James; Laure; Le Jeune; Le Moyne; Massé; Maret; Marquette; Ménard; Millet; Noüe; Pierron; Poncet; Raffeix; Ragueneau; Rale; Sylvie. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents_, ed. by Thwaites; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Rochemonteix, _Les Jésuites et la Nouvelle France_; Kip, _Early Jesuit Missions_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_; Harris, _Pioneers of the Cross in Canada_; Marquis, _The Jesuit Missions_. =Jesuits Estates Act.= Passed by the Legislature of Quebec, 1888. The issue was one of long standing. “During the last years of the French régime in Canada,” says Dr. Skelton, in his _Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier_, “the Jesuits throughout the world were falling on evil days; one Catholic sovereign after another, alarmed by their political intrigues and their growth in wealth and assertiveness, expelled them from his dominions.” Early in the period of British rule in Canada proposals had been made for suppressing the order and confiscating its estates. In 1791 the order was suppressed, and in 1800 after the death of the last surviving Canadian member, the crown took over the estates. In 1831 the estates were conveyed to the province of Canada for educational purposes. At Confederation they passed to the province of Quebec. Pope Clement XIV had suppressed the order in 1773; but Pius VII had restored them in 1814; in 1842 they were invited back to Canada by Bishop Bourget, and became a teaching order. Honoré Mercier, premier of Quebec, in 1887 introduced a bill to incorporate the Society of Jesus; and the following year gave them $400,000 as compensation for the ancient estates. A popular outcry followed in Ontario, which crystalized in a demand for disallowance by the Dominion Parliament. The question was debated in 1889, Sir John Macdonald refused to countenance disallowance, and the government was sustained. One of the by-products of the controversy was the establishment of the Equal Rights Association (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Skelton, _Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; Pope, _The Day of Sir John Macdonald_; Legendre, _Honoré Mercier_ (_Canadian Men of the Day_); Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; Grant and Hamilton, _Principal Grant_. =Jetté, Sir Louis= (1836-1920). Studied law, and called to the bar, 1857. Practised in Montreal. Entered public life in 1872 as member for Montreal East, defeating Sir Georges É. Cartier. He was one of the founders of the _Parti National_. Appointed puisne judge of Supreme Court of Quebec, 1878; and the same year became professor of civil law in Laval University; later dean of the faculty. Member of the commission for revision of the civil code of Quebec, 1887; and of the Alaskan Boundary Commission. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1898, and for a second term in 1903. Chief-justice of the Superior Court of Quebec, 1909. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Jogues, Isaac= (1607-1646). Born at Orleans, France. Entered the Society of Jesus, was for a time professor in the college of Rouen, and sailed for Canada in 1636. Set out almost immediately for the Huron mission. From there sent to the Tobacco nation. In 1641 visited the Chippewas at Sault Ste. Marie, and stood upon the shores of Lake Superior. Went to Quebec the following year, and on the return journey was captured by a party of Mohawks and carried off to the Iroquois country. After being repeatedly tortured, escaped to Fort Orange, with the help of the Dutch governor, and sailed for France, arriving at Rennes in 1643. After an interview with the queen regent, Anne of Austria, returned to Canada the following year, and sent as an ambassador to the Mohawks, 1646. Concluded a treaty of peace, and returned to Quebec. September 27th of the same year, again set out for the Iroquois country, this time as a missionary. The attitude of the Indians had changed, and on October 18th he was tomahawked as he entered one of the lodges at Tionnontoguen. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Martin, _Isaac Jogues_; Withrow, _Adventures of Isaac Jogues_ (R. S. C., 1885). =Johnson, Guy= (1740-1788). Born in Ireland, he came to America, acted as deputy to his uncle Sir William Johnson as superintendent of Indian affairs, and succeeded latter in office after his death. Married his daughter. Served under Amherst against the French, in 1759. At the opening of the Revolutionary War, abandoned his home in Amsterdam, New York, and brought his family to Montreal, and later went to England. Returned in 1776, and served in New York. Also with Brant in the Mohawk valley, two years later. His estates confiscated by the New York Assembly, 1779. Retired to London, 1783, and died there. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Johnson, John M.= (1818-1868). Solicitor-general of New Brunswick 1855; postmaster-general in the Fisher ministry 1857; attorney-general 1864 and delegate to Quebec Conference; represented New Brunswick at the London Conference on Confederation. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Johnson, Sir John= (1742-1830). Son of Sir William Johnson (_q.v._). Appointed major-general of militia, 1774, and served with the loyal forces. Fled to Canada, 1776, and served under St. Leger against Arnold the following year. Twice raided the Mohawk valley in 1780. After the close of the Revolutionary War became superintendent-general of Indian affairs in British North America, but was disappointed in not being made the first governor of Upper Canada. Died at Montreal. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Myers, _The Tories or Loyalists in America_. =Johnson, Sir William= (1715-1774). Born in Ireland. Came to America, in 1738, to take charge of the estates of his uncle, Sir Peter Warren. Appointed Indian agent in 1744, and obtained unrivalled influence over the Six Nations. In 1755 became superintendent of the affairs of the Six Nations. The same year made major-general and commander-in-chief of the expedition against the French. Defeated Dieskau at Lake George, and received the thanks of Parliament, a baronetcy, and a vote of £5,000. Served with Abercromby in 1758, and in 1759 captured Niagara from the French. Accompanied Amherst to Montreal in 1760, and led an expedition to Detroit the following year. Negotiated the treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Indians in 1768. Mainly instrumental in settling and developing the Mohawk valley. Died at his home “Johnson Hall.” =Bib.=: Language, _Customs and Manners of the Six Nations_ (Phil. Soc. of Phila. _Trans._, 1772); _Correspondence_ (Doc. Hist. N. Y.); Reid, _Story of Old Fort Johnson_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Stone, _Life of Sir William Johnson_; Buell, _Sir William Johnson_; Flick, _Papers of Sir William Johnson_; Bradley, _The Fight with France_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_, and _Conspiracy of Pontiac_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Johnston, John= (1763-1828). Born at Craignear, Giant’s Causeway, Ireland. Came to America in 1792 and entered the fur trade. He was stationed for a time at Chequamegon, on the south shore of Lake Superior, where he married the daughter of a prominent Chippewa chief. In 1794 he established himself at Sault Ste. Marie, where he built a comfortable home with a fine library and more of the comforts of civilization than were usual at that then remote spot. One of his daughters married Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. In the War of 1812-1814 he took an active part on the British side; led a party of his employees to the defence of Michilimackinac. During his absence his property was burned by the Americans and his goods confiscated. After the war he rebuilt his home and spent the rest of his days there. Received General Lewis Cass there in 1820. =Bib.=: _An Account of Lake Superior_ (Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_); _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xix. =Johnstone, Chevalier.= Aide-de-camp to Lévis in the Battle of the Plains. He was a Scottish Jacobite serving on the French side. His _Memoirs_ throw a very interesting light on the campaign as seen from the French side. The _Memoirs_ were translated by C. Winchester, and published in Aberdeen in 1871. A copy of the French original is in the Public Archives of Canada. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_. =Johnstone, James William= (1793-1873). Born in Jamaica. Came to Nova Scotia, studied law in Annapolis, and practised in Kentville and Halifax. Appointed solicitor-general, 1834; a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils, 1838; and became the recognized leader of the Conservative party in Nova Scotia. Opposed Joseph Howe’s views that ministers must be responsible to the Assembly alone. Held that there must be a dual responsibility, to the governor and to the Legislature. Took a deep interest in the establishment of the Baptist College, Acadia, and defended the idea of denominational education. He himself had originally been a member of the Church of England, but had left it and joined the Baptists. Resigned his seat in the Council in 1843 to contest Annapolis for the Assembly, and represented the county until 1864. From 1843 to 1847 he was virtually premier of the province, though that office was not yet definitely recognized. He was successful in putting through the Assembly a number of important bills, including one providing for simultaneous polling at general elections. He anticipated the National Policy of Sir John Macdonald in a resolution he introduced into the Assembly in 1847: “Resolved that the policy Nova Scotia requires is that the duties levied for the purpose of revenue should be regulated by such a tariff as will afford for us a high practical encouragement to the productions and industries of this country.” He believed it to be the true policy to lay duties so as to answer the double purpose of revenue and protection of home industries. “Could we enjoy free trade in its proper sense I have no doubt it would be best for Nova Scotia; but so long as the United States of America place our exports under burdensome and almost prohibitive duties, it is absurd to talk of free trade.” His party was defeated in the elections of 1847. Three years later attended the railway convention at Portland, for the purpose of promoting a railway to connect Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with the railway system of the United States. In 1853 opposed Howe’s proposal of governmental construction of railways, as he believed it to be more economical to have them built by private interests. Advocated Confederation of the British North American colonies in the Assembly, 1854. In 1857 Howe was defeated in the Assembly, and Johnstone formed an administration, taking the attorney-generalship himself, with Charles Tupper as provincial secretary. His government was defeated in 1860. Three years later he again carried the province, and once more took the office of attorney-general with the premiership. Finally retired from political life in 1864, to accept the office of judge in equity. On the death of Howe in 1873 made lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia. Died in England the same year. =Bib.=: Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Bourinot, _Builders of Nova Scotia_; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Joint High Commission, British-American=, 1898-1899. _See_ International Joint High Commission. =Jolliet, Louis= (1645-1700). Born at Quebec; son of a wagon-maker in the employ of the Company of New France. Educated by the Jesuits, and took minor orders, but renounced his clerical vocation to engage in the fur trade. Sent by Talon to discover copper mines on Lake Superior, and met La Salle on his return journey, 1669, near the site of the city of Hamilton. In 1673 set out with Jacques Marquette (_q.v._) to discover the Mississippi. Leaving Michilimackinac on May 17th, they coasted the north shore of Lake Michigan, to the foot of Green Bay, ascended Fox river to Lake Winnebago, and descended the Wisconsin to the Mississippi, which they reached a month after leaving Michilimackinac. Descended the great river, passing the mouths of the Illinois, Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas, and turned back from a village of the Arkansas Indians on July 17th; returning to Lake Michigan by way of the Illinois. Jolliet was unfortunate enough to lose the records of his journey at the foot of the Lachine rapids, almost within sight of Montreal. Made a journey to Hudson Bay in 1679; and the following year received a grant of the Island of Anticosti, where he settled with his family. In 1694 explored the coast of Labrador. On his return made royal pilot for the St. Lawrence, and hydrographer of the colony. =Bib.=: Parkman, _La Salle_; Faillon, _Colonie Française en Canada_; Margry, _Découvertes et Etablissements des Français_; Gagnon, _Louis Jolliet_. _See also_ Marquette. =Joly de Lotbinière, Sir Henri Gustave= (1829-1903). Studied law and called to the bar, 1855. Elected to Assembly for Lotbinière, 1861. Took a prominent part in opposition to Confederation. In 1867 elected for both Dominion and Quebec Houses, and sat in both up to 1874. Led Opposition in Assembly until 1878, when he was called upon to form a ministry. His government defeated in 1879, and in 1885 he dropped out of public life for a time. Returned for Portneuf in 1896, to the House of Commons, and became controller of inland revenue; the following year called to the Cabinet as minister of inland revenue. Appointed lieutenant-governor of British Columbia, 1900. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Jones, Alfred Gilpin= (1824-1906). Born at Weymouth, Nova Scotia, of United Empire Loyalist stock. Built up great shipping industry at Halifax. Entered public life as an opponent of Confederation, and for a time led the anti-Confederate party in Nova Scotia. Represented Halifax in Dominion House, 1867-1872, 1874-1878. Became minister of militia, 1878. Defeated in general election of that year, and again in 1881; elected in 1887, but defeated in 1891. Lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1900-1906. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Jones, Jonas= (1791-1848). Educated at Cornwall under John Strachan. Served as an officer of militia during the War of 1812-1814, attaining the rank of colonel. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1815. Elected to the Assembly for Leeds and Grenville, 1821, 1825, and again in 1832. A strong supporter of the union of Upper and Lower Canada. Appointed a puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1837. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Juan de Fuca.= A Greek sailor and explorer. His real name is said to have been Apostolus Velerianos. He was a native of Cephalonia. He has been credited with leading, in the service of the viceroy of Mexico, an expedition by water in 1592, in which he explored the west coast of North America, and discovered the strait now known by his name. The story is, however, discredited. The strait was named by Captain Charles William Barkley, who was off the entrance in 1787, in honour of the supposed original discoverer. Cook missed the strait in 1778. Vancouver sailed up it in 1792. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Judah, Henry Hague= (1808-1883). Born in London, England. Came to Canada, and called to the bar, 1829. Represented Champlain in the Assembly, 1843-1844. Appointed one of the Commissioners under the Act, abolishing the Seigniorial Tenure, 1854. =Judges.= _See_ Chief Justices. =Bib.=: Buchan, _Bench and Bar of Lower Canada_; Riddell, _Legal Profession in Upper Canada_; Audet, _Canadian Historical Dates and Events_. =Kaeble, Joseph.= Corporal, 22nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ In charge of a Lewis gun section, at Neuville Vitasse, June 9th, 1918. With his entire section, except one, casualties, and fifty of the enemy advancing toward his post, he jumped over the parapet with his Lewis gun and, although repeatedly wounded, held the enemy in check, until finally he fell back into the parapet mortally wounded, but still cheering his wounded comrades to keep up the fight. =Kalm, Peter.= A Swedish naturalist, who visited Canada in 1749, and recorded his impressions in a book subsequently published, _Journey to North America_, which ran through many editions and was translated into English and other languages. Kalm had studied botany at Uppsala University under the famous naturalist Linnæus. His narrative is interesting as one of the very few recording a visit to Canada during the French régime. Among other experiences Kalm met La Vérendrye, the western explorer, in Quebec, and tells of a conversation he had with him. =Kaministiquia or Kaministikwia.= At mouth of river of the same name, north-west shore of Lake Superior. Fort built by Zacharie Robutel de La Noüe, in 1717. DuLhut is said to have built a post here in 1678, and Radisson must have passed the spot in 1662. La Vérendrye wintered there in 1731 while making preparations for his western explorations. The site, as well as the portage route to Rainy lake, was abandoned in favour of Grand Portage. When the old route was reopened at the end of the eighteenth century, and a new post built at the mouth of the river, it was at first known as Fort Kaministiquia. The name was later changed to Fort William. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Kaministikwia River.= Rises in Dog lake and after a tortuous course of sixty miles empties into Thunder bay of Lake Superior. The Kakabeka falls are about thirty miles above the mouth of the river. La Noüe built a trading post at the mouth in 1717, and ascended the river to the height of land and down to Rainy lake. This portage route was used for a time; abandoned by La Vérendrye and his successors for the Grand Portage route (_q.v._), which was the main fur trade thoroughfare to the west for many years; until, finally, the Kaministikwia route was rediscovered by Roderick McKenzie in 1798, which led to the establishment of Fort William at the mouth of the river in 1801. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Kamloops.= Town on the Thompson river in British Columbia. Fort Thompson was established here about 1811, and the name was afterwards changed to Fort Kamloops. Post of the North West Company. Alexander Ross describes it in his book _The Fur Hunters_, as it was in 1814 and 1815. He was in charge there for several years. It was the scene of the murder by Indians in 1841 of Samuel Black, who had succeeded to the command of the post some years after the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. His predecessors had been John McLeod and Ermatinger. John Todd succeeded Black, and he in turn was followed by Paul Fraser, a son of Simon Fraser. As a result of the gold rush and the building of the Cariboo Road a village grew up at Kamloops, and in 1885 the Canadian Pacific Railway reached the town. It was incorporated as a city in 1893. =Bib.=: Wade, _The Thompson Country_. =Kananaskis Pass.= Named by Captain Palliser in 1863 after a legendary Indian. Palliser crossed the pass in 1858 and descended Palliser river to the Kootenay. He had learned of the existence of the pass in 1848 from a half-breed named James Sinclair, who had been through the mountains by that route. This is now known as South Kananaskis pass, elevation 7,439 feet above sea level. North Kananaskis pass, 7,682 feet, is a few miles distant. =Bib.=: _Alb. and B. C. Boundary Com. Rep._ =Kane, Paul= (1810-1871). Born in Ireland. Came to Toronto with his parents. Received his first training under Drury, the drawing-master of Upper Canada College. Spent the years 1836-1840 in the United States; and then sailed for Europe, where he studied art in Italy and elsewhere on the continent. Returned to Toronto in 1845, and shortly after set out on a tour of the western territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Visited many of the tribes, from Lake Superior to the Pacific, and brought back with him in 1848 several hundred sketches, from which he painted a series of oil pictures of Indian life and western scenery, most of which are now in the Royal Museum of Archæology in Toronto. Some years after, published a narrative of this journey, illustrated from his own sketches. =Bib.=: _Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America_; new edition with Introduction and Notes by Burpee. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =Kaskaskia.= Indian village and French settlements on the Mississippi at the mouth of Kaskaskia river, and some miles below St. Louis. Fort Chartres stood close by. _See_ map of settlements in _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. Another settlement on opposite side of the Mississippi, dating from 1735, was known as Ste. Geneviève. St. Philippe on the Kaskaskia side was founded in 1720. _See also_ Fort Chartres; Cahokia. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Kaufmann, Mount.= In Canadian Rockies. Height, 10,200 feet. First climbed by Sir James Outram in 1902, and named by him after the famous Swiss guide who made so many first ascents in the Rocky mountains. =Bib.=: Outram, _In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies_. =Keefer, Thomas Coltrin= (1821-1915). Born at Thorold, Ontario. Engaged in the enlargement of the Welland Canal, 1841-1845, and then transferred to the Ottawa river works, 1845-1849. Made a survey of the St. Lawrence rapids, 1850; and prepared the report and plans which resulted in the building of the Victoria bridge at Montreal. Instrumental in securing the deepening of the St. Lawrence channel and the adoption of the standard gauge on Canadian railways. Served as Canadian commissioner at the London exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, and the Paris exhibition of 1878, and also on the International Deep Waterways Commission. Author of a number of articles and papers on engineering and public questions. =Bib.=: Works: _Philosophy of Railways_; _Canals of Canada_; _Report on Victoria Bridge_; _Canadian Watenways_. _See also_ Bourinot’s bibliography (R. S. C., 1894). For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Keewatin.= In both Cree and Chippewa means “the north wind.” Originally a part of Rupert’s Land of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Annexed to Canada in 1869. Created a district in 1876. As originally understood, its territory is now partly in Ontario and partly in Manitoba. Since 1920 it has been defined as the region north of Manitoba and between long. 102° and Hudson Bay. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Kellsey, Henry.= Explorer. In the employ of the Hudson’s Bay Company at Fort Nelson in 1688, when instructions were given to send him to Churchill river. In 1690 he left Fort Nelson, at the mouth of the river of that name, with instructions to travel to the country of the remoter Indians and invite them to come down and trade at the Company’s posts on Hudson Bay. He returned in 1692, and wrote a narrative of his journey, which was printed in the Hudson’s Bay Report, 1749. The narrative is somewhat vague, but it seems probable that Kellsey travelled south-west to the Saskatchewan, then south over the plains west of Lakes Winnipeg and Winnipegosis to the Assiniboine, where he met a party of Mandan Indians from the Missouri. He was deputy governor of York Factory, or Fort Nelson, in 1697 when it was taken by the French under Iberville, and became governor of the fort some time after 1713. In 1719 he commanded an expedition to explore the north-west coast of Hudson Bay. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Kemp, Sir Edward= (1858-). A delegate to the sixth Commercial Congress of the Empire in 1906. Represented East Toronto in House of Commons, 1900-1908 and 1911-1921. Minister without portfolio in Borden government, 1911; chairman of War Purchasing Commission, 1915; minister of militia and defence, 1916; minister of overseas military forces, 1917-1919. Minister without portfolio in Meighen government, 1920. Called to the Senate, 1921. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Kempt, Sir James= (1764-1854), Commanded brigade in Peninsula, 1812; and division at Waterloo, 1815; governor of Nova Scotia, 1820-1828; and governor of Canada, 1828-1830. Made a report to the Home government in 1829 on the political situation in Lower Canada, his recommendations being designed to bring the Assembly into closer relations with the government. Made a privy councillor, 1830; master-general of ordnance, 1834-1838; general, 1841, =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Kendrick, Captain John.= American seaman. Trading on North-West Coast, 1787-1793. Killed in Sandwich Islands, 1793. He has been credited with the discovery or rediscovery of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Kennedy, Sir Arthur Edward= (1810-1883). Governor of Vancouver Island, 1863-1867. Subsequently governor of Queensland. Died in Brisbane. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Kennedy, William Nassau= (1839-1885). Born at Darlington, Ontario. Served as a lieutenant in the Ontario Rifles with the Red River Expedition, 1870. Settled in Winnipeg, and appointed registrar of deeds, 1872. A member of the North-West Council, 1873; mayor of Winnipeg, 1875-1876. Organized the Winnipeg Field Battery and subsequently colonel of the 90th Rifles. Accompanied the Canadian _Voyageurs_ to Egypt, as paymaster of the contingent, 1885. Served through the campaign, but died at London on his way home to Canada. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_. =Kenny, Sir Edward= (1800-1891). Born in Kerry county, Ireland. Emigrated to Nova Scotia. Summoned to the Senate at Confederation. Became receiver-general in federal ministry, 1867-1869; president of the Privy Council, 1869-1870. For a time acting lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia. Vacated his seat in the Senate, 1876. =Bib.=: Pope, _Sir John Macdonald_. =Kent and Strathern, Edward Augustus, Duke of= (1767-1820). Fourth son of George III and father of Queen Victoria. Sent to Canada, 1791, in command of 7th Fusiliers in garrison at Quebec. Visited Simcoe at Navy Hall. Kent House, above Montmorency Falls, was his home while stationed at Quebec. John Lambert in his _Travels_ says that the duke was very popular with the French Canadians. Served in West Indies, 1794. Returned to Canada, 1796, and was for several years stationed at Halifax. Haliburton wrote a remarkable sketch of the ruins of his home near there, Kent Lodge. Commander-in-chief of forces in British North America, 1799-1800; governor of Gibraltar, 1802-1803; field-marshal, 1805. In 1814 he suggested a plan for the federation of the colonies of British North America. Prince Edward Island was named after him. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Anderson, _Life of Edward, Duke of Kent_. =Kerr, George Fraser.= Lieutenant 3rd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ For most conspicuous bravery and leadership during the Bourlon Wood operations, 27th September, 1918. Inspired his men in a difficult situation, and when the advance was held up, he, far in advance of his company, rushed the enemy’s position single-handed and captured four machine-guns and thirty-one prisoners. =Kerr, John Chipman.= Private 49th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During a bombing attack, 16th September, 1916, at Courcelette, although wounded at the time, he ran along the parados under very heavy fire until in close contact with the enemy, then opened fire on them at point-blank range. They, thinking that they were surrounded, surrendered; sixty-two prisoners were taken, and two hundred and fifty yards of enemy trench captured. =Kicking Horse Pass.= Through Rocky mountains, north of lat. 51°, length 104 miles, and elevation at watershed 5,300 feet. This pass is followed by the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It was explored and named by Dr. Hector, of the Palliser Expedition, in 1858, or rather the river was so named, because Hector had been kicked by his horse on its banks. =Bib.=: _Alb. and B. C. Boundary Com. Rep._ =Killaly, H. H.= Represented town of London in first Parliament after the union of 1841; chairman of the board of public works, 1841-1844, and 1844-1846. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =King Christian Island.= _See_ Findlay Island. =King George’s Sound Company.= Organized in 1785 by Richard Cadman Etches and other British traders on the north-west coast of America, for the purpose of carrying on a trade in furs between the west coast and China. They obtained a license from the South Sea Company, and another from the East India Company. Purchased a ship of 320 tons and a “snow” of 200 tons, Nathaniel Portlock (_q.v._) being put in command of the larger vessel and George Dixon of the smaller. The vessels were named _King George_ and _Queen Charlotte_. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =King Island.= In Fitzhugh Sound, coast of British Columbia. Named by Vancouver in 1793 after his friend Captain James King, (1750-1784), with whom he had served as a midshipman in the _Discovery_. King sailed with Cook in 1776, was with him at the time of his death, and subsequently assisted in preparing his _Journal_ for publication. King Pass, Nootka Sound, also named after him. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =King, Richard= (1811-1876). Arctic traveller and ethnologist. He accompanied Back as surgeon and naturalist in 1833-1835; and also was assistant surgeon of the Austin expedition, 1850-1851. He was “the only Arctic authority who urged that search be made at the mouth of Backs river—where their remains were ultimately found—for the survivors of the Franklin expedition.” =Bib.=: _Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in 1833-1835_; White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =King, William.= He was the moving spirit in a negro settlement in the valley of the Thames in Upper Canada. He had formerly lived in Louisiana, freed his own slaves there and brought them to Canada. =Bib.=: Lewis, _George Brown_. =King William Island.= North of Adelaide Peninsula, Arctic coast of Canada. Named by John Ross, 1830, after King William IV. Amundsen sailed around it in his voyage of 1903-1906. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =King, William Lyon Mackenzie= (1874-). Grandson of William Lyon Mackenzie through his mother. Born Berlin, (now Kitchener), Ontario. Educated Universities of Toronto, Chicago and Harvard. Deputy minister of Labour, 1900-1908. Represented Canadian government in negotiations with British government and government of India, on immigration matters. One of British delegates on International Opium Commission, 1909. Elected to House of Commons for North Waterloo, 1908. Minister of labour in Laurier government, 1909-1911. Engaged in investigation of industrial relations for Rockefeller Foundation, 1914-1917. Elected for Prince, Prince Edward Island, 1919, and for North York, 1921. Became prime minister of Canada, 1921. An Imperial Privy Councillor the same year. =Bib.=: _Industry and Humanity_. For biog., _see_ Lewis, _Mackenzie King_. =King William’s War.= Between England and France, 1689-1697. Incidents in North America were the raids by French and Indians on the frontier settlements of New England and Sir William Phipps’ capture of Port Royal and repulse at Quebec. During the war, 1691, Nova Scotia was granted by William and Mary to the Massachusetts Bay Company. War ended by treaty of Ryswick (_q.v._). =Kingdom of Canada.= First proposed by Dr. John Strachan in a communication to the British government in 1824. Sir Joseph Pope, in his _Memoirs of Sir John Macdonald_, says that the Conservative leader was intent upon founding a kingdom in Canada, and quotes a letter from Macdonald to Lord Knutsford, July 18th, 1889, in which it is stated that in the Canadian draft of the British North America bill the title of the new commonwealth was “The Kingdom of Canada,” but that it was changed to “Dominion of Canada” at the instance of Lord Derby, then foreign minister, who feared the former name would wound the sensibilities of the Americans. Macdonald, says Pope, looked upon Confederation as “affording an opportunity for consolidating and strengthening British rule upon this continent,” and made every effort to retain the monarchical term, but was overruled by the Imperial ministers. John S. Ewart has, from his own point of view, developed the same idea in his _Kingdom of Canada_. =King’s American Dragoons.= Raised in the old colony of New York, and serving throughout the Revolutionary War on the loyal side, they were disbanded in 1783. The first Loyalist regiment from New York to arrive at the mouth of the St. John river, New Brunswick. The officers and men were given land near Fredericton, in what was named the Parish of Prince William, after Prince William Henry, afterwards William IV, who had presented the regiment with its colours. Of the members of this regiment, Major Daniel Murray became one of the first four representatives of the county of York in the provincial Assembly; Ward Chipman became the first solicitor-general of the province; Jonathan Odell, the first provincial secretary; John Saunders, chief-justice of New Brunswick, and several others filled important public offices. =King’s American Regiment.= Raised by Edmund Fanning in 1777, in and about New York. Saw service against the revolutionists in Rhode Island in 1778, and later in New York. One of the Loyalist regiments that came to Canada before the close of the Revolution, and was part of Carleton’s command. =King’s College (New Brunswick).= _See_ New Brunswick, University of. =King’s College (Nova Scotia).= The oldest Canadian college except Laval. An academy opened at Windsor, Nova Scotia, 1788, under the auspices of the Church of England. The following year an Act passed for “the permanent establishment and effectual support of a college at Windsor,” and £400 per annum granted towards its maintenance. Under this Act, King’s College opened in 1790. Received royal charter, 1802. Moved to Halifax and affiliated with Dalhousie University. Thomas Chandler Haliburton one of its distinguished graduates. =Bib.=: Partridge, _University of King’s College_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 4; Akins, _Brief Account of the Origin of King’s College_; Hind, _University of King’s College_. =King’s College (Upper Canada).= Granted royal charter, 1827. _See_ Toronto University. =Kingsford, William= (1819-1898). Historian. Came to Canada from England in 1837. Qualified as a civil engineer in Montreal, and practised his profession for some years. The author of many pamphlets in addition to his monumental history, the preparation of which he took up late in life, and completed shortly before his death. =Bib.=: Works: _Impressions of the West and South during a Six Weeks’ Holiday_; _Canadian Canals_; _Canadian Archæology_; _Early Bibliography of Ontario_; _History of Canada_, ten vols. For list of Dr. Kingsford’s contributions to periodicals, _see_ R. S. C. _Trans._, 1894, 47-48. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =King’s Printer.= Office created in the various colonies or provinces of British North America, to take charge of official or government printing. The incumbent of the office was in many cases also a journalist, publishing a paper that was sometimes entirely filled with official announcements, sometimes an odd combination of an official organ and a newspaper. Samuel Neilson was king’s printer at Quebec in 1822 and edited the _Quebec Gazette_. Succeeded in 1823 by John Charlton Fisher. Louis Roy was first king’s printer of Upper Canada, and in 1793 issued the first number of the _Upper Canada Gazette_. Replaced, 1794, by G. Tiffany. John Howe, father of Joseph Howe, was the first king’s printer of Nova Scotia, and was succeeded by his son of the same Christian name. Christopher Sower was the first incumbent of the office in New Brunswick, 1785. His paper was =The Royal Gazette and New Brunswick Advertiser=. In Prince Edward Island the =Royal Gazette= first appeared in 1791. =King’s Royal Regiment of New York.= Raised by Sir John Johnson, and “spread desolation about that part of the country wherein had lain his own possessions before they were confiscated by the rebels.” The regiment was disbanded after the Revolution and the officers and men given grants of land in Upper Canada. =Kingston.= City of Ontario, founded by United Empire Loyalists, 1783. Under its ancient names of Cataraqui or Fort Frontenac, it dates back to 1673. Was an important military post both during the French régime and after the founding of the Loyalist town in 1783. The British shipping on Lake Ontario in the early days mainly built there. Described by the Duc de la Rochefoucault and other early travellers in Upper Canada. Became the capital of Canada in 1841. Incorporated as town 1838, as city 1846. The site of Queen’s University and the Royal Military College. _See also_, Cataraqui. =Bib.=: Machar, _Old Kingston_. =Kinross, Cecil John.= Private 49th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During an attack at Passchendaele Ridge, 10th and 11th of November, 1917, he rushed across open ground in broad daylight, and under intense artillery and machine-gun fire, captured an enemy machine-gun and killed the crew of six. Throughout the day he showed marvellous coolness and courage, fighting with the utmost aggressiveness against heavy odds until seriously wounded. =Kinzie, John= (1763-1828). Born at Quebec, son of John McKenzie, a surgeon in the Royal American Regiment. Taken to New York as a child, he returned to Quebec, learned the trade of a silversmith, moved to Detroit and became a fur trader. Married there in 1798 Eleanor Lytle, widow of a British officer, Captain Daniel McKillop. In 1803 Kinzie moved to Chicago, where Fort Dearborn was about to be built. In 1812 he and his family were saved from massacre, taken by the Indians to Detroit and surrendered as prisoners of war. In 1813 Kinzie was paroled by General Procter. Arrested the same year for treasonable correspondence with the Americans, carried to Quebec, but subsequently released as a citizen of the United States. Returned to Chicago, 1816, and spent the rest of his life there. =Bib.=: Gordon, _John Kinzie_. =Kirby, William= (1817-1906). Born in Kingston-upon-Hull, England. Came to Canada, 1832, but educated at Cincinnati, Ohio. Settled at Niagara, Ontario, 1839, where he edited and published the _Mail_ for twenty years. Collector of customs at Niagara, 1871-1895. =Bib.=: Works: _The United Empire_; _The Golden Dog_; _Pontiac_; _Canadian Idylls_; _Annals of Niagara_. For biog., _see_ MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =Kirke, Sir David= (1596-1655?). Born in Dieppe, son of a Scottish merchant. Went to England, and, with his two brothers, was given command of an expedition against the French in Canada, 1627. Appeared before Quebec, but Champlain, who was then in charge, refused to surrender. Returned down the river, met and defeated the French squadron under De Roquemont, in July, 1628. Reappeared before Quebec the following year, this time under the auspices of Sir William Alexander, and the garrison, reduced to starvation, was forced to surrender. Knighted by Charles I, in 1633, and obtained a grant of lands in Newfoundland. Appointed governor of the island; removed by Cromwell; and returned in 1652. =Bib.=: Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Kirke, Sir Lewis.= Born, 1599. Accompanied his brother Sir David Kirke on his expeditions to Canada and Newfoundland. Demanded the surrender of Quebec from Champlain in 1629. Left in charge after its capture, and surrendered it to the French on the conclusion of peace. Fought on the side of Charles during the Civil War. Commanded a troop of horse at the battle of Edgehill; took part in the siege of Gloucester and in the battle of Newbury; knighted by the king, 1643; made governor of Bridgenorth Castle; heavily fined by Cromwell for his loyalty to Charles. After the Restoration appointed captain and paymaster of the corps of gentleman-at-arms. =Bib.=: Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Kirke, Thomas.= Born, 1603. Brother of Sir David and Sir Lewis Kirke. Accompanied them on their expeditions to Canada and Newfoundland. Took Emery de Caën prisoner. Killed during the Civil War, fighting on the side of Charles. =Bib.=: Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =Kirkpatrick, Sir George Airey= (1841-1899). Born in Kingston. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin; studied law, and called to the bar, 1865. Sat for Frontenac in Dominion House, 1870-1892; Speaker, 1883-1887; member of Privy Council, 1891; lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1892-1897; K. C. M. G., 1897. =Bib.=: Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Kitchener.= Formerly Berlin, a city in Ontario. Name changed during the War of 1914-1918. Founded, 1806, by settlers from Pennsylvania. Incorporated as a town in 1871, and as a city in 1912. First known as Ebytown. =Klondyke.= _See_ Yukon. =Knight, Arthur George.= Sergeant, 10th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ At Villers-les-Cagnicourt, on September 2nd, 1918, led a bombing section against the enemy under very heavy fire. When his party was held up, he dashed forward alone against the enemy machine-gunners and trench mortar crews and forced them to retire in confusion. In the subsequent pursuit he followed the enemy into a deep tunnel and captured twenty men; subsequently routing single-handed another party which was opposing the advance of his platoon. Afterwards fatally wounded. =Knox, Captain John.= Served in the War of the Austrian Succession. Ensign in 1749. With Wolfe at Quebec. Wrote a valuable account of the campaigns in North America, 1757 to 1760. Gives fullest account of the siege of Quebec, 1759, from the British standpoint. His Journal was published in 1769, and a new edition, edited by A. G. Doughty, issued by Champlain Society. Died, 1778. =Bib.=: _An Historical Journal of the Campaigns in North America, 1757-1760_. _See also_ Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Knox College.= Theological College, established, 1844, by Free Church Presbyterians at Toronto. Afterwards affiliated with the University of Toronto. =Bib.=: Caven, _Historical Sketch of Knox College_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 4. =Konowal, Filip.= Private, 47th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ Awarded for conspicuous bravery and leadership at Lens, August 22nd to 24th, 1917. In charge of a section mopping up cellars, craters and machine-gun emplacements. He attacked seven of the enemy in a crater single-handed and killed them all. When a machine-gun was holding up the right flank, he rushed the post, killed the crew and brought back the gun to his own lines. The next day he again attacked single-handed an enemy machine-gun emplacement, killed the crew and destroyed the gun and emplacement. =Kootenay Indians.= Or Kutenai. A tribe now living in parts of south-eastern British Columbia and northern Montana. They form a distinct linguistic stock. Formerly inhabited the plains east of the mountains, where they hunted the buffalo, but were driven west by the Blackfeet. David Thompson was the first traveller to visit and describe them. He built Fort Kootenay, or Kootenay House, on what is now known as Lake Windermere, near the headwaters of the Columbia, in the Kootenay country, in 1807. Father De Smet worked among them for many years. =Bib.=: Thompson’s _Journals_, edited by Tyrrell; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =La Barre, Joseph Antoine Lefebvre de= (1622-1688). Governor of La Guyane in 1665; in 1682 arrived in Quebec as governor of Canada. Summoned a conference on the Indian question, sent an expedition against the Iroquois, which ended in ignominious terms of peace. Disparaged the discoveries of La Salle and seized his forts. Indulged in illegitimate trading with the Indians. His administration was marked by hopeless incompetence. Recalled, 1685. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_ and _La Salle_; Roy, _La Barre_ (_Bull. Rech. Hist._, 1914). =Labrador.= The name has been sometimes popularly applied to the whole territory bounded by the Atlantic, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay, which includes not only the Labrador coast-strip, but also a portion of northern Quebec. Also known at one time as New Britain. The name is properly applied to the strip of coast from Cape Chidley to Blanc Sablon, forming a dependency of the colony of Newfoundland. On various theories as to origin of name, _see_ Ganong, _Cartography of Gulf of St. Lawrence_ (R. S. C., 1889). The Labrador coast was first discovered by the Northmen, in the tenth century. Cabot sailed along the coast in 1498, and Corte-Real in 1500. The interior remained practically unexplored till traversed, in part, by officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company about 1840. Many years later explored by A. P. Low and other officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. It originally formed part of New France; was annexed to Newfoundland in 1763; in 1774 was restored to Quebec; in 1809 re-annexed to Newfoundland. There are a few posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company on the coast. The southern portion is inhabited by a primitive race of fishermen; in the north are several missions of the Moravian Brethren, first established there in 1764. =Bib.=: Cartwright, _Sixteen Years on the Coast of Labrador_; Hind, _Explorations in Interior of Labrador_; Packard, _The Labrador Coast_; Stearns, _Labrador_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Grenfell, _Labrador_; Hubbard, _A Woman’s Way through Unknown Labrador_; Gosling, _Labrador, Its Discovery and Development_; Cabot, _In Northern Labrador_. =Labrador Boundary.= Has been for many years a subject of controversy between Canada and Newfoundland. J. D. Rogers, in _Newfoundland Historical and Geographical_, points out that by the Proclamation of 1763, the Quebec Act of 1774 and the Act of 1809, the western boundary of Labrador was St. John’s river opposite Anticosti; by the Act of 1825 it was defined as east of a line drawn due north from Blanc Sablon to latitude 52°, but “the northern prolongation of this line to Hudson strait was not defined either by this later Act or by the letters patent which put the Atlantic coasts of Labrador under Newfoundland, (March 28th, 1876), or by any other Act or letters patent, and the Privy Council are still considering what line shall be drawn.” The question is yet (1926) undecided. =Bib.=: White, _Boundary Disputes and Treaties_ in _Canada and its Provinces_. =Labrador Company.= In 1661 the Company of the Hundred Associates leased that part of the Labrador coast, or what was then considered the Labrador coast, facing on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to François Bissot, Louis Jolliet and Tachet. The grant ran from Cape Cormorant to the Strait of Belle Isle, four hundred and fifty miles with a depth of six miles. After the cession of New France to Great Britain in 1763, the successors of Bissot and his associates, known as the Labrador Company, attempted to make good their claim, but Haldimand refused to admit it. After Confederation the province of Quebec, took up the question of ownership and in 1890 brought action against the Company. The case finally went to the Imperial Privy Council, which decided that the Company was entitled to the property from Cape Cormorant to the River Goynish, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles and six miles deep. This was the old seigniory of Mingan. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =La Chesnaye.= _See_ Aubert de la Chesnaye. =Lachine.= Now a city, on the island of Montreal. The place is said to have been named by La Salle’s men, in derision of his dream of a westward passage to China. The land was granted by the Sulpicians to La Salle as a seigniory in 1666; and from here he set forth on his memorable explorations in 1669. Twenty years later, this was the scene of a terrible massacre by the Iroquois. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Lachine became of importance as the starting-point of the brigades of the fur traders, bound for the far west. The town was founded in 1675, and incorporated as a city in 1909. =Bib.=: Parkman, _La Salle_ and _Frontenac_; Girouard, _Lake St. Louis and Cavelier de la Salle_. =Lachine Canal.= To overcome the Lachine rapids in the St. Lawrence above Montreal. Eight and a half miles in length. Early in the nineteenth century the first attempt was made to build a canal here, but it was not completed because of lack of funds. Between 1818 and 1825 a canal was built with seven locks to accommodate vessels of four and a half feet draught. Between 1843 and 1848 the canal was enlarged and deepened to nine feet. In 1885 it was again enlarged to its present dimensions, with five locks 270 feet long by 45 feet wide and 14 feet deep. The International Joint Commission in its report on the proposed St. Lawrence deep waterway, recommended a canal and lock at Lachine with a depth of twenty-five feet and provision for further deepening to thirty feet. _See also_ Canals. =Bib.=: Rheaume, _Lachine and Origin of its Canal_ (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc., _Trans._, vol. ii). =Lacolle.= A few miles north of the boundary between Quebec and New York. In November, 1812, General Dearborn, who had assembled an army of 10,000 men at Plattsburg, for an attack on Montreal, sent, on the 20th, a force of 1,200 men to make a reconnaissance across the frontier. At Lacolle the column came into contact with the advanced posts of a body of 500 Canadian militia and Indians under Colonel McKay. McKay so handled his small force that the enemy, in the dark, fired upon their own people, became demoralized, and retreated to Champlain on the United States side of the boundary. Toward the end of March, 1814, General Wilkinson advanced with an army of 4,000 men from Plattsburg against the frontier. In a stone mill and blockhouse at Lacolle, Major Hancock commanded 350 Canadians and regulars. Outnumbered eleven to one, he held his position so stubbornly that Wilkinson raised the siege and returned to Plattsburg. _See also_ War of 1812-1814. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Lacombe, Albert= (1827-1916). Born at St. Sulpice, Quebec. Ordained priest, 1849, and immediately left for the western field as a missionary. Laboured among the Cree and other western tribes for many years, and devoted much time to the study of their languages. Vicar-general of the diocese of St. Albert. His life in the west formed a connecting link between the days of the fur trade and the days of the wheat fields, the day of the buffalo and that of the transcontinental railway. He had known and been esteemed by nearly all the famous travellers in western Canada, Dr. Hector, Southesk, Sir George Simpson, Paul Kane, Milton and Cheadle, Dr. Rae, Butler. His influence did much to prevent a general uprising of the tribes in 1885. =Bib.=: _Dictionnaire et Grammaire de la Langue des Cris_. _See also_ Pilling, _Bibliography of Algonquian Languages_. For biog., _see_ Hughes, _Father Lacombe_. =La Corne de St. Luc, Louis Luc= (1711-1784). Lieutenant, 1733; captain, 1744; chevalier of St. Louis, 1751. Stationed at Fort St. Frédéric (Crown Point), 1741-1747, at La Présentation, on the St. Lawrence, in 1752; and the following year sent to take command of the posts west of Lake Superior, succeeding Le Gardeur de Saint-Pierre. Had great influence with the Indians, and led a large party of them to the capture of Fort William Henry in 1757. In 1758 mentioned at Quebec; and the following year back once more at La Présentation, where he remained in charge until driven from his post by the advancing British army. In 1761, one of the seven survivors of the wreck of the _Auguste_. Remained in Canada after the conquest, and in 1775 raised a company of Indians to act against the Americans. He was accused of complicity in the Walker affair, tried and acquitted. A member of the Council appointed under the Quebec Act. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_ and _Pontiac_; Sulte, _Les Canadiens-français_. =La Corne, Pierre, Chevalier de.= Accompanied Joncaire on an embassy to the Indians at Niagara, 1720. Again there in 1727. Learned the Iroquois language. Sent to Acadia with De Ramezay, 1747. Took part in the action at Grand Pré. Returned to Quebec; took part in the repulse of the Iroquois at Montreal the same year. Received the Cross of St. Louis, 1749. Again sent to Nova Scotia in 1750 to induce the Acadians to remove from the province. After the failure of the attempt, returned to Quebec, and took an active share in the military expeditions of the next ten years. Reinforced Ticonderoga in 1758, and the same year was defeated and wounded near Oswego. Distinguished himself at the siege of Quebec, 1759, where he had command of a body of local troops. Wounded at Sillery. Drowned at sea in 1761, when the _Auguste_ was wrecked. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Historical Documents relating to the Province of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Lacoste, Sir Alexandre= (1842-1923). Born at Boucherville, Quebec. Educated at Laval University; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1863. A member of the Legislative Council of Quebec, 1882; and in 1884 called to the Senate; appointed Speaker, 1891. Chief-justice of the Court of Appeal of Quebec, 1891-1907. Sworn of the Privy Council, and knighted, 1892. Administrator of Quebec, 1898. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Lacoste, Louis= (1798-1878). Born at Boucherville, Quebec. Educated at St. Sulpice College, Montreal, and called to the bar of Lower Canada. Sat in the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada, 1834-1838, and in the Legislative Assembly of Canada, 1843-1861. Elected a member of the Legislative Council, 1861. Appointed to the Dominion Senate, 1867. =Bib.=: _Can. Parl. Companion_. =Lacrosse.= An Indian game popular among many of the tribes. In a French _memoir_ of 1718 it is described as a game with twenty or more on each side, their bat a sort of racket, and the ball of very heavy wood a little larger than a tennis ball. The Indians played entirely naked except for a breech-clout and deer-skin shoes. Two goals were set up, and the game opened in the centre, one side driving the ball in one direction, and the other returning it, those who could drive it through the goal being the winners. Often one village would play against another, and tribe against tribe, for considerable stakes. The game is also described by Alexander Henry in his _Travels and Adventures_, and by many of the other early travellers and fur traders in the west. _See also Jesuit Relations_ (Thwaites), vol. x, 185-7, 326-8; xv, 179. It is commemorated in such place-names as Île à la Crosse, a lake and trading post of the Hudson’s Bay Company in Saskatchewan, and the town and county of La Crosse, in Wisconsin. The game was so popular for many years in Canada as to become almost a national institution. =La Durantaye.= _See_ Morel de la Durantaye. =Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Joseph Roche Yves Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de= (1757-1834). Sailed for America in 1777, with a number of other French officers, and appointed by Congress a major-general. Met Washington at Philadelphia, and a close friendship sprang up between the two. Wounded at Brandywine. Given command of a division of Washington’s army. In 1778 appointed to the command of an expedition against Canada, which ended in a fiasco. He wrote a letter to the French Canadians, had it printed and distributed throughout the province. Carried on a correspondence with Pillon and other disaffected citizens of Montreal and Quebec. Served with distinction at Monmouth, and later in Virginia. Secured from France an auxiliary force of 6,000 men to assist the Americans. After the close of the war, commanded a division of the French army in the war against Austria, 1792, but removed by the Jacobins, and fled to Belgium. Captured, and imprisoned by the Austrians, and not set free until 1797. After Waterloo, sat in the Chamber of Deputies, 1818-1824; visited the United States in the latter year; and in 1830 instrumental in placing Louis Philippe on the throne. =Bib.=: _Mémoires, etc., de Lafayette_; La Bédollière, _Vie Politique de Lafayette_; Cloquet, _Souvenirs de la Vie Privée de Lafayette_. _See also Cyc. Am. Biog._, with further bibliog. =Lafitau, Joseph-François= (1681-1746). Jesuit missionary in Canada for many years. Afterwards returned to France, where he became a professor of belles-lettres. Chiefly remembered because of his invaluable work on the manners and customs of the Indian tribes of Canada in the early years of the eighteenth century. =Bib.=: _Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquains_; Rochemonteix, _Les Jesuites et La Nouvelle France_. =Laflamme, Rodolphe= (1827-1893). Born in Montreal. Entered public life as member for Jacques-Cartier in Dominion House, 1872; minister of inland revenue, 1876; resigned with the government, 1878. He had been a member of the _Parti Rouge_, and at one time Liberal leader in Quebec. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =LaFontaine, Sir Louis-Hippolyte= (1807-1864). Born at Boucherville, Quebec. His grandfather had been a member of the Assembly of Lower Canada, 1796-1804. He was educated at the College of Montreal, studied law, and practised in Montreal. Elected a member of the Assembly for Terrebonne in 1830, and became associated with Papineau. He took a leading part in the constitutional agitation before 1837, but refused to have anything to do with the rebellion. He was in France during the early part of 1838, returned to Canada, was arrested, but shortly released without trial. Opposed union of the provinces, and in doing so spoke as the recognized leader of French-Canadian opinion. Sydenham offered him the office of solicitor-general of Lower Canada, which he refused. For some years he had been in correspondence with Baldwin and Hincks, with a view to bringing about responsible government in both provinces. Defeated in Terrebonne in 1841, but the same year elected for York. He had already made up his mind to accept the union, as the best means of bringing about peace and good government. In 1842 he was offered, but declined, the attorney-generalship of Lower Canada. On the resignation of the Draper government, the LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry came into office, LaFontaine taking the attorney-generalship of Lower Canada. He is said at this time to have borne a striking resemblance to Napoleon I. His relations with Metcalfe became strained, because of the failure of the latter to accept the principle of ministerial responsibility. In the Assembly he devoted himself particularly to the reorganization of the judicial system of Lower Canada. His ministry resigned, 1843, having found their views as to constitutional government at variance with those of the governor-general. LaFontaine returned to the practice of law in Montreal. Metcalfe having denounced the Reformers as enemies of British sovereignty, LaFontaine resigned his position as queen’s counsel in protest. In 1844 reëlected for Terrebonne, and four years later formed with his colleague the second LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, he himself taking as before the attorney-generalship of Lower Canada. His relations with the new governor. Lord Elgin, were eminently satisfactory, and the ministry embarked on a programme of important measures, in the preparation and presentation of which LaFontaine took a leading part. Although he had been instrumental in making possible the return of Papineau to his native land, the latter, now back again in the Legislature, bitterly attacked him and his policies. LaFontaine was essentially conservative in his general point of view. He “set his face strongly against anything that savoured of spoliation of the rightful claims of the Church.” He was not in favour of secularization of the Clergy Reserves. On Seigniorial Tenure, his views were that while the system had historic value, it had lost its usefulness and should be abolished, with proper compensation to the seigniors. In 1851 he retired from political life, at the comparatively early age of forty-four. In 1853 he was appointed chief-justice of Lower Canada, and the following year was created a baronet in recognition of his distinguished services to the country. As a jurist he won a reputation second only to that which he had earned as a statesman. He died in Montreal. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; David, _Biographies et Portraits_; Hincks, _Reminiscences_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Lewis, _George Brown_; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =La Galissonnière, Rolland-Michel Barrin, Marquis de= (1693-1756). Born at Rochefort. Served with distinction in French navy. Came to New France 1747 as administrator of the government until the arrival of the governor, Marquis de la Jonquière. Returned to France, 1749; the same year appointed one of the commissioners on behalf of the French government to settle the boundaries of Acadia. A man of scientific attainments; head of department of nautical charts at Paris. Commanded French fleet at Minorca, 1756, and defeated the British under Admiral Byng. Died in Nemours, France. During his administration in Canada, he is said to have furnished money and supplies to the Abbé La Loutre to enable him to carry on his work in Acadia. =Bib.=: _Mémoire sur les Colonies de la France dans l’Amérique Septentrionale_. For biog., _see_ Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins; Graincourt, _Les hommes illustres de la Marine Française_. =Lahontan, Louis Armand de Lom d’Arce, Baron de= (1666-1715). Arrived in Canada in 1683 with reinforcements for La Barre’s army; spent some time at Quebec; took part in the expedition of 1684 and in that of Denonville in 1687; also travelled extensively in the west. Embodied the result of his Canadian experiences in a volume of travels, which, especially his extraordinary story of the _Rivière Longue_, has been the subject of much controversy. Succeeded Du Lhut in command of the post of St. Joseph on the St. Clair river, but abandoned the post the following spring. Described by Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_, as “clever, cynical, inconstant, veering hither and thither with each wind of rumour.” Visited Newfoundland in 1692 and 1693; and afterwards travelled in Portugal, Spain, and Holland. =Bib.=: _Nouveaux Voyages dans l’Amérique Septentrionale_; La Haye, 1703. Published in English, London, 1735. For other editions, _see_ Thwaites’s edition of the _Voyages_, Chicago, 1905. _See also_ Roy, _Le Baron de Lahontan_ (R. S. C., 1894); Crompton, _Lahontan_. =Laird, David= (1833-1914). Born at New Glasgow, Prince Edward Island. Represented Queens county, in House of Commons, 1873-1876; became minister of the interior, 1873; and in 1876 appointed lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories. Succeeded by Edgar Dewdney in 1881. Appointed Indian commissioner for the western provinces and territories, 1898. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_; Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_. =La Jemeraye, Christophe Dufrost, Sieur de.= (1708-1735.) His father was a French officer at Montreal, bearing the same Christian names, and his mother Marie Renée, a sister of La Vérendrye. In 1729 he was in command of Fort Beauharnois. He joined his uncle in 1731, and accompanied him on his expedition in search of the Western Sea. Was with him at Fort St. Pierre and Fort St. Charles in 1732-1735. Died in 1735 while attempting to establish a new post west of the Lake of the Woods. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Lajoie, Antoine Gérin= (1824-1882). Born in Yamachiche, Quebec. Educated at Nicolet College, and while there wrote the song _Le Canadien Errant_. Studied law and called to the bar, 1848. One of the founders of the _Institut Canadien_, 1849. Took up journalism and was editor of _La Minerve_, 1845-1852. Appointed a French translator to the Canadian Assembly, and later made assistant to the librarian of Parliament. Retired from public service, 1880. =Bib.=: Works: _Cathéchisme Politique, ou Elements du Droit Public et Constitutionne du Canada_; _Jean Rivard_. For biog., _see_ Gérin, _Antoine Gérin-Lajoie_. =La Jonquière, Jacques-Pierre de Taffanel, Marquis de= (1685-1752). Born in Paris, he joined the navy and saw much service, taking part in twenty-nine cruises, and nine naval battles, in which he was thrice wounded. Visited Quebec in command of a warship in 1733 and 1738. Rear-admiral under d’Anville in the disastrous expedition against Acadia, 1746. Commanded another expedition with a similar purpose, 1747, which was defeated by Anson and Warren. Appointed governor of Canada, 1746. Captured and held for a time in England as prisoner of war. Arrived in Canada, 1749, and governor of Canada, 1749-1752. His administration marked by nothing that would further the welfare of the colony; but rather by a determined effort to enrich himself at the expense of the country. Died in Quebec. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_ and _Montcalm and Wolfe_; La Jonquière, _Le Chef d’Escadre, Marquis de La Jonquière_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Lake Champlain.= _See_ Champlain, Lake. =Lake George.= South of Lake Champlain. This beautiful lake was known to the Indians as Horicon, and to the French as Lac St. Sacrament, that name having been given to it by the Jesuit missionary Jogues who reached its shores on the eve of Corpus Christi. The outlet of the lake, after circling through the forest and passing over a series of leaps in the falls of Ticonderoga, flows nearly two miles and enters Lake Champlain just above Fort George. Lying on the recognized thoroughfare, north and south, this lake has been the scene of many memorable conflicts, in the Indian and colonial wars. _See also_ Ticonderoga; Fort William Henry; Montcalm; Abercromby. =Bib.=: Reid, _Lake George and Lake Champlain_; Smith, _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Lake George, battle of.= In September, 1755, Baron Dieskau with a force of French and Indians left Ticonderoga and marched to Lake George to attack the New Englanders under William Johnson. He succeeded in ambushing them a few miles from the lake, killed many and drove the rest back in confusion. LeGardeur de Saint-Pierre was killed in the skirmish. Dieskau marched on to the lake, where Johnson had thrown up rude fortifications. In the fight that ensued, and which ended in a complete victory for the New Englanders, both Johnson and Dieskau were wounded, and the latter was captured. _See also_ Dieskau; Johnson. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Lake of the Woods.= On the international boundary, west of Lake Superior. Probably discovered by Jacques de Noyon, about the year 1688. Fort St. Charles was built by La Vérendrye, on the western shore of the lake, in 1732. His son Jean, with the Jesuit missionary Aulneau, and a number of _voyageurs_, were murdered by the Sioux on an island in the lake, in 1736. In addition to its present name, which is a translation of the name given it by the French, Lac des Bois, it has also borne several other names, Lac des Sioux, Lac des Isles, Lake of the Sandhills, etc. It was the scene of a long and very complicated controversy in connection with the international boundary (_See_ North West Angle); and of an elaborate investigation by the International Joint Commission. =Bib.=: _Final Report of the International Joint Commission on the Lake of the Woods_ and _Atlas_; Burpee, _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Lalemant, Charles= (1587-1674). First superior of Jesuit missions in Canada; arrived at Quebec from France in 1625, with Ennemond Massé and Jean de Brébeuf. They were the guests of the Récollets for two years, until their own home on the banks of the St. Charles was built. Lalemant’s _Relation_ of 1625 affords a graphic picture of the life of the little settlement at Quebec, and the early beginnings of the Jesuit missions. He returned to France about 1636 and became Superior of the Jesuits in Paris. In 1651 he was proposed as first bishop of Quebec, but the rules of his order made it impossible. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Quebec in Seventeenth Century_; _Relation, 1625_; Le Clercq, _Établissement de la Foy_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_. =Lalemant, Gabriel= (1610-1649). Jesuit missionary; nephew of Jérôme and Charles. Came to Canada in 1646. Laboured with Brébeuf at the mission of St. Ignace, among the Hurons, and shared his martyrdom in 1649. He was tortured with every refinement of cruelty that the wide experience of the Iroquois could devise, but endured it all with heroic courage and fortitude. A Parisian by birth, and his family belonged to the class of _gens de robe_. =Bib.=: Ragueneau, _Relations des Hurons, 1649_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_. =Lalemant, Jérôme= (1593-1673). Brother of Charles. Born in Paris. Taught philosophy and the sciences at the College of Clermont, and came to Canada in 1638. Superior of Jesuit missions in Canada, 1645-1656, and 1659-1665. A missionary to the Hurons until 1645, when called to Quebec to assume the office of superior. Sailed for France in 1650, and returned the following year. Sailed again for France in 1656. Two years later appointed rector of the Royal College of La Flèche. Returned to Canada in 1659 as vicar-general to Laval. Died in Quebec. =Bib.=: _Journal des Jésuites_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Lamberville, Jacques de= (1641-1710). Born at Rouen, and became a Jesuit at the age of twenty. Came to Canada in 1675, and was sent to the Mohawk mission. He was involved, like his brother, in the mismanaged expedition of La Barre, though in no way responsible for it; was for a time chaplain to the garrison at Cataraqui. Between 1688 and 1701 he was in Quebec, and in the latter year went to the Onondagas, returning to Montreal in 1709. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Lamberville, Jean de= (1633-1714). Born at Rouen, he joined the Society of Jesus, came to Canada, and was sent to the Onondagas. His relations contain a very minute and valuable account of the public and private life of this tribe, some of the particulars being sufficiently blood-curdling. The governor, La Barre, having made up his mind to attack the Senecas, Lamberville tried unavailingly to make him understand the unwisdom of such a step. In the end, La Barre had to appeal to the missionary to make peace for him with the Iroquois. After La Barre’s recall, Denonville, who succeeded him, also planned an expedition against the Iroquois, and, rather than have his plans suspected by recalling the missionary and his brother, deliberately left them to the probable rage of the Indians. Lamberville learned of Denonville’s treachery through messengers sent by Dongan, the governor of New York. Through the friendliness of some of the Iroquois chiefs, the missionary escaped, but his work was ruined. On a subsequent visit to the Onondagas he was taken sick of the scurvy, and, although he recovered, his health was shattered, and his Superiors sent him back to France as procurator of the mission. Died in Paris. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_. =La Minerve.= Montreal newspaper, established, 1826. Supported Papineau in the agitation that led up to the Rebellion of 1837-1838, and published seditious articles by A. N. Morin. In later years it became more restrained and conservative, supporting the policies of LaFontaine and Cartier. =La Mothe Cadillac, Antoine de.= _See_ Cadillac. =La Motte, Pierre de St. Paul, Sieur de.= Came to Canada with the Carignan Regiment, 1665. Built Fort Ste. Anne, at the northern extremity of Lake Champlain, 1666. Two years later took the place of Zacharie Dupuis as commandant at Montreal. Returned to France, 1670. =Bib.=: Roy, _La Régiment de Carignan_. =Lancaster, Joseph= (1778-1838). Founded the Lancasterian system of education. In 1798 began teaching poor children on the Madras system; and gradually introduced improvements. In 1818 came to America, and at one time conducted a school in Montreal. Published several books on his system of education. _See also_ Madras schools. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Land Question.= A long-standing problem in Prince Edward Island, that delayed for many years the settlement of the colony. In 1767 the island had been divided among a group of non-resident proprietors, upon whom were imposed certain duties of settlement and the payment of a small annual quit rent. The obligations were generally ignored, and in 1780 the governor attempted to enforce payment, proceeding to sell several of the properties on non-compliance. The proprietors petitioned the Home government, the governor’s action was repudiated, the sales disallowed, and the lands restored to the original owners. A long struggle followed between the local authorities and the owners. Between 1814 and 1824 enforced sales were extensive. In 1859 the question was still one of absorbing interest; Sir Samuel Cunard and other proprietors suggested the appointment of a commission to investigate the matter. The local Assembly agreed to this, and appointed Joseph Howe, J. H. Gray and J. W. Ritchie. They recommended the purchase of the proprietory lands on terms to be fixed by arbitration, and their reallotment at low rates to the old tenants. The Assembly accepted the recommendations, but the colonial office rejected them. The question dragged along until 1873, when Prince Edward Island entered Confederation. A loan of $800,000 was then guaranteed for the purchase and reallotment of the estates. In 1875 commissioners were appointed to determine the value of the lands, whose sale under the provisions of the provincial Act were then made compulsory. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Landry, Sir Pierre Armand= (1846-1916). Born in Dorchester, New Brunswick. Educated at St. Joseph’s College, Memramcook; studied law and called to the bar of New Brunswick, 1870. Member of the Assembly, 1878-1883; elected to the House of Commons, 1883; appointed judge of the County Court, 1890; puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, 1893; chief-justice, 1914. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Langelier, Sir François Charles Stanislas= (1838-1915). Born at Ste. Rosalie, Quebec. Educated at Laval University; studied law and called to the bar, 1861. Joined the staff of Laval, and became dean of the law faculty, and member of the council. Entered public life in 1871; returned for Montmagny, 1873, and for Portneuf, 1878, to Legislature. Held the offices of commissioner of crown lands, and provincial treasurer, in the Quebec government, 1878-1879. Sat for Megantic, 1884-1887, and for Quebec Centre, 1887-1898, in Dominion House. Appointed puisne judge of Superior Court of Quebec, 1898; chief-justice, 1906; knighted, 1907; lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1911-1915. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Langevin, Sir Hector Louis= (1826-1906). Born at Quebec. Entered Parliament in 1867, as member for Dorchester; subsequently represented successively Charlevoix and Three Rivers. He had been a delegate to both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences. Appointed secretary of state, 1867; minister of public works, 1869; postmaster-general, 1878; and again minister of public works, 1879; resigned, 1891. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Langlade, Charles Michel= (1729-1800?). Of same family as Nouet de Morras de Langlade (_q.v._). Born at Michilimackinac. Entered the army and became a cadet in 1750. Du Quesne praises his services in a letter dated 1752. Married Charlotte Bourassa in 1754. A fur trader at Michilimackinac up to 1764. Took part in the campaign against Braddock. In 1756 led Indian reinforcements to Fort Duquesne. In the following year defeated a raid of Rogers’ Rangers on Lake Champlain. Led the western Indians against Fort William Henry. Second in command at Fort Michilimackinac, 1757. Served at Quebec in 1759. Promoted lieutenant in 1760. Took part in the defence of Montreal that year. In command at Michilimackinac, and surrendered the fort to the British in 1761. His part in the conspiracy of Pontiac has been described by Alexander Henry and others. Three or four years later he moved to Green Bay. During the American Revolution he served on the British side with the rank of captain of Indian auxiliaries. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =La Noüe.= _See_ Robutel. =Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice, fifth Marquis of= (1845-). Educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford; succeeded to marquisate, 1866. After holding minor offices in the government became under-secretary for war in 1872, and in 1880 under-secretary for India. In 1883 appointed governor-general of Canada. During his term of office the second Riel Rebellion broke out in Saskatchewan; the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed; the Interprovincial Conference was held at Quebec, and the first Intercolonial Conference in London; and the Fisheries treaty was signed at Washington. Sent to India, 1888, as viceroy. On his return, became secretary for war in 1895, and in 1900 foreign secretary. Succeeded the Duke of Devonshire as leader of the Conservatives in the House of Lords. =Bib.=: _Who’s Who_. =La Peltrie, Marie-Madeleine de= (_née_ =de Chauvigny=) (1603-1671). Daughter of the Seigneur de Vaubougon, in Normandy; married early in life, and while still young was left a widow with a large fortune. Filled with religious zeal, she devoted herself and her fortune to the establishment of the Ursuline order in Canada. In 1639 she sailed for Quebec, and with her companions began there the important work of ministering to the sick and educating Indian girls. With tireless energy, she carried on the work for thirty-two years, dying in November, 1671, a few months before her lifelong friend and co-worker, Marie de l’Incarnation (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_ and _Old Régime_. =La Pérouse, Jean François de Galaup, Comte de= (1741-1788). French admiral. Sailed his fleet into Hudson Bay in 1782 and captured Prince of Wales fort from the Hudson’s Bay Company. Explored the north-west coast of America in 1788. Made a voyage around the world. =Bib.=: _Voyage autour du Monde_; Marcel, _Vie de la Pérouse_. =La Porte.= _See_ Louvigny. =La Potherie.= _See_ Bacqueville. =Laprairie.= A town on the south shore of St. Lawrence, opposite Montreal. In the days of Frontenac it was a small settlement with a fort. A party of New Englanders under John Schuyler destroyed it in 1690, and again in 1691 under Peter Schuyler. Many years later became terminus of first Canadian railway. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_. =La Présentation.= Mission established by Father Piquet at junction of the Oswegatchie with St. Lawrence, in 1749, where the city of Ogdensburg now stands. Had a palisaded fort with blockhouses, a squad of soldiers and five small cannon. La Corne de St. Luc was stationed there in 1752 and again in 1759. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =La Riborde, Gabriel de.= Récollet missionary; arrived from France in 1670, and sent to Cataraqui as chaplain to the garrison. Was in the west with La Salle and Hennepin, in 1679-1680. Murdered by the Illinois at Fort Crèvecœur in 1681. =Bib.=: Parkman, _La Salle_. =Larkin, Peter C.= (1856-). Born in Montreal. Appointed Canadian representative on the Royal Commission to investigate and report on conditions and resources of the Empire in matters of Industry and Trade, 1911. Succeeded Sir George H. Perley as High Commissioner for Canada in London, 1922. Made a member of the Privy Council of Canada the same year. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =La Rochebeaucour, De.= Aide-de-camp to Montcalm at Quebec. Organized a cavalry corps, and commanded it under Bougainville at the time of the Battle of the Plains. Brought provisions in to Quebec for the besieged garrison, but Ramezay had already sent his capitulation. Served in Guadaloupe as Major-Général, and died there. =Bib.=: Casgrain, _Wolfe, Montcalm_. =La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, François Alexandre Frédéric, Duc de= (1747-1827). Chiefly remembered because of his valuable and entertaining _Travels_, “full of keen, fair-minded observation regarding every variety and detail of life in America as this exiled French nobleman found it, told in a readable style, not without an occasional touch of humour.” He visited Upper Canada in 1795, met Simcoe, and describes the settlements and the people as he found them. Simcoe entertained him at Navy Hall, and he saw the opening of the infant Legislature. Dorchester from motives of policy would not let him visit Lower Canada. Exiled from France in 1768; returned, after several years, and went into retirement until after Waterloo. Made a peer of France at the Restoration. =Bib.=: Works: _Voyage dans les États-Unis d’Amerique fait en 1795-1797_; _État des Pauvres en Angleterre_; _Le Bonheur du Peuple_; Riddell, _La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt’s Travels in Canada, 1795, with Annotations and Strictures by Sir David William Smith_ (Ontario Archives Report, 1916). =La Ronde, Louis Denys, Sieur de.= In 1687 he was a guardsman in the Marine Corps in France. Two years later served on the _St. Michel_ which took James II to Ireland. On various ships in cruises to Canada, Acadia and Newfoundland, 1692-1695. Taken prisoner, 1695. With Iberville in Hudson Bay, 1697. Served in Acadia and Newfoundland, 1698-1699. In 1700 he was with Iberville in Louisiana. Made a voyage to Canada in 1702. Five years later fought in the defence of Port Royal. At Quebec in 1709 and 1712-1713, in Cape Breton. Between 1714 and 1720 he was in command at Toulouse. On Isle St. Jean (Prince Edward Island) 1720-1721. Commanded at Chequamegon, 1727. Between 1734 and 1739 he was engaged in exploiting copper mines on Lake Superior, and built the first sail vessel which navigated that lake, 1735. Died at Quebec in 1740. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =La Ronde, Philippe Denys, Sieur de.= Son of Louis Denys. Born in 1712. Associated with his father in the attempt to develop the copper mines of Lake Superior. Succeeded him in the command of the post at Chequamegon. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =La Salle, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de= (1643-1687). Born at Rouen, France. Spent some years with the Jesuits. Left them and sailed for Canada in the spring of 1666. Granted by the Sulpicians the seigniory of Lachine, from which, in 1669, he set out with Dollier de Casson and Galinée upon the first of those explorations towards the west and south for which he was to become famous. Meeting Jolliet at the western end of Lake Ontario, Dollier de Casson and Galinée decided to make their way to the upper lakes, while La Salle turned south and explored the Ohio. He was a man of vision, though not a visionary. He set before himself a great ambition, and though constantly thwarted by the selfishness of officials and traders, lived to see though not to enjoy its realization. Frontenac’s bold and enterprising spirit could sympathise with the ambitious projects of La Salle, but the weak governors who followed him did everything in their power to render his efforts fruitless. In 1674 he crossed to France and secured the seigniory of Fort Frontenac, which had just been built at the foot of Lake Ontario, where the city of Kingston now stands. In 1678 he began to prepare his further schemes of exploration. He sailed up Lake Ontario with his faithful Tonty, wintered on the banks of the Niagara, and in the spring of 1679 launched the _Griffon_, the first sailing vessel on the upper lakes. In her he sailed to Lake Michigan, and wintered among the Illinois. His later explorations have been the subject of long controversy—the point in dispute being whether he explored the Mississippi before or after Marquette and Jolliet. In any event he, first of white men, descended the river to its mouth, 1681-1682. Upon his return, he sailed for France, and in 1684 set out with four ships to establish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. This unfortunate expedition culminated in the murder of La Salle by his own men. Parkman summed up his characteristics: “Serious in all things, incapable of the lighter pleasures, incapable of repose, finding no joy but in the pursuit of great designs, too shy for society and too reserved for popularity, often unsympathetic and always seeming so, smothering emotions which he could not utter, schooled to universal distrust, stern to his followers and pitiless to himself, bearing the brunt of every hardship and every danger, demanding of others an equal constancy joined to an implicit deference, heeding no counsel but his own, attempting the impossible and grasping at what was too vast to hold—he contained in his own complex and powerful nature the chief springs of his triumphs, his failures, and his death.” =Bib.=: _Mémoire_, in _French, Hist. Coll. of Louisiana_, 2d Ser., vol. 2; letters and other documents, in Margry, _Découvertes_; Shea, _Voyages up and down the Mississippi_; Parkman, _La Salle_; Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._; Falconer, _Discovery of Mississippi_; Griffin, _Discovery of Mississippi_; Sparks, _La Salle_ in _Lib. of Am. Biog._; Gravier, _Découvertes de Cavelier de La Salle_; Harrisse, _Notes pour Servir_; Joutel, _Journal Historique_; Chesnel, _Histoire de Cavelier de La Salle_; Guénin, _Cavelier de La Salle_; Sulte, _La Morte de La Salle_; Girouard, _Lake St. Louis and Cavelier de La Salle_; Margry, _Découvertes et établissements des Français_. =La Terrière, Pierre de Sales.= Came to Canada from France, 1766; appointed agent at Quebec for the St. Maurice forges, 1771; his place of business was in front of the lower town market, facing the church of Notre Dame; in 1775 appointed inspector of works, and removed to the forges, on the banks of the St. Maurice, a few miles above Three Rivers. Left an interesting account of the works, in his _Mémoires de Laterrière_. Implicated in the American invasion of 1776, and arrested. He was suspected of supplying the Americans with petards and cannon-balls made at the forges. Cordially disliked Haldimand. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =La Tour, Charles Amador de.= Son of Claude de la Tour. Came to Acadia in 1610 with his father. Driven out of Port Royal by the English; built a post near Cape Sable, on what is now known as Port Latour. In 1632, when Acadia was restored to France, Razilly came out with Charnisay to strengthen the colony. Razilly died in 1636, and a bitter conflict followed between Charnisay and La Tour, both of whom claimed to represent the king in Acadia. Charnisay had rebuilt Port Royal, and La Tour occupied a fort at the mouth of the St. John. The outcome of the quarrel was an order for the arrest of La Tour. Charnisay attacked La Tour’s fort, but was driven off. When he blockaded the harbour, La Tour escaped to Boston, returned with English ships, and drove Charnisay to the shelter of Port Royal. The latter’s opportunity came, however, later. He attacked the fort during La Tour’s absence. La Tour’s wife made a gallant defence, and Charnisay succeeded in the end only by resorting to treachery. He carried Madame La Tour to Port Royal, where she died in 1645. Some years later, after the death of Charnisay, La Tour brought this curious drama to a conclusion by marrying the widow of his rival. He had already obtained restitution from the king, who made him governor of Acadia; and some years later showed his powers of persuasion by obtaining a generous grant of land from Cromwell, who had, in 1654, taken possession of the colony. Subsequently turned over the rights obtained from Cromwell to Sir Thomas Temple. Died in 1664. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =La Tour, Claude de.= A Huguenot gentleman; came to Port Royal in 1610 with Poutrincourt; in 1614 had a trading post on the Penobscot. Sailed for France in 1627, and on his return the following year, with supplies for the defence of Acadia, was captured by Kirke and carried to England. There married one of the queen’s French maids of honour, and was persuaded to throw in his lot with the English. Promised to win over his son Charles (_q.v._), but the latter scornfully refused to change his allegiance. Afterwards built a fort at the mouth of the St. John, for the French, to whom he had once more transferred his services. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_. =La Tourette, Claude Greysolon de.= Born about 1660. Brother of Du Lhut (_q.v._). Came to Canada in 1674 with his brother, and lived for four years in Montreal. In 1684, under Du Lhut’s instructions, he made his way to Lake Nipigon, north of Lake Superior, where he built a trading post and entered into relations with the Cree. He was so successful that in 1689 he went to Montreal to secure a larger supply of trading goods. Two years before he had brought down to the governor, Denonville, a large ingot of copper from Lake Superior. Commanded a post on the Illinois in 1727. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Laure, Pierre= (1688-1738). Born at Orleans; entered the Society of Jesus in 1707 at Paris; studied philosophy at Louis-le-Grand and La Flèche; came to Canada in 1711, and completed his studies in theology. In 1720 he was sent to the Saguenay mission, being stationed at Chicoutimi. In this region he remained for eighteen years. In the department of marine at Paris there is a map of his, dated 1731, showing the country about the upper Saguenay; also a revised map of 1732, and another of 1733. Laure prepared a dictionary and a grammar of the Montagnais language, which unfortunately are lost; but in an old garret in Quebec was found some years ago the original journal of his Saguenay mission, 1720 to 1730. In 1737 Laure was made curé of the church at Eboulements, and died there. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Laurie, John Wimburn= (1835-1912). Served in the Crimea and the Indian Mutiny; in the Fenian raids in Canada, 1866 and 1870; and in the Rebellion of 1885, where he was second in command and had charge of the base and lines of communication. He had come to Canada in 1861 at the time of the _Trent_ affair; was made inspecting field officer of militia in Nova Scotia, held the position for five years, and afterwards became adjutant-general of militia in Nova Scotia. Promoted lieutenant-general, 1887. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Laurier, Sir Wilfrid= (1841-1919). Born at St. Lin, Quebec. A Canadian for eight generations, his earliest Canadian ancestor having come to Canada from Normandy exactly two hundred years before his birth, Educated at L’Assomption College, the _alma mater_ of Joseph Papin, Léon Simeon Morin, Louis A. Jette, Arthur Dansereau and Israel Tarte. Studied law at McGill University; admitted to the bar, 1864; and three years later opened his law office in Arthabaskaville, or St. Christophe as it was then called, combining with his practice the editing of a weekly newspaper, _Le Défricheur_. He entered public life in 1871, being elected to the provincial assembly for Arthabaska-Drummondville in that year. His earliest political views had been those of the _Rouges_, but he soon came to adopt a broader policy. Confederation to him became the means of solving a difficult and dangerous racial problem. “The ideal of each race,” he wrote, “was henceforth the progress of the common country, and the supreme pride of both to proclaim themselves above all Canadian.” In his own province he was the determined opponent of the extreme demands of ultramontanism. Laurier quickly made his mark in provincial politics, came to be regarded as the leader of Liberalism in Quebec; in 1874 was elected to the House of Commons for Drummond-Arthabaska, and in 1877 entered the cabinet of Alexander Mackenzie as minister of inland revenue. Defeated in the by-election in Drummond-Arthabaska, he was elected for Quebec East the same year. Elected for Saskatchewan, 1896, for Wright, 1904, for Ottawa, 1908, for Soulanges, 1911. Succeeded Edward Blake as leader of the Opposition, 1887, and in 1896 became prime minister, taking the office of president of the council. He remained in office until 1911, when his party was defeated in the general elections, and Laurier once more became leader of the Opposition. He was a member of the Joint High Commission which sat at Quebec, 1898; represented Canada at the Colonial Trade Conference in London, 1902, the Imperial Conference in London, 1907, and the Imperial Colonial Conference, 1911. Appointed an Imperial Privy Councillor, 1897, and G. C. M. G. the same year. Awarded the gold medal of the Cobden Club in recognition of his services to the cause of international free trade. A Grand Officer of the French Legion of Honour, 1897. A brilliant statesman and political tactician, he could handle a delicate question with infinite tact, but could also speak in no unmeasured terms when his feelings were deeply aroused. In 1885 he denounced the hanging of Louis Riel, as in 1875 he had voted for amnesty. In the boundary dispute of 1882 he supported the contention of Ontario. In transportation questions, he had taken the critical opposition attitude when the Canadian Pacific was under construction, but adopted a much broader policy in later years. In matters of trade and tariff, his views varied somewhat with the years, but might perhaps be described as those of a moderate protectionist. He talked at one time of “free trade as it is in England,” but never made any serious attempt to apply it to Canada. He believed in reciprocity with the United States, and gave England a preference in trade. As to the status of his country, he remained content with British connection, and was convinced that if any change lay in the future it might be independence, but not annexation to the United States. In the war years, he opposed conscription, and would have nothing to do with Union government. He died at Ottawa. Of his qualities as a man, one who had known him intimately said: “His instinctive honour, his kindliness and forgetfulness of self, that shining out of nobility and distinction of character which men call magnetism, made every man who entered his presence a better man for it.” =Bib.=: Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; Skelton, _Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; Dafoe, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; Skelton, _The Day of Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; DeCelles, _Laurier et son Temps_; McArthur, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; David, _Laurier_. =Lauzon, Jean de= (1584-1666). Governor of New France, 1651-1656; had already been associated with the interests of the colony by reason of his position as president of the Company of New France, and had used his office to acquire the island of Montreal and Point Lévis opposite Quebec. His administration as governor was made odious not only by a long series of public mistakes, but by his too obvious intention of using the office to enrich himself and his sons. Returned to France in 1656; and died in Paris. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Lauzon-Charny, Charles de=. Son of Jean de Lauzon, and administrator of New France after the departure of his father in 1656. During his father’s governorship, he had been invested with the high-sounding but empty title of _Grand Maítre des Eaux et Forêts de la Nouvelle France_. Returned to France in 1656; entered the church; and came back to Canada in 1659 with Laval, who made him a member of the Ecclesiastical Council. Later he became grand vicar and director of the seminary. Returned to France, and died, probably at La Rochelle, in 1690. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_. =Laval-Montmorency, François de= (1623-1708). Born at Montigny-sur-Avre, France. Inherited the patrimony of Montigny, but gave it up later to his brother Jean-Louis. Became a student in the college of La Flèche, and completed his classical education at the College de Clermont at Paris. In 1647 he received holy orders, and was appointed archdeacon of Evreux. In 1654 nominated as one of three bishops to be sent to Asia, but the plan fell through owing to opposition of the Portuguese court. On the recommendation of the Jesuits, Laval was in 1658 consecrated apostolic vicar of New France, with the title of Bishop of Petræa. He embarked at La Rochelle in April, 1659, and arrived at Quebec in June. Complications at once arose owing to the fact that the archbishop of Rouen claimed jurisdiction over the colony and had already appointed a grand vicar, the Abbé de Queylus; and there were also in Canada the grand vicars of the Jesuits and the Sulpicians. Laval was a man not only of great piety but also of inflexible will, and before long succeeded in demonstrating that he and he alone was the chief representative of the Church in New France. Friction then developed with the governor D’Argenson over the sale of brandy to the Indians, Laval being determined to prevent a traffic which the governor was inclined to support as a means of revenue. The bishop, as a matter of fact, quarrelled with all the governors sent to Canada during his term of office, D’Avaugour, Mézy and Frontenac. They were as determined to uphold the civil authority as he to uphold the authority of the Church. In 1662 he returned to France and made representations to the Court which resulted in the recall of D’Avaugour. He sailed for Canada the following year, with the new governor, and immediately took steps to found at Quebec the seminary which was ultimately to develop into the University of Laval. In this educational project he took the deepest interest; he himself lived at the seminary, and transferred to it his personal income. He secured gifts of money from the king and Colbert, and acquired the seigniory of Beaupré, which was afterwards exchanged for Île Jesus. In 1669, during one of his pastoral visits to Montreal, he authorized the building of a church, which survived until 1830. In 1672, having found his rank as vicar apostolic a handicap in dealing with the civil authorities, he sailed for France, and, after prolonged negotiations between the Court and the Pope, Laval was made bishop of Quebec in 1674, with jurisdiction over all Canada. Soon after his return to Canada the following year, he created an ecclesiastical court to deal with charges brought against the clergy. Frontenac was now governor, and his attitude toward Laval may be judged by his letters to Colbert. “Nearly all the disorders existing in New France,” he says, “have their origin in the ambition of the ecclesiastics, who wish to add to their spiritual authority an absolute power over temporal matters.” The bishop on the other hand complained bitterly of the impediments thrown by the governor in the way of the effective ecclesiastical control of the people. In 1684 he sailed for France, tendered his resignation to the king, and recommended Saint-Vallier (_q.v._) as his successor. His heart was still in Canada, however. In 1685 he sent forty-two thousand francs to the seminary for the maintenance of missionaries, and bequeathed to it all his furniture, books, etc. In 1688 he returned to Quebec, a few months after the official appointment of Saint-Vallier as bishop. His dominating personality was still active and drove him into a disagreement with his successor over certain questions of administration. In fact, his presence in Canada at that time must have been anything but a blessing to St. Vallier. Laval died in Quebec. =Bib.=: Têtu, _Esquisse Biographique de Laval_; Parkman, _Old Régime_; Gosselin, _François de Montmorency-Laval_; Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_; De Brumath, _Bishop Laval_; LeSueur, _Count Frontenac_. =Laval University.= Founded by Laval in 1668, as the Quebec Seminary. Opened in a house belonging to the widow of Guillaume Couillard, at the entrance to the governor’s garden. Corner-stone of the first permanent building laid in 1678; enlarged, 1701; restored and enlarged after the fire of 1866. Granted a royal charter in 1852, at the instance of Lord Elgin, then governor-general. _See also_ Laval; Montreal, University of. =Bib.=: Hamel, _Sketch of Laval University_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. iv; Roy, _L’Université Laval_ (_Revue Canadienne_, vol. xliii); Doughty, _Cradle of New France_. =La Valtrie, Séraphin Marganne, Sieur de= (1643-1699). A native of St. Benoit de Paris. Obtained a lieutenancy in the Lignières Regiment; took service under De Tracy, 1664, and came to Canada the following year. Granted the seigniory of Lavalterie in 1672; sent to the western posts as commandant, and replaced by La Durantaye, 1683; accompanied Denonville on his expedition against the Iroquois, 1687. =Bib.=: Sulte, _Le Régiment de Carignan_ (R. S. C., 1902). =Laverdière, Charles Honoré= (1826-1873). Historian. Educated at Laval University. Studied for the church and ordained priest. Joined the faculty of Laval, and became university librarian. =Bib.=: Edited the _Works_ and _Voyages_ of Champlain; and completed Ferland’s _Cours d’Histoire du Canada_; author of _Histoire du Canada; Samuel de Champlain_; edited, with Abbé Casgrain, the _Journal des Jesuites, 1645-1668_. =La Vérendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de= (1685-1749). Born in Three Rivers. Son of René Gaultier, Sieur de Varennes, governor of Three Rivers. Served in the New England campaign of 1704, and the following year in Newfoundland. In 1707 with the army in Flanders, and wounded at Malpaquet in 1709. Returning to Canada, he married the daughter of a former governor of Three Rivers, Pierre Boucher de Grosbois, and engaged in the fur trade, for some years on the St. Maurice, and 1727-1728 on Lake Nipigon. There he developed the idea of exploring the unknown country beyond Lake Superior, and discovering an overland route to the Western Sea, a project to which he devoted the remainder of his life. Having secured the approval and support of the governor, Beauharnois, he left Montreal for the west in 1731, with his sons Jean-Baptiste, Pierre and François (his youngest son, Louis, joined the expedition some years later); built forts St. Pierre and St. Charles on Rainy lake and Lake of the Woods, where Jean-Baptiste and the missionary Aulneau were murdered by the Sioux, and in the succeeding years penetrated to Lake Winnipeg, Red river, the Assiniboine, and the Saskatchewan, building Fort Maurepas on Red river, Fort La Reine on the Assiniboine, Fort Dauphin at the foot of Lake Winnipegosis, and Forts Bourbon and Pasquia on the Saskatchewan. In 1738 made a journey to the Mandan villages on the Missouri, and in his narrative gives a very interesting account of this remarkable tribe; and the following year one of his sons penetrated to the Saskatchewan. In 1742, unable to go himself, he sent two of his sons far to the south-west. They hoped, as he had always hoped, to reach at last the Western Sea, but were baffled by hostile tribes and the barrier of the Rocky Mountains. In 1913 a lead tablet, deposited by the La Vérendryes in 1743, was found on the west bank of the Missouri river at Pierre, South Dakota. In 1743 the father returned finally to Montreal, broken in health and heavily in debt. Six years later he died there. His sons begged to be allowed to continue his western explorations, but hostile influences made this impossible. Pierre Margry, the French historian, said of the great explorer and his sons: “If they did not achieve complete success in the carrying out of their whole undertaking, their name will, nevertheless, for the honour of France, be held in the greatest possible respect as that of the first discoverers of the west.” It is not too much to add that of all the explorers of New France, La Vérendrye was beyond all question the most unselfish and public-spirited. La Vérendrye’s manuscript journals are in the French archives, and copies in the Public Archives of Canada. _See also_ Forts St. Charles, St. Pierre, Maurepas, La Reine, Rouge, Bourbon, Dauphin and Pasquia or Poskoyac. =Bib.=: Prud’homme, _Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de La Vérendrye_ (R. S. C., 1905); republished in an enlarged form in the _Bulletin_ of the Historical Society of St. Boniface, vol. v, 1916; Laut, _Pathfinders of the West_; Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_ and _Pathfinders of the Great Plains_. _See also_ La Vérendrye’s journals in _Canadian Archives Report_, 1889; Richard’s _Summary_ (Can. Arch., 1904); and Margry, _Découvertes et Établissements des Français_. His _Journals_ have been edited for the Champlain Society, Toronto, by L. J. Burpee. =La Vérendrye.= Of the four sons of the explorer, who accompanied him to the west and assisted him in his important discoveries, the eldest, Jean Baptiste, was born at Sorel in 1713, and murdered by the Sioux on what has since been known as Massacre Island, in the Lake of the Woods, in 1736; Pierre, born 1714, after taking part in the search for the Western Sea, fought under Saint-Pierre at Sarastreuve, 1745, was sent to Acadia in 1746 and was present at the attack on Fort La Joie, served under La Corne in 1747, at Beausejour in 1748, where he was attached to the garrison, and brought a large party of Indians down to Quebec in 1759. Probably he and his brothers all served under Montcalm at Quebec. François, born 1715, took part in the expedition to the south-west in 1742-1743, remained in Canada after the Conquest and died at Montreal in 1794; the youngest, Louis Joseph, born 1717, sailed for France in 1761, and went down with the _Auguste_. =Bib.=: _Journals of La Vérendrye_, edited by Burpee. =Law, Andrew Bonar= (1858-1923). Born at Rexton, New Brunswick. Sat for Blackfriars division of Glasgow, in British House of Commons, 1900-1906; Dulwich division of Camberwell, 1906-1910; Bootle, 1911. Parliamentary secretary of the Board of Trade, 1902-1906; called to the Privy Council, 1911; leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, 1911-1915; secretary of state for the colonies, 1915; prime minister and first lord of the treasury, 1922-1923. In 1925 a memorial cairn was erected to his memory at Rexton. =Bib.=: _Who’s Who_. =Lawrence, Charles= (1709-1760). Born in Portsmouth, England. Entered the army as ensign, 1727; captain, 1742; and major, 1747. Accompanied Warburton’s Infantry to Nova Scotia, 1747, and engaged in the French wars at Cobequid, 1749-1750; brigadier-general under Amherst at the siege of Louisbourg, 1758. Nine years earlier had been appointed a member of the Council of Nova Scotia; administered the government on the retirement of Governor Hopson, 1753; lieutenant-governor, 1754; and governor, 1756. The first Assembly met under his governorship, 1758. Mainly responsible for the expulsion of the Acadians. Died at Halifax. See also Acadians, Expulsion of the. =Bib.=: _Macdonald, Life and Administration of Governor Charles Lawrence_ (N. S. Hist. Soc. Coll., 1905); _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Akins, _History of Halifax_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_; Richard, _Acadia_. =Lawrence, Joseph Wilson= (1818-1892). Born in St. John, New Brunswick. Represented that city in the provincial Assembly before Confederation. Became an authority on the history of New Brunswick. _See also_ Macfarlane, _New Brunswick Bibliography_. =Bib.=: _Footprints or Incidents in the Early History of New Brunswick_; _The Loyalists’ Centennial Souvenir_; _The Judges of New Brunswick and their Times_. =Leader. Newspaper published at Regina.= Established, 1883. Founded and edited for some years by the brilliant journalist Nicholas Flood Davin (_q.v._). A useful source of information on the events of the Rebellion of 1885. =League of Nations.= Provided for in the Treaty of Peace signed at Versailles, June 28th, 1919. Sir Robert Borden took an active part in settling the terms of the Covenant. First meeting of the Assembly of the League at Geneva, Switzerland, November, 1920, Canada being represented by Sir George Foster, C. J. Doherty and N. W. Rowell. At the second meeting, September-October, 1921, Canada was represented by C. J. Doherty, and Sir George Perley; at the third meeting, September, 1922, by W. S. Fielding, E. Lapointe and P. C. Larkin; at the fourth, September, 1923, by Sir Lomer Gouin and G. P. Graham; at the fifth, September, 1924, by R. Dandurand and E. M. Macdonald; Senator Dandurand was elected president of the sixth meeting, held in September, 1925. First meeting of the Council of the League, called by President Wilson, held at Paris, January, 1920. Canada represented as part of the Empire at this and subsequent meetings by the British delegate. On the permanent Secretariat, of which Sir James Eric Drummond is secretary-general, the financial director is a Canadian, Sir Herbert B. Ames. One of the League have developed the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labour Organization. The activities of the League itself cover a very wide field, the prevention of war, reduction of armaments, settlement of political disputes, administrative problems, mandates, protection of minorities, care of refugees, international coöperation in the field of health, moral questions such as the white slave traffic and the opium traffic, intellectual cooperation, communication and transit, the salvaging of tottering nations. =Bib.=: Burt, _Short History of the League of Nations_; _The League of Nations, A Survey_. =League of Nations Society of Canada, The.= Organized at Ottawa on May 31st, 1921, its purpose being to promote international peace, to furnish information about the League of Nations, to study international problems and Canada’s relation thereto, to foster mutual understanding, good-will and coöperation between the people of Canada and other nations. Sir Robert Borden was elected its first president. The headquarters are in Ottawa. =Learmount, O’Kill Massey.= Captain, 2nd Battalion. Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During a determined counter-attack on August 18th, 1917, east of Loos, when his company was momentarily surprised, he instantly charged and personally disposed of the attackers. Later he carried on a tremendous fight with the advancing enemy. Although under intense barrage fire and mortally wounded, he stood on the parapet of the trench, bombed the enemy continuously, and directed the defence in such a manner as to infuse a spirit of utmost resistance into his men. =Le Ber de Senneville, Jacques= (1633-1706). One of the principal merchants of Montreal; married in 1658 Jeanne, sister of Charles Le Moyne. In 1673 engaged with Aubert de la Chesnaye in the fur trade at Cataraqui, and aroused the hostility of Governor Perrot of Montreal, who was also interested in the fur trade. In 1675 sold out his rights at Cataraqui to La Salle; and four years later acquired the seigniory of Senneville. Mentioned in 1691 as in a fur trading partnership with Frontenac. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Le Brun de Duplessis, Jean-Baptiste.= Born at Corbie, in Picardy, about 1730. Came to Canada about 1755 and joined the Béarn Regiment; practised as a notary in Quebec for many years. Died there some time after 1796. He had been sent to England in 1774 to represent the French Canadians in asking for an Assembly and English laws. Carleton described him as a blackguard. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; R. S. C., _Trans._, 1900, I, 129-130. =Le Canadien.= First French newspaper published at Quebec. Established in 1806 by Bédard, Panet and other French-Canadian leaders. Suppressed by the governor Sir James Craig. =Le Caron, Joseph.= Récollet missionary. Came to Canada in 1615, and made his way the same year to the country of the Hurons on Georgian Bay, where shortly after he was joined by Champlain. With the explorer visited the Tionnontatés tribe in 1616. Compiled a dictionary of the Huron language. Sailed for France with Champlain, 1616, to obtain financial assistance for the mission. Returned to Canada, 1617, as commissary of the Récollets in Canada. Performed first marriage ceremony in Canada. Was back in Huronia, 1623. Sailed again for France, 1629. Died, 1632. =Bib.=: Dionne, _Champlain_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Le Clercq, Chrestien.= Récollet missionary in Canada, and historian of his order. Arrived at Percé, on the Gaspé shore, in October, 1675, to take charge of the Gaspé mission, and remained there eleven years. =Bib.=: _Établissement de la Foy dans la Nouvelle France_, trans. by Shea, under the title _First Establishment of the Faith_; _Nouvelle Relation de la Gaspesie_, trans. for the Champlain Society by Ganong, under the title _New Relation of Gaspesia_. Both these translations give in the introductions biographical details of the author so far as known. _See also_ Clarke, _The Heart of Gaspé_. =Le Foulon.= _See_ Wolfe’s Cove. =Le Gardeur de Repentigny, Jean Baptiste= (1632-1709). Son of Pierre Le Gardeur (_q.v._). His father brought him to Canada at the age of four years. Resided in Montreal, 1642-1643; in 1644 went to France on behalf of the Montreal colonists; and in 1656 married Marguerite, daughter of Jean Nicolet, the explorer. In 1663 elected mayor of Quebec, but promptly resigned under official pressure, the policy of the government being opposed to anything approaching popular government. Raised a company of volunteers at Quebec in 1665, and accompanied the regulars to Three Rivers, which they were just in time to save from an Iroquois attack. In 1687 accompanied Denonville on his expedition against the Iroquois. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Le Gardeur de Repentigny, Pierre= (1610-1648). Arrived at Quebec from Normandy with his wife and family, 1636. Obtained a grant of land from the Company of New France, and engaged in the fur trade. In 1644 went to France to secure concessions for the Company of Habitants, which he had been instrumental in organizing. In 1647 was granted the seigniories of Cournoyer and Repentigny, but did not live long to enjoy them, as he died the following year returning from France. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Le Gardeur de Repentigny, Pierre Jean Baptiste François Xavier= (1719-1776). Entered the colonial army in 1734 as second lieutenant; ensign, 1742; lieutenant, 1748. He was the officer who killed Philibert, a citizen of Quebec, in that year, in the market place, as told in Kirby’s _Golden Dog_. He was tried, and sentenced, but pardoned by the king. Sent to St. Joseph’s in 1750, and the same year promoted captain and ordered to Louisbourg. Led an expedition from there against Newfoundland. Received Cross of St. Louis in 1757. Retired to France after the cession of Canada in 1760, and became governor of Mahé in French India, where he died. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Le Gardeur de Saint-Pierre, Jacques= (1701-1755). Son of Paul Le Gardeur de Saint-Pierre, who commanded at Chequamegon, on the south shore of Lake Superior, in 1718. Here Jacques came in contact with members of various tribes and learned their languages. He was with Lignery in the 1728 expedition, and in 1729 made peace between the Sioux and the Cree. Between 1734 and 1737 he commanded at Fort Beauharnois; and in 1739-1740 he attacked the Chickasaw and built a post in their country. He commanded at Niagara in 1745, and the same year relieved the French garrison on Lake Champlain. In 1746 he served in the campaign in Acadia, and in 1747 was put in charge of Michilimackinac during an Indian uprising, which he allayed and made peace in the upper country. In 1750 he was made a captain, and sent to the west to continue the explorations of the La Vérendryes. Built a post on the Saskatchewan. His _Journal 1750-1752_ is printed in the Canadian Archives Report for 1886. Returned to Quebec in 1753 and was sent to Fort Le Bœuf, where he met Washington, messenger from Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia. He joined Dieskau’s expedition to Lake George in 1755, commanded the Indian allies, and was killed in the first skirmish. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Colls._, xvii. =Le Gardeur de Tilly, Charles= (1611-1695). Brother of Pierre Le Gardeur de Repentigny; a native of Normandy; came to Canada in 1636; and in 1648 made governor of Three Rivers. Married the same year Geneviève Juchereau. In 1660 granted the fief of St. Michel by the Company of New France, and transferred it to the Seminary in 1668. A member of the Sovereign Council. In 1673 acted for the governor, Frontenac, during his absence at Cataraqui, but afterwards fell into his bad graces. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Legislative Assembly.= The first popularly elected legislature in British North America was that of Nova Scotia, which met for the first time at Halifax, October 7th, 1758. The Assembly of Prince Edward Island was organized in 1773; that of New Brunswick met in 1786. The Proclamation of 1763 promised the people of Canada an Assembly “so soon as the state and circumstances of the said colony will admit thereof.” Under the then existing laws of England, and the conditions in the colony, the Assembly, if it had then been established, would have been confined to a handful of English-speaking Protestants in a population overwhelmingly French and Roman Catholic. This was evidently recognized, as in the instructions to Murray the Assembly is spoken of as “impracticable for the present.” The British merchants pressed insistently for a House of Assembly; nevertheless, the Quebec Act of 1774 still deemed it inexpedient. With the coming of the Loyalists the demand was renewed, and finally by the Constitutional Act, in 1791, each of the newly-created provinces of Upper and Lower Canada was given an elective Assembly. =Bib.=: Kennedy, _Constitution of Canada_; Shortt and Doughty, _Canadian Constitutional Documents_. =Legislative Council.= In the early colonial days, before the concession of an elected Assembly, the governors of the several colonies were assisted and advised by an appointed Council whose functions were both executive and legislative. The earliest of these Councils, in what is now Canada, was that of Nova Scotia, which met for the first time in 1720 at Annapolis Royal. The members of Cornwallis’ first Council were sworn in on board one of the transports in Halifax harbour in 1749. Prince Edward Island’s first Council dates from 1769. The Council of New Brunswick was created at the same time as the Assembly, 1784. In the old province of Canada, the Proclamation of 1763 made provision for a Council, which met for the first time in 1764. Appointed by Governor Murray, the Council consisted of Chief-Justice Gregory, P. Æmilius Irving, H. T. Cramahé, Adam Mabane, Walter Murray, Samuel Holland, Thomas Dunn and François Mounier. In the instructions to Governor Carleton, 1766, the members of the Council were appointed by the king. In course of time the executive and legislative functions were separated, and a purely Legislative Council evolved. This persisted down to Confederation, when, in the new Dominion, it became the Senate. In the provinces, it survived in Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. To-day, it exists only in Quebec and Nova Scotia. It was abolished in New Brunswick in 1892 and in Prince Edward Island in 1893. Manitoba started with a Legislative Council, but abolished it in 1876. The other four provinces have never had a second chamber. =Bib.=: Kennedy, _Constitution of Canada_; Shortt and Doughty, _Canadian Constitutional Documents_; Bourinot, _Constitution of Canada_. _Legislative Union._ Lord Durham, in his _Report_, in discussing the proposed union of Upper and Lower Canada, says: “Two kinds of union have been proposed—federal and legislative. By the first, the separate legislature of each province would be preserved in its present form and retain almost all its present attributes of internal legislation, the federal legislature exercising no power save in those matters which may have been expressly ceded to it by the constituent provinces. A legislative union would imply a complete incorporation of the provinces included in it under one legislature, exercising universal and sole legislative authority over all of them in exactly the same manner as the Parliament legislates alone for the whole of the British Isles.” Each type of union had its advocates in the Confederation negotiations at Quebec in 1864. A legislative union was strongly favoured by John A. Macdonald in the Confederation conferences, but opposed by the Maritime Provinces and Lower Canada. Federal union was adopted as the principle of the British North America Act. =Bib.=: Pope, _Confederation Documents_. _Legislatures._ The earliest in British North America was that of Nova Scotia, whose first meeting was held, 1758, in a grammar school house in Halifax. That of Prince Edward Island dates from 1773; of New Brunswick from 1786; of Lower Canada, 1792, held in the chapel of the bishop’s palace at Quebec; of Upper Canada, 1792; of Vancouver Island, 1856; of British Columbia, 1867; of the Dominion, 1867. =Le Jeune, Paul= (1591-1664). Entered the Society of Jesus at Rouen in 1613. Studied philosophy and became professor at Reanes, Bourges and Nevers. Came to Canada in 1632, as superior of Jesuits in Canada, and went on a mission to the Algonquins the following year; succeeded by Vimont as superior, 1639; appointed to the governor’s Council, 1640; returned to France the same year; proposed for bishop of Quebec, but the rules of the Order made it impossible for him to accept. While in Canada he was very active in establishing missions, building churches, and making provision for schools and hospitals. =Bib.=: _Relations_, 1632-1640; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Le Loutre, Louis Joseph.= Sent to Canada by the Society of Foreign Missions at Paris, 1737. Missionary to the Micmac Indians, 1740. Vicar-general of Acadia under the bishop of Quebec. A determined enemy of British rule in Acadia. After the fall of Fort Beauséjour, escaped and fled to Quebec. The following year embarked for France, but on the voyage was taken prisoner by a British vessel and kept in confinement for eight years. Returned to France when peace concluded in 1763. _See also_ Acadians, Expulsion of the. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Richard, Acadia; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Le Marchant, Sir John Gaspard= (1803-1874). Lieutenant-governor of Newfoundland, 1847-1852. Governor of Nova Scotia, 1852-1858. Persuaded Joseph Howe to go to the United States to secure recruits for service in the Crimea, under the Foreign Enlistment Act. Governor of Malta, 1859-1864. Commander-in-chief at Madras, 1865-1868. Rose to rank of lieutenant-general in the army. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Le Moine, Sir James Macpherson= (1825-1912). Historian. He was a charter member of the Royal Society of Canada, and became president, 1894. Author of numerous books, the more important of which are: _Quebec Past and Present_; _Chronicles of the St. Lawrence_; _Picturesque Quebec_; _Haldimand, 1778-1784_; _Legends of the St. Lawrence_; _Maple Leaves_. Knighted, 1897. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Le Moyne, Paul, Sieur de Maricourt= (1663-1704). Son of Charles Le Moyne, Sieur de Longueuil. Born in Montreal. Accompanied De Troyes and Iberville, on the expedition against the Hudson Bay forts, Moose Factory, Rupert, and Albany, in 1686; and left in charge of the captured posts when the leaders returned to Quebec. Again served with Iberville on the bay in 1689, in the capture of the _Hampshire_. The following year brought a party of _voyageurs_ to help in the defence of Quebec against Admiral Phipps. Once more with his brother Iberville on Hudson Bay, in 1694, and took part in the capture of Fort Nelson. Inherited much of his father’s remarkable influence over the Iroquois, and negotiated an important treaty with them about the beginning of the eighteenth century. _See also_ Iberville. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Le Moyne, Simon= (1603-1665). Born in France, he entered the Society of Jesus at the age of eighteen, and came to Canada in 1638. Laboured for a time in the Huron missions, and in 1653 sent to Onondagas as an ambassador of peace from the governor. He returned the following year to Quebec, bringing back with him the New Testament of Father de Brébeuf, which he had recovered from one of the Onondagas. Two years later he went on a similar diplomatic mission to the Mohawks, taking his life in his hands, as the Mohawks were fierce and treacherous and had martyred Jogues only eight years before. Having made a treaty of peace with the Mohawks, he paid a visit to Manhattan, where he visited the old Dutch minister, Dominie Megapolensis, who had been Jogues’ friend, and the governor, Peter Stuyvesant, returning to Montreal in the winter. Le Moyne made two other visits to the Mohawks, but eventually both they and the Onondagas grew weary of peace and the savage raids on the St. Lawrence were resumed. In 1661 the Iroquois again made overtures for peace, and Le Moyne once more volunteered to act as envoy. With the support of the powerful Garagontié he succeeded in re-establishing the mission, but ill health and advancing years compelled him to leave the work to others. He died near Three Rivers on his way down to Quebec. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Le Moyne de Ste. Hélène, Jacques= (1659-1690). Son of Charles Le Moyne, and brother of Iberville, Bienville, and other members of this noted family. Trained, like Iberville, for the navy; returned to Canada, and in 1686 accompanied De Troyes on the Hudson Bay expedition. Commanded French and Indian war party in the raid on Schenectady in 1690; and mortally wounded during the siege of Quebec by Phipps. =Bib.=: _See also_ Iberville; Longueuil. =Le Moyne de Serigny, Joseph= (1668-1734). Son of Charles Le Moyne, and brother of Iberville, Bienville, and St. Hélène. Accompanied Iberville to Hudson Bay, 1690, and left in command of Fort Albany after its capture. Again in the bay with Iberville in 1694 and in 1697. Given command of Fort Nelson the latter year. Joined Iberville in Louisiana in 1700, and associated with him in the development of the colony. Reached high rank in the navy, and was governor of Rochefort at the time of his death. See also Longueuil. =Bib.=: Roy, _Le Moyne de Serigny_ (_Bull. Rech. Hist._, 1925, pp. 121-124). =Le Moyne.= _See_ Bienville; Iberville; Longueuil. =Le National.= Newspaper published at Montreal. Founded in 1872 as the organ of the _Parti National_. Among its promotors were Jetté, Langelier, Laurier, Mercier and David. =Leroux, Laurent= (1758-1855). Western fur trader. Under instructions of Peter Pond he built Slave Fort on Great Slave lake in 1786, at the eastern mouth of Slave river. This was the first visit of white men to the lake since the journey of Samuel Hearne in 1772. Alexander Mackenzie stopped there in 1789 on his way to the Arctic. In 1790, under Alexander Mackenzie’s orders, he built Fort Providence, on the north side of the lake. He was with David Thompson on the Assiniboine in 1797-1798. Some years later he left the fur trade and returned to the province of Quebec. Died at the age of ninety-seven. =Bib.=: Morice, _Dict. Hist. des Canadiens de l’Ouest_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Lescarbot, Marc.= Born at Vervins, near Laon, France, about 1570. Studied law and called to the bar in 1599. The previous year he delivered two Latin orations before the papal legate sent by Clement VIII to arrange the terms of the treaty of Vervins. Through Poutrincourt (_q.v._), who had been one of his clients, he was induced to sail for Port Royal, 1606; and spent twelve months in the New World, returning to France in 1607. While at Port Royal he took an active part in the work of building, gardening, etc.; spent much of his time hunting and fishing; and in the evening read and composed many of the poems afterwards included in his _Muses de la Nouvelle France_. On his return, set to work to prepare his account of Acadia. Spent the years 1612 to 1614 in Switzerland; married in 1619. Beyond this year, nothing is known of his life. =Bib.=: _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, Paris, 1609; 2nd ed., 1611; reprinted, 1612; 3rd ed., 1618; reprint of 1612 issue, 1866. In 1907 the Champlain Society, Toronto, published a new edition, with an English translation and notes by W. L. Grant, and an introduction by H. P. Biggar. _See also_ Demarsy, _Notes sur Marc Lescarbot_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_. =Leslie, James.= Elected for Verchères, 1842. He had been a victim of the election frauds the previous year. President of Executive Council of Lower Canada, 1848, and a member of the Legislative Council. Represented the more radical wing of the Reform party. He attended the farewell banquet to LaFontaine in 1851. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Lessard, François Louis= (1860-). Born in Quebec. Entered the Queen’s Own Canadian Hussars as a private in 1878; gazetted lieutenant Quebec Garrison Artillery, 1879; transferred to 65th Regiment, Montreal, 1884; promoted captain Royal Canadian Dragoons, 1888; major, 1894; lieutenant-colonel, 1898; colonel, 1907; brigadier-general, 1911. Served in Rebellion of 1885, and commanded Royal Canadian Dragoons in South African War, 1899-1900. Inspector of cavalry; commandant of the Royal Military College; adjutant-general of Canada; general officer commanding military district No. 2, Toronto; general officer commanding military district No. 6, Halifax, 1918. Promoted major-general. =Bib.=: Greene, _Who’s Who and Why_. =Lesser Slave Lake.= In the province of Alberta, between the Peace river and the Athabaska. Area about 307,000 acres. One of the principal thoroughfares of the fur trade ran through it. The railway from Edmonton to Peace River skirts its southern shore. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Lesslie, James= (1802-1885). Born in Dundee, Scotland. Came to Canada, 1820, settling first at Kingston, and afterwards at Toronto. A member of the first city council of Toronto. President of the Canadian Alliance Society, 1834. Arrested and imprisoned in connection with the Rebellion of 1837. Purchased the _Examiner_, 1844, and conducted it for ten years. One of the founders of the Clear Grit party. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_ and _Last Forty Years_. =Le Sueur, Jacques Eustache.= Came to Canada in 1716, as a missionary, and studied the Abnaki language. In charge for many years of the Abnaki mission at St. François de Sales, near Three Rivers, Quebec. Died in Montreal, 1760. Left a dictionary of the Abnaki language and a manuscript account of the tribe. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Le Sueur, Pierre Charles= (1657-1702?). Born in Artois, France. Came to Canada as a youth, and was sent by the Jesuits to their mission at Sault Ste. Marie as _donné_ or lay assistant. He left them and became a fur trader, particularly among the Sioux of the upper Mississippi, with whom he became very popular. In 1689 he was with Perrot at Fort St. Antoine in the Sioux country. Went down to Canada with the great fur fleet in 1693. Sent west to bring the Sioux into alliance with the French, he built a trading post on Madeline Island, Chequamegon Bay, and another near present town of Red Wing, Minnesota, and was so successful that in 1695 he brought a great Sioux chief down with him to Quebec to make an alliance with Frontenac. Three years later he abandoned his post in compliance with the edict of Louis XIV that all fur traders must be withdrawn from the western country. Went to France and obtained permission to develop a copper mine on the upper Mississippi. He sailed for Louisiana in 1700, ascended the Mississippi and brought down a cargo of coloured earths, which proved valueless. Died in Louisiana. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Le Sueur, William Dawson= (1840-1917). Biographer and historian. He was for many years an official of the Canadian government at Ottawa, and contributed editorials for over twenty years to the Montreal _Gazette_ and other newspapers. Honorary secretary of the Royal Society of Canada, 1908-1911; president, 1913. His presidential address dealt with _History, its Nature and Methods_. Author of _Count Frontenac_ in the Makers of Canada series. Also wrote a life of William Lyon Mackenzie, which remained unpublished at his death, as well as an unfinished History of Canada. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Letellier de St. Just, Luc= (1820-1881). Born at Rivière Ouelle, Quebec. Called to the Senate for the division of Grandville, 1867; a member of the ministry, 1873; and in 1876 appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec; dismissed from office, 1879, on the advice of the Dominion government, because he had dismissed the provincial government, as it was alleged, for political reasons. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_. =Leverett, John= (1616-1679). Born in Boston, England. Came to Massachusetts in 1633. Returning to England, he served through the civil war, and gained the confidence of Cromwell. Organized in 1654 the force which, under the command of Robert Sedgwick, captured the French forts in Acadia. Governor of Nova Scotia, 1654-1656; and of Massachusetts, 1673-1678. Knighted in 1676, by Charles II. He had been promoted to the rank of major-general, and had commanded the Ancient and Honourable Artillery Company in 1652, 1663 and 1670. =Lévis.= City on St. Lawrence opposite Quebec. Named after Chevalier de Lévis. Founded, 1679. Formerly known as Aubigny, after the Duke of Richmond, who was also Duc d’Aubigny. Incorporated as a town in 1861, and as a city in 1916. Here Wolfe established his batteries during the siege of Quebec. =Lévis, Gaston-François, Chevalier de= (1720-1787). Entered French army in 1735; named second in command to Montcalm, 1756; sailed for Canada the same year. Had seen service in several campaigns in Europe before coming to Canada. Did notable service during the siege of Quebec, but was absent defending the western frontier at the time of the Battle of the Plains. Marched his army back in hope of relieving Quebec, but on hearing of capitulation decided to remain at Montreal until the spring. On the death of Montcalm at Quebec, succeeded to the command of the French forces, and won the battle of Ste. Foy, 1760. After the surrender, returned to France, and served under Condé against Prince Ferdinand. Created a marshal, 1783, and the following year a duke and peer of France. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Bradley, _Fight with France_; _Collection des Manuscrits du Maréchal de Lévis_, ed. by Casgrain. =Lewis, Meriwether= (1774-1809), and =Clark, William= (1770-1838). American explorers. Sent by the United States government, in 1803, to find an overland route to the Pacific by way of the Missouri. They ascended the Missouri in 1804, to the Mandan villages; wintered there; continued their journey in 1805, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and descended the Columbia river to its mouth. They spent the winter there, and retraced their steps in 1806 to the Missouri and St. Louis. Their journey had a strong influence on the subsequent history of the west, and helped to secure to the United States much territory that might otherwise have become part of Canada. =Bib.=: _History of the Expedition to the Pacific Ocean_, Philadelphia, 1814; new ed., New York, 1843. In addition to other reprints, three recent editions are: the Chicago edition of 1902, with introd. by Dr. J. K. Hosmer; the edition of 1893, in 4 vols., with copious notes and other critical equipment by Dr. Elliott Coues; and the even more elaborate edition prepared by Dr. R. G. Thwaites, New York, 1905, 8 vols. For biog. of Lewis and Clark, _see_ Jefferson’s _Life of Lewis_ in _Old South Leaflets_, no. 44, and in the Hosmer edition; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Liard River.= A tributary of the Mackenzie; rises in the Yukon territory, south-west of Frances Lake, about lat. 61°, long. 131°. Its length is about 550 miles. Explored by McLeod in 1834, and by Campbell in 1840. The Upper Liard is known only by Indian report. Fort Simpson, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, is at the mouth of the main river; and Fort Liard at the confluence of Black river and the Liard, not far from the point where British Columbia, the Yukon, and the North-West Territories meet. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Liberal Party.= Developed after the union of Upper and Lower Canada from the old Reformers of the upper and the _Patriotes_ or _Canadiens_ of the lower province. Made up of diverse elements, it broke up into Whig and Radical, Clear Grit and _Rouge_. After Confederation, as a national party, it absorbed many of the old Liberals in the Maritime Provinces. _See also_ Reform Party; _Rouges_; Clear Grits. =Bib.=: Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; Skelton, _Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier_; Biggar, _Sir Oliver Mowat_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_; Lewis, _The Mackenzie Administration_ and _The Laurier Régime, in Canada and Its Provinces_, vol. vi. =Liberal-Conservative Party.= The name originated in 1854. In the general disintegration of old parties following the union of Upper and Lower Canada, John A. Macdonald saw the opportunity to form a coalition of the moderate Liberals in both provinces with the Conservatives or Tories. The name was popular in Upper Canada, but was soon dropped in Lower Canada for the old name of Conservative or _Bleu_, in contrast to the _Rouge_ or Liberal. _See also_ Conservative Party. =Libraries.= The first public library in Canada was the Quebec library, founded in 1779, largely through the efforts of Haldimand. After many vicissitudes, the library was absorbed by the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec. The first college library was that of the Seminary at Quebec, 1668; Montreal College library was opened in 1767; and King’s College library in 1790. Legislative libraries were established in each of the provinces at an early date. In 1841 the libraries of Upper and Lower Canada were combined, and from this year dates the establishment of the library of Parliament. In 1791 Simcoe had recommended the establishment of a public library, but nothing was done at the time. The first circulating library in Upper Canada was founded at Niagara in 1800. Similar libraries existed in Montreal as early as 1824, and at Kingston in 1811; the Red River library was founded at Fort Garry in 1847. Another library somewhat famous in its day was that established at Fort Chipewyan by Roderick MacKenzie. Public school libraries were established by Dr. Ryerson in Upper Canada. William Lyon Mackenzie maintained a small circulating library at York in the early twenties of the nineteenth century. Free public libraries, as understood to-day, date from 1895 and developed out of the old Mechanics’ Institutes in Ontario. A free library was opened at Halifax in 1864; Galt, 1883; and Toronto, 1884. =Bib.=: Bain, _Public Libraries of Canada_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. v.; Burpee, _Modern Public Libraries_ (R. S. C., 1902). =Licenses.= In connection with the fur trade. Known during the French period as _congés_. Originally established as a gratuity to the families of poor officers or gentlemen in New France, equivalent to a pension. They were abolished in 1696, and re-established in 1716 by a decree of the council of marine in France, which reads: “These permissions will be given to the poor families that the governor shall judge are most needy; they shall be countersigned by the intendant; moreover, if he shall find that the families to whom they are accorded are by their great poverty not in a position to make use of it themselves, those to whom they are assigned may sell them to the _voyageurs_ of the country.” Licenses were also issued to traders in the early days of the British régime, on a different plan. =Bib.=: Davidson, _North West Company_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii; _Documents Historiques, Correspondence_, i. =Lieutenant-Governors of Alberta.= George H. V. Bulyea, 1905-1915; Robert George Brett, 1915-1925; W. Egbert, 1925. =Lieutenant-Governors of British Columbia.= Joseph William Trutch, 1871-1876; Albert Norton Richards, 1876-1881; Clement Francis Cornwall, 1881-1887; Hugh Nelson, 1887-1892; Edgar Dewdney, 1892-1897; Thomas Robert McInnes, 1897-1900; Sir Henri Gustave Joly de Lotbinière, 1900-1906; James Dunsmuir, 1906-1909; Thomas Wilson Patterson, 1909-1914; Frank Stillman Barnard, 1914-1919; Edward Gawler Prior, 1919-1921; Walter Cameron Nichol, 1921-1925; Randolph Bruce, 1925. =Lieutenant-Governors of Manitoba.= A. G. Archibald, 1870-1872; Alexander Morris, 1872-1877; Joseph E. Cauchon, 1877-1882; James Cox Aikins, 1882-1888; Sir John Christian Schultz, 1888-1895; James Colebrooke Patterson, 1895-1900; Sir Daniel Hunter McMillan, 1900-1911; Sir Douglas Colin Cameron, 1911-1916; Sir J. A. M. Aikins, 1916. (For list of governors of Rupert’s Land and of Assiniboia, under the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1811-1870, _see_ Audet’s _Canadian Historical Dates and Events_). =Lieutenant-Governors of New Brunswick= (Since Confederation). Sir Charles Hastings Doyle, 1867; Francis Pym Harding, 1867-1868; Lemuel Allan Wilmot, 1868-1873; Samuel Leonard Tilley, 1873-1878; Edward Barron Chandler, 1878-1880; Robert Duncan Wilmot, 1880-1885; Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley, 1885-1893; John Boyd, 1893; John James Fraser, 1893-1896; Abner Reid McClelan, 1896-1902; Jabez B. Snowball, 1902-1907; Lemuel John Tweedie, 1907-1912; Josiah Wood, 1912-1917; Gilbert White Ganong, 1917; William Pugsley, 1918-1923; William F. Todd, 1923. (For list of lieutenant-governors before Confederation, _see_ Audet’s _Canadian Historical Dates and Events_. The governors, or governors-in-chief, are the same as for Nova Scotia, between 1786 and 1867). =Lieutenant-Governors of Nova Scotia= (Since Confederation). Sir William Fenwick Williams, 1867; Sir Charles Hastings Doyle, 1867-1873; Sir Adams G. Archibald, 1873-1883; Matthew Henry Richey, 1883-1888; Archibald W. McLelan, 1888-1890; Sir Malachy B. Daly, 1890-1900; Alfred Gilpin Jones, 1900-1906; Duncan Cameron Fraser, 1906-1910; James Drummond McGregor, 1910-1915; David MacKeen, 1915-1916; MacCallum Grant, 1916-1925; James Robson Douglas, 1925; James Cranswick Tory, 1925. (For list of lieutenant-governors before Confederation, _see_ Audet’s _Canadian Historical Dates and Events_). =Lieutenant-Governors of Ontario.= Henry William Stisted, 1867-1868; William Pearce Howland, 1868-1873; John Willoughby Crawford, 1873-1875; Donald Alexander Macdonald, 1875-1880; John Beverley Robinson, 1880-1887; Sir Alexander Campbell, 1887-1892; Sir George Airey Kirkpatrick, 1892-1897; Sir Oliver Mowat, 1897-1903; Sir William Mortimer Clark, 1903-1908; Sir John Morison Gibson, 1908-1914; Sir John Hendrie, 1914-1919; Lionel Herbert Clarke, 1919-1921; Henry Cockshutt, 1921. =Lieutenant-Governors of Prince Edward Island= (Since Confederation). W. C. F. Robinson, 1873; Sir Robert Hodgson, 1874-1879; Thomas H. Haviland, 1879-1884; Andrew Archibald Macdonald, 1884-1889; Jedediah Slason Carvell, 1889-1894; George William Howland, 1894-1899; Peter Adolphus McIntyre, 1899-1904; Donald Alexander Mackinnon, 1904-1910; Benjamin Rogers, 1910-1915; Augustine Colin Macdonald, 1915-1919; Murdock Mackinnon, 1919. (For list of governors and lieutenant-governors before Confederation, _see_ Audet’s _Canadian Historical Dates and Events_). =Lieutenant-Governors of Quebec.= Sir Narcisse F. Belleau, 1867-1873; René Edouard Caron, 1873-1876; Luc Letellier de St. Just, 1876-1879; Théodore Robitaille, 1879-1884; L. F. R. Masson, 1884-1887; Auguste Réal Angers, 1887-1892; Sir Adolphe Chapleau, 1892-1898; Sir Louis Jetté, 1898-1908; Sir C. A. P. Pelletier, 1908-1911; Sir François Langelier, 1911-1915; Sir P. E. LeBlanc, 1915-1918; Sir Charles Fitzpatrick, 1918-1923; L. P. Brodeur, 1923; Narcisse Perodeau, 1924. =Lieutenant-Governors of Saskatchewan.= Amédée Emmanuel Forget, 1905-1910; George William Brown, 1910-1915; Sir Richard Stuart Lake, 1915-1921; Henry William Newlands, 1921. =Lieutenant-Governors of the North-West Territories.= A. G. Archibald, 1870-1872; Alexander Morris, 1872-1876; David Laird, 1876-1881; Edgar Dewdney, 1881-1888; Joseph Royal, 1888-1893; Charles H. Mackintosh, 1893-1898; Malcolm Colin Cameron, 1898; Amédée Emmanuel Forget, 1904-1905. =Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada.= John Graves Simcoe, 1791-1799; Peter Hunter, 1799-1805; Francis Gore, 1806-1818; Sir Peregrine Maitland, 1818-1828; Sir John Colborne, 1828-1835; Sir Francis Bond Head, 1835-1838; Sir George Arthur, 1838-1841. =Lieutenants of Counties.= Appointed by Simcoe in 1792 for the principal counties of Upper Canada, with a view to creating a colonial aristocracy. The lieutenants were analogous to the lords-lieutenant in England. The idea did not commend itself to the Home government, and was not continued by later governors. =Ligneris, François Marchand de= (1704-1759). Entered the colonial army as second ensign in 1733; ensign, 1738; lieutenant, 1744; captain, 1751. Accompanied de Noyelles against the Fox Indians in 1735. In 1739 took part in the Chickasaw expedition. Served in Acadia, 1745-1747. Commandant at Ouiatanon, 1750-1753. In 1755 accompanied Contrecœur’s expedition to Fort Duquesne, and took part in the attack on Braddock. Succeeded Dumas in command of Fort Duquesne, 1756, and was given the Cross of St. Louis and a pension. Sent out raiding parties against the frontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia. In 1758 led the troops that defeated James Grant. Burned Duquesne on the approach of General John Forbes and retreated to Fort Machault. Defeated and captured at Fort Niagara in 1759. Died of his wounds. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii =Linctot.= _See_ Godefroy. =Lindsay, W. Bethune.= Major-general, commanded the Engineer Services of the Canadian forces in the War of 1914-1918. He was the technical adviser of the corps commander on all engineering questions. The Engineer Services consisted of three engineering battalions and a pontoon bridging transport section in each division, and a motor transport company. The engineers provided all facilities in the way of roads and tracks, bridges, light railways, defences, water supply, camouflage, etc. The records of the war bear testimony to their splendid efficiency, under Major-General Lindsay’s direction. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Lipsett, L. J.= Major-General. Commanded Third Canadian Division in the battle of Amiens. Just before the battle of Cambrai, he was transferred to an Imperial division, the “Fighting Fourth.” He had gone overseas in 1914 as lieutenant-colonel commanding the 8th Battalion, and had been rapidly promoted to a division. Killed by a sniper’s bullet, October 14th, 1918. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Liquor Laws.= _See_ Prohibition. =Lisgar, John Young, Baron= (1807-1876). Born at Bombay. Entered Parliament in 1831; became lord of the treasury in 1841, and secretary of the treasury, 1844-1846; chief secretary for Ireland, 1852-1855; and lord high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, 1855-1859. In 1861 sent to New South Wales as governor-general. Seven years later he came to Canada as administrator; and the following year appointed governor-general. He had the privilege of being at the head of affairs when the new Dominion was launched, but with singular lack of imagination and statesmanship his advice to Canada at the time was to declare her independence. Succeeded by Lord Dufferin in 1872. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._, Dent. _Can. Por._ =Literary and Historical Society of Quebec.= Founded by Lord Dalhousie in 1824, and granted a royal charter by King William IV in 1831. Its quarters are in the old Morrin College in Quebec. Has a library of 50,000 volumes, besides a large number of valuable manuscripts relating to the early history of Canada. =Bib.=: _See_ list of publications from 1829, in _Lit. Am. Hist._; _also_ Wurtële, _List of Lectures, Papers, etc., 1829-1891_; _Centenary Volume of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, 1824-1924_. =Livius, Peter= (1727?—1795). Born at Bedford, England; studied law in the Middle Temple. Went to New England. A member of the Council under the royal government; quarrelled with the governor and went to England to lay his complaints before the crown. His complaints were dismissed, but he was appointed chief-justice of New Hampshire. Transferred to Quebec as chief-justice; held office from 1777 to 1786. He owed his office at Quebec to Germain. Carleton said of him in 1788 that he was “greedy of power and more greedy of gain, imperious and impetuous in his temper, but learned in the ways and eloquence of the New England provinces, valuing himself in his knowledge how to manage governors.” Carleton dismissed him from office in 1778. He appealed to the Home government and was reinstated, but never returned to Canada. =Bib.=: Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_. =Logan, Mount.= In the Yukon, twenty-one miles east of the international boundary and about the same distance north-east of Mount St. Elias. Named after Sir William Logan, founder and first director of the Geological Survey of Canada. Height, 19,850 feet; highest peak in Canada, and second highest in North America. It is the centre of the greatest known glacial expanse outside of Greenland and the Antarctic continent. In its immediate vicinity are a number of other peaks of almost the same height. The peak was climbed for the first time in 1925, under the auspices of the Alpine Club of Canada, by a party headed by Albert H. McCarthy and H. F. Lambart. =Logan, Sir William Edmond= (1798-1875). Born at Montreal, of United Empire Loyalist descent. Educated at the University of Edinburgh. After some years spent in business in England, and incidentally in studying the geological formation of the coal-fields of Wales, he returned to Canada, and in 1842 was appointed the first director of the Geological Survey. In 1863 he issued an elaborate summary of the work accomplished by the Survey up to that time. Retired in 1870. =Bib.=: _Geology of Canada_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Harrington, _Life of Sir William E. Logan_. =London.= City of Ontario, on the Thames river, and in Middlesex county; founded by Peter McGregor, in 1826. Incorporated as a village in 1840, as a town in 1848, and as a city in 1854. Simcoe visited the site of the town in 1793 and selected it as the best place for the capital of Upper Canada. The road known as Dundas Street was built from Lake Ontario to the site of London, toward the end of the eighteenth century. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =London Conference.= _See_ Westminster Conference. =Long Point.= Lake Erie, north shore. Chosen by Simcoe in 1793 as the site of the arsenal for Lake Erie. One of the United Empire Loyalist settlements. An important depot and shipping point in the War of 1812-1814. About 300 men stationed there in 1812. =Longevity.= Despite the dangers and hardships they had to undergo, Canadian fur traders seem to have lived very often to a good old age. Simon Fraser died at the age of eighty-six, and David Thompson at eighty-seven, John Macdonald of Garth at eighty-six, Jacques Houle was killed by the Blackfeet at ninety-two, Laurent Leroux died at ninety-seven, Toussaint Pothier and F. A. Larocque at extreme old age, Jacques Fournier, a Canadian _voyageur_, is reputed to have reached the age of 124. An even more striking record is offered in the case of the United Empire Loyalists. Sabine’s _Loyalists_ records, in addition to scores who reached the eighties, two who died at ninety, one at ninety-one, three at ninety-three, three at ninety-four, one at ninety-five, three at ninety-seven, two at ninety-eight, one at ninety-nine, two at 100, three at 101, one at 103, one at 105, one at 111, and one at 115. Elizabeth Dodd, of St. Stephen, New Brunswick, who reached the age of 111, had “accompanied her husband throughout the Revolution and endured all the privations and hardships of life in camp.” Michael Hyson, who died at Ship Harbour, Nova Scotia, at 103, married for the third time at the age of 100. =Longley, James Wilberforce= (1849-1922). Born at Paradise, Nova Scotia. Educated Acadia University. Studied law and called to the Nova Scotia bar; K. C., 1890. Commissioner for the consolidation of the Provincial Statutes, 1883. Chief editorial writer for the _Acadian Recorder_, 1873-1887; subsequently managing editor of the Halifax _Chronicle_. Elected to the Royal Society of Canada, 1898. Sat for Annapolis, in the Assembly, 1882-1905. Attorney-general of Nova Scotia, 1884-1896; commissioner of crown lands, 1896-1905. Appointed to the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1905. =Bib.=: _Joseph Howe_; _Canada and Imperial Federation_; _Sir Charles Tupper_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Longueuil, Charles Le Moyne, Sieur de= (1626-1685). Son of an innkeeper of Dieppe. Came to Canada in 1641. In 1657 granted the seigniory of Longueuil. In De Tracy’s expedition against the Iroquois, in 1666, commanded the Montreal militia, and was with Frontenac at Cataraqui in 1673. La Barre sent him to the Iroquois, 1682, to persuade them to meet him in council at Montreal. When, two years later, La Barre led an abortive expedition against the Iroquois, he was again compelled to depend upon Le Moyne’s influence with the Iroquois to patch up a peace. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_; _Old Régime in Canada_. _See also_ R. S. C. General Index. =Longueuil, Charles Le Moyne, Baron de= (1656-1729). Son of Charles Le Moyne, Sieur de Longueuil (_q.v._). Educated in France. Wounded in 1687, in the Iroquois raid on Lachine. Served in the army, 1687-1691, and again, 1702-1713. Governor of Three Rivers, 1720-1724. Governor of Montreal, 1724-1729. Created Baron de Longueuil. Administered the colony in 1725, before the arrival of Beauharnois. Parkman notes the baronial character of his home, and quotes Frontenac: “Son fort et sa maison nous donnent une idéa des châteaux de France fortifiez.” =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime in Canada_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Longueuil, Charles Le Moyne, Baron de= (1687-1755). Son of preceding. Entered the army; lieutenant, 1713; captain, 1719. Made town major of Montreal in 1733. Given Cross of St. Louis, 1734. Led an expedition in 1739 from Canada to Louisiana to aid Bienville against the Chickasaw. King’s lieutenant at Montreal, 1748, and governor of Montreal, 1749. Administered the colony in 1752, after the departure of La Jonquière. His only son Charles Jacques, born at Longueuil 1724, lieutenant 1748, captain 1754, was killed in Dieskau’s expedition in 1755. The hereditary barony was recognized by the Imperial government in 1880. The original title was granted by Louis XIV in 1700, and is still borne by descendants of the first Charles Le Moyne. The seventh Baron de Longueuil was born, 1844, and died, 1898. _See also_ Iberville; Bienville. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Longworth, John= (1814-1885). Born at Charlottetown. Called to the bar of Prince Edward Island, 1838. Elected to the Assembly, 1846. Occupied offices in several successive administrations. Drafted the “No Terms Resolution” of the Assembly in connection with Confederation. Appointed prothonotary of the Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island, 1883. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Prince Edward Island_. =Loomis, Sir Frederick Oscar Warren= (1870-). Went overseas in 1914 in command of the 13th Battalion. Promoted to colonel, 1916; brigadier-general, 1916; Major-general, 1918, and given command of Third Division. Commanded this division at Cambrai and succeeding battles up to the capture of Mons. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Loos.= Battle in War of 1914-1918. September 25th, 1915. The battle actually took place in the British sector, but the Canadians played an important part. The artillery did essential work in enfilading the German positions the Imperial troops were attacking, and the infantry by a clever and convincing display of activity kept the German trenches opposite filled with reserves and so prevented them from reinforcing the divisions which the British were attacking. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Loranger, Thomas Jean Jacques= (1823-1885). Born in Ste. Anne d’Yamachiche, Quebec. Educated at Nicolet College; called to the bar, 1844. Sat in the Assembly, 1854-1863; held office in the Macdonald-Cartier ministry, 1857-1858. Conservative leader in Quebec. Appointed a judge of the Superior Court, 1863; retired, 1879. Subsequently engaged in the consolidation of the statutes of Quebec. Created by the pope a commander of the Order of Pius IX. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Lorette.= Indian village on St. Charles river, north of the city of Quebec. The Hurons have been settled here since 1697. After the last tragic raid of the Iroquois on Huronia, the remnants of the tribe had been brought down to Quebec, 1650; made their home on the Island of Orleans, 1651-1656; on their settlement being raided by Mohawks, they moved back to Quebec, and remained there until 1668, when they settled at Beauport. The following year they were placed at Notre-Dame de Foy, four miles from Quebec. In 1673 land was given them on the St. Charles. This was Old Lorette, where they remained for twenty-four years. Their present home is known as New Lorette, to distinguish it from the earlier village. =Bib.=: Marquis, _The Jesuit Missions_. =Lorne.= _See_ Argyll. =Lotbinière.= _See_ Joly de Lotbinière; Chartier de Lotbinière. =Loudon, James= (1841-1916). Born in Toronto. Educated at Upper Canada College and Toronto University, graduating 1862. Appointed to the staff of the university; professor of mathematics, 1875; and president of the university, 1892, succeeding Sir Daniel Wilson. One of the original fellows of the Royal Society of Canada. Retired from presidency of university, 1906. =Bib.=: _The University of Toronto and its Colleges, 1827-1906_; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Loudoun, John Campbell, fourth Earl of= (1705-1782). General. Governor of Stirling Castle, 1741. Commander-in-chief of British forces in America, 1756; superseded, 1758. Second in command in Portugal, 1762. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _Fight with France_. =Louis XIV, King of France= (1638-1715). Succeeded his father, Louis XIII, in 1643. During his long reign Canada grew from insignificant beginnings to an important colony; Montreal and Louisbourg were founded; Brébeuf and Lalemant were martyred; Marquette, La Salle, Radisson and Du Lhut carried out their momentous discoveries; Dollard des Ormeaux and Madeleine de Verchères proved the heroic qualities of their race; Frontenac, Laval and Talon won for themselves places in the pages of history. The king was a despot, and engrossed in dreams of European aggrandizement, but never lost interest in his American colonies. He sent strong men to Canada, and on the whole gave their policies reasonable support, though as a rule he had very little money to spare after the demands of European wars and his luxurious court had been met. =Bib.=: Voltaire, _Siècle de Louis XIV_; Saint-Simon, _Mémoires_. =Louis XV= (1710-1774). Great-grandson of Louis XIV. Born at Versailles. Succeeded to the throne in 1715. During his reign Canada was governed by Vaudreuil, Beauharnois, La Galissonnière, La Jonquière, Duquesne and Vaudreuil. The War of the Austrian Succession, the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the Seven Years’ War, were all of vital concern to Canada. By the treaty of 1763 Louis finally surrendered Canada to Great Britain. Pompadour and du Barry were much more to him than the colony that Voltaire sneered at as a land of snow. =Bib.=: Voltaire, _Siècle de Louis XV_. =Louisbourg.= A seaport on the south-east coast of Cape Breton. Formerly the chief stronghold of France in America. The fortress, named after Louis XIV, was begun in 1709; twenty-five years were spent in fortifying it; and the cost was estimated at thirty million livres. A plan of the fortress is in Parkman’s _Montcalm and Wolfe_, and in McLennan’s _Louisbourg_. Captured by the British under Pepperell and Warren in 1745; ceded back to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; and again captured by the British under Amherst and Boscawen, in 1758. _See also_ Cape Breton; Boscawen; Wolfe; Amherst. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_ and _Montcalm and Wolfe_; _Lettre d’un Habitant_, ed. by Wrong; Archibald, _First Siege of Louisbourg_ (R. S. C., 1887); Bourinot, _Cape Breton and its Memorials_; Wood, _Logs of the Conquest of Canada_, and _The Great Fortress_; McLennan, _Louisbourg_. =Louise, Lake.= Probably the most beautiful lake in the Canadian Rockies, near Laggan, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Named after the Princess Louise. Sir James Outram, in his _Canadian Rockies_, quotes a famous traveller as saying: “I have travelled in almost every country under heaven, yet I have never seen so perfect a picture as this.” The earliest recorded visit is that of Tom Wilson, the Rocky Mountain guide, in 1882. =Bib.=: Wilcox, _Rockies of Canada_; Outram, _In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies_; Coleman, _The Canadian Rockies_. =Louise, Princess.= Daughter of Queen Victoria; born, 1848. Came to Canada in 1881 with her husband then Marquis of Lorne, governor-general. =Bib.=: Argyll, _Memories of Canada and Scotland_. =Lount, Samuel= (1791-1838). Born in Pennsylvania. Came to Upper Canada in 1811, and settled near Newmarket in York county. Member for Simcoe in Upper Canadian Assembly, 1834-1836. Defeated in the elections of 1836. Became one of the leaders of the rebels in 1837. His account of the flag of truce incident is published in Lindsey’s _William Lyon Mackenzie_. His men fled in a panic in the skirmish on Yonge Street. Led the rebels in the engagement at Montgomery’s Tavern. He fled, was subsequently captured, tried, and hanged April 12th, 1838. A monument was erected to his memory in the Necropolis at Toronto in 1903 by his “friends and sympathizers.” =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Louvigny, Louis de la Porte, Sieur de= (1662-1725). Came to Canada as lieutenant in 1684. Accompanied Denonville on his expedition against the Iroquois, 1687; sent by Frontenac to relieve La Durantaye at Michilimackinac in 1690; in command at Three Rivers in 1700; major at Quebec, 1703; same year commanded an expedition to Detroit; at Michilimackinac in 1705, 1711, and 1717. The latter year was at Detroit, and led an expedition against the Fox Indians. At Quebec in 1716 as _lieutenant de roi_. Governor of Three Rivers, 1724. Went down with the _Chameau_ off the coast of Cape Breton the following year. His son, François (1685-1749) was also employed in connection with the western posts. =Bib.=: _Cadillac Papers_ (_Michigan Hist. Coll._, xxxiii); Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Low, Albert Peter= (1861-). Born in Montreal. Educated at McGill University, graduating in 1882 with honours. Appointed to Geological Survey, 1881, and promoted to geologist, 1891. Spent many years exploring the Labrador peninsula, and is the chief authority on its geography and geology. Commanded the expedition to the Arctic in the _Neptune_, 1903. Director of the Survey, and deputy minister of mines, 1907-1914. =Bib.=: _Cruise of the Neptune, 1903-1904_, and various Reports of explorations in the Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Lower Canada.= The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Quebec into Upper Canada and Lower Canada, each province having its own lieutenant-governor under the governor-general, its Legislative Council, and its Legislative Assembly. The Ottawa river was the dividing line between the two provinces. In 1791 Lower Canada was divided into counties and electoral districts. By the Judicature Act, 1794, the province was divided into three judicial districts, Quebec, Montreal and Three Rivers. In 1840 Upper Canada and Lower Canada were reunited as the province of Canada; and in 1867, by the British North America Act, the province of Quebec was created with substantially the same boundaries as the old province of Lower Canada. _See also_ Quebec. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Garneau, _Histoire du Canada_; McMullen, _History of Canada_; Bibaud, _Histoire du Canada sous la Domination Anglais_. =Loyal American Regiment.= Raised in and about New York by Beverley Robinson, who became its commanding officer. His son, also named Beverley, was lieutenant-colonel, and Thomas Barclay, major. Disbanded after the war, and most of the officers and men settled in New Brunswick. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Loyalists, United Empire.= Name applied to the inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies who remained loyal to Great Britain, and rather than submit to the new republic, migrated to Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. No adequate provision having been made for them by the mother country, in the treaty of Paris (1783), and what provision was made having been repudiated by the United States, or its constituent States, the Loyalists were compelled in most cases to abandon all their worldly possessions, and start life anew in the pioneer settlements of the north. May 18th, 1783, one great section of the refugees landed at the mouth of the St. John river, and built a town, first named Parrtown, later St. John. Other settlements were made about the same time at Shelburne, Digby and other points on the coasts of Nova Scotia, as well as on St. John’s Island (Prince Edward Island). The bulk of the migration to what was then Quebec (now Ontario and Quebec) took place in 1784, the eastern Loyalists going around by water or north by way of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu, and settling at Sorel and in other parts of Lower Canada and on the Upper St. Lawrence and the north shore of Lake Ontario; those of the west crossing the boundary at Niagara and other points, and spreading throughout the heart of the future province of Upper Canada. In their new homes the Loyalists in many cases suffered severe privations. Having lost nearly everything they possessed by confiscation, they were dependent upon the government for food and supplies, were often unaccustomed to the pioneer conditions under which they had to live, and, if their meagre crops failed, were brought to the verge of starvation. In course of time these conditions disappeared, and the Loyalists made comfortable homes for themselves. As those of them who had fought in the Loyalist corps against the revolutionists, under such leaders as Sir John Johnson, Colonel Butler and others, had given an exceedingly good account of themselves, so as peaceful settlers they became the backbone of Upper Canada, New Brunswick, and, to a lesser extent, of Nova Scotia. Altogether some fifty or sixty thousand Loyalists were lost to the United States and added to what is now Canada. From time to time the British government made provision for the temporary relief of the Loyalists, and in 1783 a royal commission was appointed to enquire into their claims to compensation. The commission did not report until 1790, to the growing indignation of the Loyalists. The total of the claims allowed amounted to over £3,000,000, and the total outlay must have amounted to double this sum, in addition to several million of acres of land granted to the Loyalists. Great Britain, although she deserted them in negotiating the treaty of peace, treated them generously in the end. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists of the American Revolution_; Ryerson, _Loyalists of America_; Campbell, _Travels in North America_; Canniff, _The Settlement of Upper Canada_; Casselman, _United Empire Loyalists of the County of Dundas, Ontario_; Haight, _Country Life in Canada Fifty Years Ago_; Bourinot, _Builders of Nova Scotia_; Day, _Pioneers of the Eastern Townships_; Croil, _Dundas_; Pringle, _Lunenburgh_; Scherk, _Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada_; Forusac, _Rise of the Loyalists_; _Loyalists of New York in the American Revolution_ in _Columbia University Studies_; Curwen, _Journal and Letters_; Myers, _The Tories or Loyalists in America_; Denison, _United Empire Loyalists_ (R. S. C., 1904); Van Tyne, _Loyalists in the American Revolution_; Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_; Flick, _Loyalism in New York_; Stark, _The Loyalists of Massachusetts_; Gilbert, _The Connecticut Loyalists_ (_Am. Hist. Review_, vol. iv); Raymond, _The Winslow Papers_; Siebert and Gilliam, _Loyalists in Prince Edward Island_ (R. S. C., 1910); Siebert, _American Loyalists in Eastern Townships_ (R. S. C., 1913); Siebert, _Loyalist Settlements in Gaspé_ (R. S. C., 1914); Siebert, _Refugee Loyalists of Connecticut_ (R. S. C., 1916); Siebert, _Loyalists in Niagara Peninsula_ (R. S. C., 1915); Smith, _Loyalists at Shelburne_ (N.S. Hist. Soc., vol. iv); Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents of Canada_; Wallace, _The United Empire Loyalists_. =Ludlow, Gabriel G.= (1736-1808) United Empire Loyalist. Born in New York. Served through the Revolution on the side of the crown, and in 1782 colonel of DeLancey’s Third Battalion. Sailed for New Brunswick and his estate in New York was confiscated. In 1792 held the office of judge of vice-admiralty. He was a member of the New Brunswick Council. In 1803, when Governor Carleton embarked for England, he was sworn in as commander-in-chief. Administered the government, 1803-1808. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Ludlow, George Duncan.= United Empire Loyalist. Born in New York, he became one of the judges of the Supreme Court of that colony. In 1780 appointed master of the rolls and superintendent of police of Long Island. He emigrated to New Brunswick in 1783, and his property in New York was confiscated. Became a member of the first Council formed in the new province, and chief-justice, 1784-1808. Died at Fredericton, February 12th, 1808. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Lundy’s Lane, battle of.= On July 25th, 1814, Jacob Brown, the American general, had concentrated about four thousand men at Chippawa, and advancing down the Niagara with part of his force, came in contact with the advance guard of the British under Pearson at Lundy’s Lane. Sir Gordon Drummond, the British general, arrived later with reinforcements. Altogether he had in the neighbourhood of three thousand men, but the odds fluctuated throughout the day, sometimes one side sometimes the other being in superior force. Drummond placed seven field pieces on the crest of the rise, and, as at Queenston, the stubbornly fought battle raged around these guns. The battery repeatedly changed hands, and the battle continued far into the night. About midnight the Americans retreated, leaving the British masters of the field of Lundy’s Lane. The loss had been heavy on both sides, among the British wounded being Drummond and Riall, and among the Americans Brown and Winfield Scott. _See also_ War of 1812. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Burpee, _Can. Hist. Atlas_. =Lusignan, Paul Louis Dazemard de.= Born, 1691. He was at River Joseph in 1738. Commanded Fort St. Frédéric (Crown Point) in 1749, when the Swedish naturalist, Peter Kalm, visited the place; and remained there for several years. Known to be there in 1756. Served under Montcalm at the siege of Quebec. =Bib.=: Kalm, _Travels_. =Lyall, Graham Thompson.= Lieutenant. 102 Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ On September 27th, 1918, while leading his platoon against Bourlon Wood, he captured a strong point which was holding up the advance. Later he rushed a position single-handed, killed the officer in charge, and with the men he had collected captured forty-five prisoners and five machine-guns. On October 1st he made such skilful use of a weak company as to capture a strong enemy position which yielded eighty prisoners and seventeen machine-guns. He showed throughout the utmost valour and powers of command. =Lymburner, Adam= (1746-1836). Born in Kilmarnock, Scotland. Came to Canada about 1776, and settled at Quebec, where he succeeded to the business of his brother John, who had been lost at sea in 1775. For many years a member of the Executive Council, and took an active part in public affairs. He went to England in 1791 to oppose the division of Canada into two provinces. He recommended a system of representation designed to strengthen the English-speaking minority. Died in London at the age of ninety. =Bib.=: Lucas, _History of Canada_; Bradley, _Making of Canada_; Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents of Canada_. =Lynch, John Joseph= (1816-1888). Born near Clones, Ireland. Studied in Dublin, and entered the Lazarist order. Came to America in 1847; laboured as a missionary in Texas, 1847-1848; became president of the Lazarist College of St. Mary, Missouri, 1818; coadjutor to the bishop of Toronto, 1859; and bishop, 1860. In 1870, consecrated archbishop of Toronto and metropolitan of Ontario. His jubilee celebrated in 1884. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer, Baron= (1803-1873). Novelist and statesman. Colonial secretary, 1858. Sent a series of despatches to Sir James Douglas on the government of British Columbia. “The first care of a governor,” he wrote Sir George Bowen, “is to shun the reproach of being a party man. Give all parties, and all the ministries formed, the fairest play.” =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Escott, _Edward Bulwer, First Baron Lytton of Knebworth_. =Mabane, Adam= (1734-1792). Born in Scotland. Cousin of Thomson the poet. Studied medicine at Edinburgh University; came to Canada, and practised his profession in Quebec. Was for a time in charge of the military hospital. An intimate friend of Haldimand. In 1764 appointed a judge, and presided over the first civil court held in Quebec. Member of the Legislative Council, where he opposed Carleton, who dismissed him after the Walker trial. In 1766 surgeon of the garrison of Quebec. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Making of Canada_; Shortt and Doughty, _Constitutional Documents of Canada_. =Macaulay, Sir James Buchanan= (1793-1859). Born at Niagara, Ontario. Served in the Glengarry Fencibles during the War of 1812. In 1822 called to the bar and rose rapidly in his profession. A strong opponent of William Lyon Mackenzie, and in 1826 appeared as counsel against him. A member of the Executive Council of Upper Canada under Sir P. Maitland. In 1829 became judge of the King’s Bench; chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas, 1849-1856; and subsequently of the Court of Error and Appeal. Chairman of the commission to revise and consolidate the statutes of Canada and Upper Canada. Knighted, 1859. He carried on a bitter controversy with William Lyon Mackenzie. Macaulay township, Muskoka, named after him. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =McBride, Sir Richard= (1870-1917). Born in New Westminster, British Columbia. Educated at the public and high schools, New Westminster. Studied law and called to the bar, 1892; K. C., 1905. Represented Dewdney in the British Columbia Assembly, 1898-1907, and Victoria, 1907-1915; minister of mines in Dunsmuir administration, 1900-1901; leader of the Opposition, 1902-1903; premier of British Columbia, 1903-1915. He was a delegate to the Interprovincial Conference at Ottawa, 1906, and to the Colonial Conference in London, 1907. =Bib.=: _Canadian Who’s Who_. =McCarthy, D’Alton= (1836-1898). Born in Dublin, Ireland. Came to Canada with his parents, 1847. In 1858 called to the bar; in 1871 a bencher of the Law Society; and in 1872 made a Q. C. In 1876 elected to Parliament for Cardwell, as a Conservative, but in 1889 severed his connection with the party on the question of the Jesuits’ Estates Act. In 1896 member of Parliament for North Simcoe. One of the leaders of the Equal Rights Association (_q.v._). Took a prominent part in the formation of the Imperial Federation League in London in 1884, and was president of the Canadian branch, 1886-1891. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Hopkins, _D’Alton McCarthy_ in _Men of the Day_. =McClelan, Abner Read= (1831-1917). Born in Hopewell, New Brunswick. Educated at Mount Allison Academy. Engaged in mercantile life. Represented Albert county in the Assembly, 1854-1867; chief commissioner of public works, 1866-1867; appointed to the Senate, 1867; lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1896-1902. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =McClintock, Sir Francis Leopold= (1819-1907). Entered the navy in 1831. Second lieutenant under Ross in the _Enterprise_ in the voyage of 1848-1849. The latter year travelled by sledge five hundred miles in the Arctic. With the _Assistance_ in the Austin expedition of 1850-1851, Commanded the _Intrepid_ in the Belcher expedition, 1852-1854. Captain of the _Fox_ in the voyage to Somerset and Prince of Wales Islands, Boothia Peninsula and King William Island, 1857-1859, when he discovered the fate of Franklin and the officers and crew of the _Erebus_ and _Terror_. In 1851 he sledged seven hundred and seventy miles, in 1852 two hundred and twenty-five miles, and in 1853 thirteen hundred and twenty-eight miles. Promoted captain, and later admiral. Knighted, 1854. =Bib.=: _Voyage of the Fox in the Arctic Seas_; White, _Place-Names in Northern Canada_; Markham, _Life of Sir Leopold McClintock_. =McClure, Sir Robert John Le Mesurier= (1807-1873). Arctic explorer. Entered the navy in 1816. With Back in the voyage of 1836-1837. Served on the Great Lakes, 1838. With Ross in the voyage of 1848-1849. Commanded the _Investigator_ in Collinson and McClure expedition, 1850-1854. Wintered, 1850-1851, in Prince of Wales Strait. October, 1850, he sighted Melville Island, and discovered the North-West Passage. Wintered on Banks Island, 1851-1852. Abandoned his vessels in the spring and marched to Dealy Island where he found the _Resolute_. Returned to England, 1854. Promoted captain and later vice-admiral. Knighted, 1854. =Bib.=: White, _Place-Names in Northern Canada_; Osborn, _Discovery of the North-West Passage by McClure_. =McCrae, John= (1872-1918). Graduated from the University of Toronto in 1894; studied medicine and got his degree in 1898. Resident house officer at Toronto General Hospital, and in 1899 at Johns Hopkins. Fellow in pathology and pathologist at McGill University. Physician to the Alexandra Hospital for infectious diseases; and later assistant physician to the Royal Victoria Hospital. He became a member of the Royal College of Physicians. Went overseas in 1914 as surgeon to the First Brigade Artillery, having already seen service in South Africa where he rose to the rank of major in the Artillery. After the second battle of Ypres, he was posted to No. 3 General Hospital at Boulogne, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and remained there up to the time of his death. A few days before it had been decided to offer him the important office of consultant physician to the British armies in the field. The poem by which he will be remembered, _In Flanders Fields_, was written in his dressing station during the hottest phase of the second battle of Ypres, while he awaited the arrival of successive batches of wounded. “In Flanders fields the poppies blow Between the crosses, row on row, That mark our place; and in the sky The larks, still bravely singing, fly Scarce heard amid the guns below.” Because he wrote one inspired poem, and put into it the poignant feelings of inarticulate millions, McCrae will be remembered long after his contemporaries have been forgotten. The poem was an essential part of Canada’s contribution to the Great War, and in that sense is a part of the history of the country. The fine character of the man is brought out in his letters to his mother, published in Sir Andrew Macphail’s essay in the collection of McCrae’s poems, and what he owed to that mother may be judged from her message to him: “Take good care of my son Jack, but I would not have you unmindful that, sometimes, when we save we lose.” =Bib.=: _In Flanders Fields and Other Poems_. =McCully, Jonathan= (1809-1877). Born in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1837 called to the bar, and practised in Halifax, 1849. In 1860 appointed solicitor-general; from 1847 to 1867 member of the Legislative Council; and served as chairman of the Board of Railways; was for a time leader of the Liberal party in Nova Scotia; delegate to the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences, 1864; appointed to the Dominion Senate, 1867; and in 1870 judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Macdonald, Andrew Archibald= (1829-1912). Born in Brudenell, Prince Edward Island. Engaged in business as a general merchant. Sat in Prince Edward Island Assembly, 1854-1860; represented Kings South in Legislative Council, 1863-1873; member of Executive Council, 1867-1871 and 1872-1873; delegate to the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences, 1864; postmaster-general of Prince Edward Island, 1873, and postmaster, Charlottetown, 1873-1884; lieutenant-governor of Prince Edward Island, 1884-1889. Called to the Senate, 1891. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Macdonald, Archibald.= Came out in charge of the Selkirk colonists in 1813, in the _Prince of Wales_. They wintered at Fort Churchill, and reached Red River in June, 1814. He was deputy governor there under Macdonell. Became a chief factor in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1842. =Bib.=: Bryce, _The Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_. =Macdonald, Donald Alexander= (1816-1896). Born in St. Raphael’s. Quebec. Engaged in business as railway contractor. Represented Glengarry in the Assembly of Canada, 1857-1867, and after Confederation in the House of Commons, 1867-1875. Postmaster-general in the Mackenzie administration, 1873-1878; lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1875-1880. After his retirement lived at Montreal. =Bib.=: Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_. =MacDonald, Hugh.= Born in Antigonish, Nova Scotia, 1827. Studied law and called to the bar, 1855; made a Q. C., 1872. In 1859 elected member for Inverness to the provincial Legislature. Member of a delegation, including Joseph Howe, that visited England in 1861 to represent the views of those opposing the Confederation of the British North American provinces. In 1867-1873 a member of the Dominion Parliament, and in 1873 president of the Privy Council. On November 5th, 1873, appointed judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia; retired, 1893. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Macdonald, Hugh= (1782-1841). Father of Sir John A. Macdonald. A native of the parish of Rogart, Sutherlandshire, Scotland. Engaged in business in Glasgow. Emigrated to Canada in 1820 and settled at Kingston. Moved to the Bay of Quinte, but returned to Kingston in 1836. Died there. =Bib.=: Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John Macdonald_. =Macdonald, Sir Hugh John= (1850-). Born in Kingston, Ontario; second son of Sir John A. Macdonald. Educated at Queen’s and Toronto Universities; studied law and called to the bar, 1872; and practised for some years with his father and James Patton. Q. C. 1890. Served in Rebellions of 1870 and 1885. In 1882 removed to Winnipeg and entered into partnership with J. S. Tupper. In 1890-1891, and again in 1896, represented Winnipeg in the House of Commons; in 1896 minister of the interior in the Tupper administration. In 1897 leader of the Conservatives in Manitoba; and from January 8th to October 29th, 1900, premier of the province. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =McDonald, James= (1828-1912). Born at East River, Nova Scotia. Studied law and was called to the bar, 1851; Q. C., 1867. Sat for Pictou in the local Legislature, 1859-1867 and 1871-1872. Represented the same county in the Dominion House of Commons, 1872-1874 and 1878-1881. Minister of justice in the Macdonald ministry, 1878-1881. Appointed chief-justice of Nova Scotia and judge of the Vice-Admiralty Court, 1881. Judge of the Exchequer Court, 1891. Retired, 1904. Had been chief railway commissioner of Nova Scotia, 1863-1864, and financial secretary, 1864-1867. Administrator of the government of Nova Scotia on several occasions. In 1865 sent as a commissioner to open trade with Mexico, Brazil and the West Indies. Went to Jamaica for the British government to investigate certain charges against the attorney-general of the colony, 1893. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Macdonald, Sir John Alexander= (1815-1891). Born in Glasgow, and brought to Canada in 1820 by his father, who had decided to emigrate to the new land. His early years were spent in Kingston, Ontario, where he attended the grammar school. Oliver Mowat was a student at the same school. In 1830 Macdonald began the study of law; in 1836 he was called to the bar, and began the practise of his profession. Both Mowat and Alexander Campbell entered his office as students. In 1844 he entered public life as member for Kingston in the provincial Legislature. At this early stage of his political career he took little part in the debates, spending most of his time studying constitutional history and parliamentary practice. He also began to define his political creed as Conservative but not Family Compact. In 1847 he became receiver-general. The same year in the general elections his government went out of power, while he was re-elected in Kingston. He opposed the Rebellion Losses bill, but refused to be a party to the annexation movement that followed. On the other hand he supported the British American League. Convinced that the country, torn by political extremists, needed a moderate and sane government, he succeeded in welding the moderate elements of both the Reformers and the Tories into one party as Liberal-Conservatives. Became attorney-general in the MacNab-Morin administration, 1854, and introduced the bill for Secularization of the Clergy Reserves. Two years later became joint leader of the Taché-Macdonald government. This session he came into sharp conflict with George Brown, and their antagonism remained, active or latent, up to the end of Brown’s life. On the resignation of Taché in 1857, Macdonald formed an administration with Cartier, and steered his government through the difficult years that followed with rare skill and judgment. The attempt to govern Upper and Lower Canada as united provinces was gradually breaking down, and statesmen were casting about for a solution of an intolerable situation. All parties recognized the deadlock, and finally agreed upon the larger scheme of Confederation. In the earlier stages of the negotiations, his biographer Parkin agrees that Macdonald was inclined to be cautious, but “when finally convinced that the hour had come, he rose at once to the height of his great opportunity, and, during the next three years of negotiations with recalcitrant supporters, with hesitating sister provinces, and with the mother country, displayed a skill that, by comparison, dwarfs the efforts of any of his colleagues.” He attended the Charlottetown, Quebec and Westminster Conferences, and at the latter urged a legislative union, but finally accepted the federal scheme in deference to the nervousness of Quebec and the Maritime Provinces. His skill, patience and tact came into play in steering the Confederation resolutions through the Legislature. In 1867 he became first prime minister of the new Dominion of Canada. His diplomatic skill was again brought into play the following year in persuading Joseph Howe to abandon the anti-confederation movement and join the Dominion Cabinet. Macdonald took a keen interest in the negotiations that led up to the entry of Manitoba into the Dominion as well as in the annexation of the North-West Territories. He spent part of 1871 in Washington as one of the negotiators of the Washington treaty, and fought strenuously against the apathy of the other British representatives in safeguarding Canadian interests. In the first general election after Confederation, 1872, Macdonald’s government was sustained but with a reduced majority. A few months later he was hurled from power as a result of the Pacific Scandal. During the years of Opposition that followed, he patiently developed the National Policy that was, in 1878, to bring him back to power and keep him there for the rest of his life. He vigorously took up the transcontinental railway project, and in 1886 had the satisfaction of crossing the continent to the Pacific coast on the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1871 began the long dispute as to the boundaries of Ontario, in which Macdonald and his old student, Mowat, were the chief contestants, and in which the latter finally won out. In 1885 Macdonald brought down a Franchise Act that established a uniform suffrage in place of the provincial lists that had previously been used. It was adopted after bitter opposition. He was now steadily growing in popularity at home, and abroad had come to be recognized as a statesman of the first rank. He led his party triumphantly through the general elections of 1882, 1887 and 1891, but in the latter overtaxed his strength. He made his last appearance in the House of Commons on May 22nd. Some time before he had suffered a slight stroke of paralysis. Toward the end of the month he suffered the final stroke and died on June 6th. A few days later Sir Wilfrid Laurier said of him: “For the supreme art of governing men, Sir John Macdonald was gifted as few men in any land or in any age were gifted—gifted with the highest of all qualities, qualities which would have made him famous wherever exercised, and which would have shone all the more conspicuously the larger the theatre... The fact that during all those years he retained unimpaired not only the confidence but the devotion—the ardent devotion—and affection of his party, is evidence that, besides those higher qualities of statesmanship to which we were daily witnesses, he was also endowed with those inner, subtle, undefinable graces of soul which win and keep the hearts of men.” _See also_ Quebec Conference; Confederation; Pacific Scandal; Washington Treaty; Cartier; Tupper; Brown; Laurier. =Bib.=: Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John Alexander Macdonald_; Macpherson, _Life of Macdonald_; Collins, _Life and Times of Macdonald_; Adams, _Life and Career of Macdonald_; Hopkins, _Life of Macdonald_; Biggar, _Anecdotal Life of Macdonald_; Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_; Wallace, _Sir John Macdonald_; Pope, _Correspondence of Sir John Macdonald_. =Macdonald, John Sandfield= (1812-1872). Born in St. Raphael’s, Glengarry, in what is now Ontario. In 1840 called to the bar and practised in Cornwall. In 1841 elected to the Legislature of the reunited provinces of Upper and Lower Canada; re-elected, 1848, and the following year became solicitor-general in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration. Speaker of the Legislature, 1852-1854. In 1858 he was offered a seat in the Cabinet by John A. Macdonald but declined, and the same year became a member of George Brown’s short-lived administration, as attorney-general. In 1862 he was called upon by Lord Monck to form a government, which became known as the Macdonald-Sicotte administration. He was for some time an enthusiastic advocate of the Double Majority principle (_q.v._), believing that the union of the two provinces could thereby be virtually federalized without formal constitutional change. During his administration the Roman Catholics of Upper Canada, who had long agitated for separate schools, gained their end. Resigned with his government, March, 1864. His attitude during the debate on the Confederation resolutions was critical and he voted against them, principally on the ground that so vital a change should not be made without being submitted to the people. After Confederation, he became the first premier of the new province of Ontario, 1867-1871. Parkin describes him as a Scottish Catholic who was usually at issue with the priesthood on the question of separate schools; a Liberal whose stubborn will and gibing tongue had brought him into sharp conflict with George Brown. His “Scottish caution and dislike for theorists had led him to oppose Confederation, but he was essentially a practical man, and in the presence of its successful accomplishment felt no desire to sulk in his tent, or to endeavour to undo the results attained. For four years he gave to Ontario an honest, economical and not unprogressive administration, which more and more assumed a (politically) conservative character.” =Bib.=: Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Biggar, _Sir Oliver Mowat_. =McDonald, of Garth, John= (1774-1860). Born in the Highlands, a descendant of the Lord of the Isles. He was destined for the army, but was disqualified because of a deformed arm. For the same reason he was afterwards known to the _voyageurs_ as _bras croche_. Left for Canada in 1791 as an apprentice clerk in the North West Company. He was a man of high character, irascible temper, and indomitable pluck, and lived to become one of the leaders of the western fur trade. He was first stationed at Lac d’Orignal, north-east of Edmonton, then at Fort George on the Saskatchewan; at Fort Augustus; spent part of 1802-1803 exploring in the Rocky Mountains; visited England and Scotland in 1803; in charge of the English River department, 1804; transferred to Red River department in 1807; built Fort Gibraltar that year; sailed from Quebec in 1812 in the _Isaac Todd_ for Liverpool; and in 1813 sailed in the same ship for the mouth of the Columbia, where he took possession of Astoria for the North West Company, and renamed it Fort George. The following year he returned overland by way of Athabaska Pass to Fort William, being involved on the way in the dispute with the Hudson’s Bay Company known as the Pemmican War. In 1816 he retired from the fur trade, and settled at Gray’s Creek, Glengarry, on the St. Lawrence, where he spent the remainder of his days. =Bib.=: _Autobiographical Notes, 1791-1816_ (Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_); Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_. =Macdonald, Sir William Christopher= (1831-1917). Born at Glenaladale, Prince Edward Island. Son of Donald Macdonald, president of the Legislative Council of Prince Edward Island. Made a very large fortune in business in Montreal, most of which he devoted to the promotion of educational projects. His endowments to McGill University exceeded $5,400,000. He established and endowed the Agricultural College at Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, with another $5,000,000; and gave large sums for manual training and domestic science at the Ontario Agricultural College and elsewhere. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Macdonell, Alexander.= Represented Lord Selkirk’s interests as governor of the Red River Settlement. Had been for some years in the employment of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Left the Red River Settlement, 1821, when it was discovered that he had been lining his own pockets at the expense of Selkirk and the settlers. Popularly known as _Gouverneur Sauterelle_, or the Grasshopper Governor, because his term of office corresponded with the disastrous visitation of grasshoppers. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Manitoba_ and _The Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; Ross, _Red River Settlement_; Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_. =Macdonell, Alexander.= A member of the Glengarry family, which figures so largely in the early history of Upper Canada. He was sheriff of the Home District in the first years of the nineteenth century, and was sent to take charge of the Baldoon Settlement (_q.v._) by Lord Selkirk. =Bib.=: Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_. =Macdonell, Alexander.= Of the North West Company. Sent with Duncan Cameron to Red River to break up the Selkirk Settlement. In the skirmish that resulted all the colonists’ houses were destroyed. He was a cousin and brother-in-law of Miles Macdonell (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Bryce, _The Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_. =Macdonell, Alexander= (1769-1840). Born at Glen Urquhart, Scotland. Raised a Roman Catholic regiment of which he was appointed chaplain, and saw service in Ireland in 1798; after the regiment had been disbanded, succeeded in bringing the men to Canada in 1803-1804, and obtained for them an extensive tract of land on the St. Lawrence, in what is now Glengarry county. When the War of 1812 was threatening, assisted in raising the Glengarry Fencibles and accompanied them into action. _See_ Canadian Archives Report, 1896, Note C. In 1826 consecrated bishop of Kingston. First Roman Catholic bishop in Upper Canada. In 1839 returned to England to promote a scheme of emigration from the Highlands, and died at Dumfries the following year. =Bib.=: Macdonell, _Sketches Illustrating the Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada_; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Campbell, _The Scotsman in Canada_. =Macdonell, Sir Archibald Cameron.= Born at Windsor, Ontario, 1864. Served in the Canadian Mounted Infantry, 1888; in the Mounted Police, 1889; and in the South African War, 1899-1902. Organized and commanded Fifth Canadian Mounted Rifles. Commanded Seventh Infantry Brigade, Canadian Expeditionary Force, in France, 1915-1916, and First Division, 1917 to demobilization. Promoted brigadier-general and major-general. Knighted. Served in the battle of Amiens and a number of other engagements. After his return to Canada, he was appointed commandant of the Royal Military College, of which he was an ex-cadet. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Macdonell, George= (1770-1870). Member of the well-known Glengarry family of that name. Served for several years in the King’s Regiment; instrumental in organizing the Glengarry Fencibles in 1811, of which he was given command. Served with distinction in the War of 1812, particularly in the capture of Ogdensburg and the battle of Chateauguay. _See also_ War of 1812. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Macdonell, _Sketches Illustrating the Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada_. =Macdonell, John.= Speaker of the first Assembly of Upper Canada. 1792. Represented Glengarry in the Assembly, which at this first session established trial by jury, substituted British laws for the ancient French laws of Canada, and imposed the first taxes upon the people. =Bib.=: Scott, _John Graves Simcoe_. =Macdonell, John.= Born in Glengarry; son of Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander Macdonell, of the 1st Glengarry militia. Proposed to raise corps among Scottish settlers in Glengarry. Present at the capture of Detroit; carried summons for its surrender; and mentioned in despatches. In 1812 aide-de-camp to Sir Isaac Brock, and took an important part in the battle of Queenston Heights, where he was killed. At the time of his appointment to General Brock’s staff was acting attorney-general of Upper Canada. _See also_ War of 1812. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Edgar, _Ten Years of Upper Canada_; Macdonell, _Sketches Illustrating the Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada_. =Macdonell, Miles= (1767-1828). A United Empire Loyalist, and governor of Assiniboia. Born in Scotland. Came to America with his father, Colonel John Macdonell, in 1773. Entered the army, and served in the Revolutionary War with the King’s Royal Regiment. In 1794 lieutenant in the Royal Canadian Volunteers, and captain in 1796. Settled in Glengarry county, Upper Canada. Appointed by Lord Selkirk governor of his projected colony on Red River. Sent to England and Scotland, and sailed from Yarmouth with a party of colonists in 1812. Opposition on the part of the North West Company culminated in an attack, June 11th, 1815, by the Company’s agents on the colonists, and Macdonell, to avoid bloodshed, surrendered. A threatened trial at Montreal fell through, and he returned to Red River Settlement, where for nearly twelve years he was one of its leading pioneers. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_ and _The Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; Ross, _Red River Settlement_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_. _See also_ “Letter Book of Captain Miles Macdonell,” in _Canadian Archives Report_, 1886, Note F. =McDougall, George= (1820-1876). Born in Kingston, Ontario. Studied at Victoria College. Sent as a missionary to Lake Huron in 1851. In 1860 he went to Norway House as superintendent of Methodist missions between Lake Superior and the Rockies, and later moved his headquarters to Victoria on the Saskatchewan. During the succeeding years he established missions among the Stonies and the Blackfeet, and by his wise vision helped to pave the way for the enduring settlement of the west. His relations with Pere Lacombe and other missionaries of different faiths were always friendly and sympathetic. =Bib.=: Maclean, _Vanguards of Canada_. =McDougall, John= (1842-1917). Son of preceding. Born in Owen Sound, Ontario, where he first came in contact with the Indians and learned their manners and customs. Attended Victoria College for a time; at the age of eighteen accompanied his father to Norway House; and in 1862 went west to the Saskatchewan country as a missionary. At the little settlement of Victoria, in what is now Alberta, he started the first school. For fifty years he devoted himself to the welfare of the Indians of the Great Plains and the Rockies, establishing such missions as that at Morley in the Bow River valley, building schools, teaching the Indians farming and other arts of civilization, and acting as representative of the federal government in opening up the west to settlement. He was at the same time special commissioner for the Indians and later commissioner for the Doukhobors. He acquired a complete mastery of the language of the Crees, and with E. B. Glass prepared a primer and language lessons as well as a hymn book in that language. =Bib.=: _Life of George McDougall_; _Forest, Lake and Prairie_; _Saddle, Sled and Snowshoe_; _Pathfinding on Plain and Prairie_; _In the Days of the Red River Rebellion_; _On Western Trails in the Early Seventies_. For biog., _see_ Maclean, _Vanguards of Canada_. =McDougall, William= (1822-1905). Born in Toronto. Educated at Victoria College, Cobourg; admitted as a solicitor in 1847, and as barrister, 1862. Engaged in journalism; founded the _Canada Farmer_ in 1848, and the _North American_ in 1850. He became a leader of the Clear Grits. Secretary of the Reform Convention, 1859. Favored an elective Senate in the Dominion. Accompanied John A. Macdonald to Halifax in 1868 and took part in the negotiations to bring Joseph Howe into the federal Cabinet. A member of the Assembly from 1858 to 1867; of the Dominion Parliament, 1867-1882; and of the Ontario Legislature, 1875-1878. In 1862-1864 commissioner of crown lands; and provincial secretary, 1864; minister of public works in first Dominion government, 1867; attended the Westminster Conference, 1866-1867; commissioner to London for the acquisition of North-West Territories, 1868; lieutenant-governor of Rupert’s Land, 1869. When he attempted to enter Rupert’s Land from the south, Riel’s emissaries turned him back. He blamed Howe for fomenting trouble at Red River Settlement. Member of the Ontario Boundary Commission. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Morgan, _Can. Men_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_. =MacDowell, Thain Wendell.= Captain, 38th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ Awarded for most conspicuous bravery and indomitable resolution in face of heavy machine-gun and shell fire, April 9th to 13th, 1917, at Vimy Ridge. After capturing a machine-gun position, he continued, although wounded, to hold it for five days in spite of heavy shell fire, until eventually relieved by his battalion. Afterwards promoted major. =McGee, Thomas D’Arcy= (1825-1868). His life falls naturally into three periods: in Ireland, 1825-1848; in the United States, 1848-1857; in Canada, 1857-1868. As one of his biographers has said, “while only a quarter of his short life was spent in Canada, it was to her he gave his fullest and most abiding service.” Born in Carlingford, Ireland, and there and in Wexford he spent his childhood. At the age of seventeen he sailed for America, and spent the next three years in journalistic work on the Boston _Pilot_. In 1845 he became a regular contributor to _The Freeman’s Journal_, and later as correspondent of the _Nation_. The following year he returned to Ireland, where he identified himself with the Young Ireland movement, and did a good deal of literary and historical work. In 1848, having become involved in the futile rebellion of that year, he escaped to the United States, and established the _New York Nation_. That fell by the wayside, and in 1850 he started the _American Celt_, first in Boston, later in Buffalo, and finally in New York. In the spring of 1857 he left the United States and made his home in Canada. He had already visited the country on several occasions on lecture tours, and had gradually come to the conclusion that the Dominion offered a more favourable field for the settlement of Irishmen than the United States. His political views had gradually been broadening, and he was prepared now to take his part in the building up of a British commonwealth in America. Still a journalist, he established the _New Era_ in Montreal in 1857. His thoughts, however, were turning to public life, and in 1858 he took his seat in the Legislature as one of the representatives of Montreal. At this period his sympathies were with the Reform party, and in 1862 he entered the John Sandfield Macdonald-Sicotte government as president of the Council. The same year he acted as chairman of the Intercolonial Conference at Quebec to consider the railway problem, and reciprocity in trade. When the Sandfield Macdonald government was reorganized, McGee was dropped, and in the elections that followed he definitely cast in his lot with the Conservatives, and particularly with their leader John A. Macdonald, with whose constructive policy he was already in sympathy. In the Taché-Macdonald ministry of 1864 he took the portfolio of agriculture. As immigration came under his charge, McGee now had opportunities of working out some of his own ideas, and particularly of facilitating the movement of settlers from the land of his birth. In 1865 he returned to Ireland as the leading member of the Canadian delegation to the International Exhibition at Dublin. In a speech at Wexford he outlined his mature views as to the relationship between Ireland and America, and incidentally offended his former associates by saying of the Young Ireland movement: “Politically we were a pack of fools, but we were honest in our folly, and no man need blush at forty for the follies of one-and-twenty.” Into the movement that led up to Confederation, McGee threw himself with characteristic energy and enthusiasm. If Cartier brought French Canada into the Dominion, and Tupper the Maritime Provinces, it is equally true that McGee was mainly responsible for securing and consolidating the support of the Irish element. Intellectually his Confederation speeches and articles stand on a higher plane than those of any of his great contemporaries. He attended both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences, and brilliantly supported the resolutions in the Legislature. When the first Dominion Cabinet was formed, McGee loyally stood aside to make room for representatives of other political and racial groups. He had definitely made up his mind to retire from public life and devote himself to literature, but on the night of April 6th, 1868, the bullet of a Fenian assassin put an end to all his plans. =Bib.=: Works: _Canadian Ballads_; _Popular History of Ireland_; _Notes on Federal Governments_; _Speeches and Addresses Chiefly on Subject of British American Union_; _Poems_, with biog. sketch by Mrs. J. Sadlier. For his minor publications in Canada, and works published before coming to Canada, _see_ Morgan, _Bib. Can. For biog._, _see_ Taylor, _Thomas D’Arcy McGee: Sketch of His Life and Death_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Skelton, _Thomas D’Arcy McGee_; Brady, _Thomas D’Arcy McGee_; Harvey, _Thomas D’Arcy McGee_. =McGill, James= (1744-1813). Born in Glasgow, Scotland. Emigrated to Canada. For some years engaged in the western fur trade; and in partnership with his brother, Andrew McGill, acquired a large fortune. One of the original members of the North West Company. Isaac Todd (_q.v._) was also his partner in trade. Sat in Lower Canada Assembly for several years, and in the Legislative and Executive Councils. An officer of the Montreal militia, and in 1812 brigadier-general. Took vigorous measures to support the government in the war with the United States. Devoted a large part of his wealth to various institutions in Montreal, and in particular was the founder of the university that bears his name. _See also_ McGill University. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =McGill, John= (1752-1834). United Empire Loyalist. Born in Scotland. Emigrated to Virginia in 1773. Espoused the royal cause in the Revolution; in 1777 a lieutenant in the Loyal Virginians, and in 1782 a captain in the Queen’s Rangers. In 1783 came to St. John, New Brunswick, and in 1792 to Upper Canada. Became a member of the Executive Council, 1796, and of the Legislative Council, 1797. In 1801 appointed inspector-general of accounts. Died at Toronto. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =McGill, Peter= (1789-1860). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to Canada in 1809; became a wealthy merchant of Montreal. President of the Bank of Montreal, 1834 to 1860. A member of the Constitutional Association, after the Rebellion, that advocated union of Upper and Lower Canada to guard against similar outbreaks in the future. In 1841 appointed to the Legislative Council; Speaker, 1847; a member of the Executive Council. In 1834-1838 chairman of the St. Lawrence and Champlain Railway Company; in 1840-1842 mayor of Montreal. A governor of McGill University; and of Montreal general hospital. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =McGill University.= Montreal. Established through the far-sighted liberality of James McGill, a merchant of Montreal, who in his will left his property of Burnside and £10,000 to found the college. It was granted a royal charter in 1820, and opened in 1829. The original bequest proving insufficient to complete the college buildings, a further sum was given by William Molson for that purpose. A new charter was obtained in 1852. The period of greatest development of the university dates from 1855, when J. W. Dawson was appointed principal. The university has been fortunate in receiving generous bequests from wealthy citizens of Montreal, notably from Peter Redpath, Sir W. C. Macdonald, and Lord Strathcona. =Bib.= Dawson, _Historical Sketch of McGill University in Canada: An Ency._, vol. iv; _Ency. Brit._; _Ency. Amer._; Macmillan, _McGill: Its Story_. =McGillivray, Simon.= Brother of William. Born in Scotland. Came to America early in the nineteenth century. For a time in a counting house in New York. Three years later joined his brothers in Montreal. Sent to England, 1805. The following year became a partner in his brother’s firm. One of the leading partners of the North West Company. Took an active part in the rivalry with Lord Selkirk, by whom he was arrested at Fort William in 1816. In 1812 he had written to the Partners of the North West Company, of Selkirk—“he must be driven to abandon it (his scheme of colonization in the Red River country) for his success would strike at the very existence of our trade.” Signed the agreement of 1821 under which the Hudson’s Bay and North West Companies were amalgamated. The winding up of his firm dragged on for some years, and apparently was still uncompleted in 1830. He was a director of the Canada Company. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_; Davidson, _North West Company_. =McGillivray, William.= Born in Scotland. Simon McTavish was his uncle. Came to Canada, and entered the service of the North West Company. In 1786-1787 had charge of the North West Company post at Lac des Serpents, in opposition to Roderick Mackenzie of the rival Company. In the spring, the two traders with their men set out together for their respective headquarters at Grand Portage, and arrived there side by side, the crews singing in chorus, to the no small amazement of the Grand Portage people. McGillivray and Mackenzie were ever after firm friends. The former became a partner of the North West Company in 1790, buying out the share of Peter Pond. Was made one of the Company’s agents in 1797; signed the agreement of 1804; and was one of the most influential of the _bourgeois._ Fort William was named after him in 1807. Made a legislative councillor of Lower Canada in 1814, in recognition of his services to the government during the War of 1812. Returned to Scotland in 1818, before the fusion of the Hudson’s Bay Company and North West Company; bought an estate in Argyllshire, and died there about 1825. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_. =MacGregor. John.= Captain, 2nd Canadian Mounted Rifles. _Victoria Cross._ Near Cambrai, from September 29th to October 3rd, 1918, he led his company under intense fire, and when the advance was checked by machine-guns, although wounded, pushed on and located the enemy guns. He ran forward in broad daylight, in face of heavy fire from all directions, and single-handed, with rifle and bayonet, put the enemy crews out of action. Later when the enemy were showing stubborn resistance, he went along the line regardless of danger, took command of the leading men, and continued the advance. After a personal daylight _reconnaissance_ under heavy fire, he established his company in such a position as to greatly assist the general advance. =Machray, Robert= (1831-1904). Born in Aberdeen, Scotland. Educated at Aberdeen and Cambridge; ordained deacon, 1855; and priest, 1856; in 1858 elected dean of his college; vicar of Madingley till 1865, when appointed bishop of Rupert’s Land; in 1875 chosen metropolitan; in 1893, on the union of the Anglican churches in Canada, became archbishop of Rupert’s Land and primate of all Canada. Prelate of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, 1893. Professor of ecclesiastical history and liturgiology in St. John’s College, Winnipeg, and chancellor of the University of Manitoba. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Machray, _Life of Archbishop Machray_; Mockridge, _Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. =McKay, Alexander.= Accompanied Alexander Mackenzie on his memorable journey of 1793 to the shores of the Pacific. In charge of Île à la Crosse House, 1797-1799; signed the Montreal agreement of 1804, as one of the partners of the North West Company; joined the Pacific Fur Company, 1810, and sailed to Astoria with Franchère that year. Murdered on the _Tonquin,_ near Nootka, in 1811. His widow married Dr. John McLoughlin. _See also_ Mackenzie; _Tonquin_; =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =McKay, Hugh= (1751-1848). Lieutenant in the Queen’s Rangers. Served throughout the American Revolution on the royal side, and attained rank of colonel. In 1783 emigrated to New Brunswick, where he made his home. He was for thirty years a member of the provincial Legislature, and became recognized as its father. Appointed senior judge of the Court of Common Pleas. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =McKay, James.= Born in Edmonton, Alberta. Educated at the Red River Settlement. For a time in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company. A member of the Council of Assiniboia and of the North-West Council. Appointed to the Legislative Council of Manitoba, 1870. Minister of agriculture, 1875-1878. Died, 1879. =McKay, Joseph William= (1829-1900). Born at Rupert House, Hudson Bay. Crossed the mountains to Fort Vancouver in 1844; had charge of various trading posts west of the mountains, and rose to the rank of chief trader; also made important explorations in what is now the province of British Columbia. Became one of the first members of the Legislative Assembly of Vancouver Island, 1855. Retired from the Company’s service, 1879. Appointed to the Department of Indian Affairs of Canada in 1883. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =McKay, William.= Brother of Alexander (see above). Another brother, Donald, was known as “Mad McKay” because of his impetuous temper. All three were in the service of the North West Company. William began trading in 1793 on Menominee river, in what is now the state of Wisconsin. The following winter was spent at Green Bay. He then went west by way of Grand Portage and wintered, 1794-1795, on the Assiniboine, at what is to-day Portage la Prairie. The succeeding years he was stationed at Lake Winnipeg and other posts in the west. In 1804 he had become a wintering partner. When the War of 1812 broke out he joined the volunteers, and in 1813 became major of the Michigan Fencibles. In 1814 he commanded the expedition sent to capture the American fort at Prairie du Chien. When his regiment was disbanded in 1815, he was made Indian superintendent, first at Mackinac and later at Drummond Island, holding the latter post until 1828. He died at Montreal in 1832. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll.,_ xix, 365. =McKean, George Burton.= Lieutenant, 14th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During a raid on the enemy trenches, April 27th and 28th, 1918, the advance being held up by intense fire from hand-grenades and machine-guns, he rushed the position single-handed, jumped into the enemy’s trench, cleaned it out, sent back to his own lines for more bombs, and then fearlessly rushed the second block and drove the garrison, including a machine-gun section, into a dug-out, which was destroyed. =Mackenzie, Alexander= (1822-1892). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to Kingston, Canada, in 1842; in 1848 started in business at Sarnia as builder and contractor; in 1852 editor of the _Lambton Shield_, a reform newspaper; member for Lambton in the provincial Parliament, 1861-1867; and from 1867 to 1892 a member of the Dominion Parliament. His view of the Confederation issue was that Reformers should not accept seats in the coalition ministry, but should give Confederation an outside support. In 1873 became premier and minister of public works, the first liberal premier of the Dominion. The Supreme Court of Canada was organized under his administration. Took a pessimistic view of the Canadian Pacific Railway scheme. Made provision for simultaneous voting in elections. In 1878 his government defeated by the Conservative party. Leader of the Opposition until 1880, when he resigned on account of ill health, and was succeeded by Edward Blake, but remained in Parliament for some years, being elected for East York in 1882 and 1887. Declined knighthood three times. Sir Wilfrid Laurier said of him: “Alexander Mackenzie was straight and solid as his own masonry. He was more characteristically Scotch than his fellow-countryman, Sir John Macdonald.... He was a thorough-going party man. Not that he would for an instant countenance any tricky or underhanded ‘practical’ politics; he was too unswervingly honest for that.... But he was certain that the Tories had inherited most of Adam’s original sin, and he usually had the facts at his finger’s ends to prove it. We never had a better debater in the house.... He made an excellent administrator.... He had not the imagination nor the breadth of view required to lead a party and a country; and he gave to the details of a department the time that should have gone to planning and overseeing the general conduct of the administration. But it would be well if we had more Mackenzies in public life.” =Bib.=: Works: _Speeches in Scotland and Canada_; _Life and Speeches of George Brown_. For biog., _see_ Buckingham and Ross, _Life of Alexander Mackenzie_; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Leggo, _History of the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin in Canada_; Stewart, _Canada under the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin_; Lewis, _George Brown_. =Mackenzie, Sir Alexander= (1755?-1820). Born at Stornoway, Island of Lewis, Scotland. Emigrated to Canada in 1779, and entered the counting-house of the Montreal fur trading merchants of Gregory & McLeod. After several years’ experience there he was sent up to Detroit, then one of the distributing centres of the fur trade. In 1785 he went to Grand Portage. A year or so earlier the Frobishers, McTavish, and other Montreal merchants had organized the North West Company. Gregory, McLeod and their associates formed an opposition company, and Mackenzie was admitted as a partner. He pushed his way out into the far west, and took charge of the trade in the Athabaska country. Rivalry between the two groups of traders led in 1787 to their amalgamation, and Mackenzie’s responsibilities were correspondingly increased. He decided that Lake Athabaska was the strategic centre of his field of operations, and sent his cousin Roderick to build there a post known as Chipewyan. Although loyal to his associates in the fur trade, he was a born pathfinder, and as soon as the opportunity came, engaged in the more congenial work of exploration. Starting from Chipewyan in June, 1789, he pushed his way north to Great Slave lake, and down the great river that now bears his name to the Arctic. He had hoped and expected that it would lead him to the Pacific and was correspondingly disappointed. Before the middle of September he was back at Chipewyan. The journey had whetted his appetite for exploration, and he determined to make another effort to reach the Pacific. In order that he might be fully equipped, he spent a winter in England perfecting his knowledge and securing the necessary instruments. In the summer of 1792 he sent men to build a post on Peace river, and wintered there so that he might have as much time as possible for his expedition. Early in May, 1793, he set out to the westward, accompanied by Alexander McKay and a party of _voyageurs_. Their way lay up the Peace through the mountains, and then up one of its principal tributaries the Parsnip. From the headwaters of the latter they crossed over to the Fraser, which they descended to a point where Alexandria was afterwards built. Finding that he was getting too far south, Mackenzie turned back, and followed the Blackwater, a western tributary of the Fraser, to its upper waters, then over the mountains to the Bella Coola, which he descended to Bentinck Arm where he reached salt water. In spite of opposition from the natives, he pushed his way down the arm, and finally, on the face of a rock, painted this inscription: “Alexander Mackenzie from Canada by land, the twenty-second of July, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three. Lat. 52° 20’ 48” N.” This rock has been, it is believed, identified, and is to be marked by a suitable monument. Having completed this momentous journey—the realization of the long dream of an overland route to the Western Sea—he returned without particular incident to Chipewyan. After his return to the east, Mackenzie busied himself for a time in the preparation of the narrative of his two journeys. He also represented the county of Huntingdon in the Canadian Legislature. In 1808 he returned to Scotland, where he spent the remainder of his life. He had been knighted in 1802, as a recognition of his eminent services as an explorer. =Bib.=: _Voyages from Montreal through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, 1789 and 1793. See also_ his letters in Roderick Mackenzie’s _Reminiscences_ (Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_); Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Willson, _The Great Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Bryce, _Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson_; Leacock, _Adventurers of the Far North_; Sage, _Sir Alexander Mackenzie and His Influence on the History of the North-West_. =Mackenzie, Donald= (1783-1851). Brother of Roderick Mackenzie. Born in Scotland. Emigrated to Canada in 1800, and engaged in the service of the North West Company for several years. In 1809 associated with John Jacob Astor in fur trading on the Columbia. Returned to the service of the North West Company; and in 1821, on its absorption by the Hudson’s Bay Company, became a chief factor in the united Company. After some years’ service in the far west, he was in 1825 appointed governor of the Red River Settlement, and held the position till 1832, when he retired to the United States. He settled at Mayville, New York, where he became the friend of William H. Seward, afterwards Lincoln’s secretary of state. =Bib.=: Bryce, _The Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; Burpee, _A Forgotten Adventurer of the Fur Trade_, (_Queen’s Quarterly_, 1919). =McKenzie, Hugh.= Lieutenant, 7th Canadian Machine-Gun Company. _Victoria Cross._ On October 30th, 1917, at Meetcheele Spur near Passchendaele, when in charge of a machine-gun section, seeing that all the officers and most of the non-commissioned officers of an infantry company had become casualties, and that the men were hesitating before a nest of enemy machine-guns, he handed over command of his guns to a non-commissioned officer, rallied the infantry, organized an attack, and captured the strong point. Finding the position swept by machine-gun fire, he made a _reconnaissance_ and attacked the position, being himself killed in leading the frontal attack. =Mackenzie River.= Named after Sir Alexander Mackenzie, who explored it from Great Slave lake to the Arctic in 1789. It was known at one time as Disappointment river. Its ultimate source is in Thutage lake, the headwaters of the Finlay, in northern British Columbia. Its total length from Thutage lake to the sea is 2,525 miles. Among later explorers who travelled down or up the river were Sir John Franklin, Sir John Richardson, Sir George Back, Dease and Simpson, and Robert Campbell. The Hudson’s Bay Company has the following trading posts on the main stream: Fort Providence, near the entrance of Great Slave lake; Fort Simpson, at the mouth of the Liard; Fort Wrigley, in lat. 63°; Fort Norman, at the mouth of Great Bear river; Fort Good Hope, near the Ramparts; and Fort MacPherson on Peel river. The Company now operates a steamer from Fort Smith, on Slave river, to the Arctic ocean. =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _Voyages_; Franklin, _Narrative of Second Expedition_; Richardson, _Arctic Searching Expedition_; Cameron, _The New North_; _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Burpee, _By Canadian Streams_. =Mackenzie, Roderick.= Cousin of Sir Alexander Mackenzie. Came to Canada from Scotland in 1784, and entered the service of the fur trading firm of Gregory, McTavish & Company, of Montreal. The following year reached Grand Portage, where he was employed as a clerk. Accompanied his cousin to the far west in 1786; built the original Fort Chipewyan, on the south shore of Lake Athabaska, in 1788; and was in charge of the post during Alexander Mackenzie’s expeditions of 1789 and 1792 to the Arctic and Pacific. In 1797, on his way to Montreal, after a long absence, rediscovered the old Kaministikwia route, first discovered by the French many years before, but afterwards abandoned. Became a partner of the North West Company, 1799; and signed the Montreal agreement of 1804 by which the X Y Company was absorbed by the North West Company. A year or two later retired from the fur trade, and began gathering material for a history of the North West Company. The work was never published, nor even completed, but many of the original journals which were to have formed its basis are included in Masson’s _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_. Others are among the manuscripts in the Public Archives of Canada and McGill University Library. Settled at Terrebonne, in Lower Canada, and became a member of the Legislative Council of the province. =Bib.=: _Reminiscences_ in Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Mackenzie, William Lyon= (1795-1861). Born at Springfield, Dundee, Scotland. In 1820 he emigrated to Canada, and entered into business at York (Toronto). Three years later he moved to Queenston where he opened a general store. In 1824 he began his work as a journalist by establishing the _Colonial Advocate_, and in its first number set forth the principles of constitutional reform to which he purposed to devote himself. His was then the westernmost newspaper in British North America. He advocated a non-sectarian provincial university and urged that the Clergy Reserves should be divided among all religious denominations. As early as 1824 he also urged the confederation of the British North American colonies. In 1825 he moved back to York, feeling that his paper had a better chance of success in the provincial capital. Strongly supported British connection and condemned annexation to the United States. He had already antagonized the authorities by his frank criticism, and in June, 1826, a mob broke into his office and wrecked the printing plant. Mackenzie brought action and got damages. Elected for York to the Assembly in 1828, and introduced his Thirty-One Resolutions calling for constitutional reform, became chairman of various committees, and took a very active part in the deliberations of the Legislature. In 1831 he was expelled from the Assembly because of alleged libels published in the _Colonial Advocate_. At the ensuing election he was re-elected for York, and again expelled. In 1832 he sailed for England, where he made the acquaintance of Cobbett, Joseph Hume, Lord Goderich, Earl Grey and Mr. Stanley, and discussed with them the political situation in Upper Canada. During his absence he was a third time re-elected, and expelled; and unanimously re-elected. He took the oath but was ejected from the House. In the general election of 1834, he was once more elected for York, and the political complexion of the Assembly having changed, was permitted to take his seat. In December he organized the Canadian Alliance Society (_q.v._). During the session of 1835 he moved for and secured a select committee on grievances, whose report was submitted to the king, and replied to by the colonial minister. In July, 1837, he brought out the first number of a newspaper, _The Constitution_, which ran to November of the same year. He had already been in correspondence with Papineau and had promised coöperation. He prepared a declaration of independence, proclaimed a provisional government, and organized the Rebellion. After the skirmish at Montgomery’s Tavern, he managed to escape to the United States, where he remained until the amnesty in 1849 made it possible for him to return to Canada. During his exile he published _Mackenzie’s Gazette_ and the _Examiner_, joined Horace Greeley’s staff on the New York _Tribune_, and found time to write and publish several books. In 1851 he was elected for Haldimand, and remained in the Assembly until 1858, when he finally retired from public life. From 1853 to 1860 he published a weekly paper _Mackenzie’s Message_. _See also_ Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada. =Bib.=: _Life and Times of Martin Van Buren_; _Life and Opinions of B. F. Butler_; _Sketches of Canada and the United States_. For biog., _see_ Lindsey, _Life and Times of W. L. Mackenzie_; Dent, _Can. Por._, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_ and _Last Forty Years_; King, _Other Side of the Story_; Read, _Rebellion of 1837_. =Mackinac Company.= Organized about 1784, apparently at the same time as the North West Company, and composed of much the same firms and individuals, although each contained members not in the other. Operated almost entirely in United States territory, from Cahokia in the south to the sources of the Mississippi, and by way of St. Peter’s river did a considerable trade in Spanish Louisiana, which at that time extended north to the Missouri, or was so claimed. The Mackinac Company operated through all of Wisconsin, northern Illinois, Iowa and most of Minnesota. After Mackinac was turned over to the Americans, the company continued to operate under the clause of Jay’s treaty relating to the fur trade. In 1811 John Jacob Astor bought out the interests of the Mackinac Company and merged it in the South West Company. The operations of the latter organization were suspended during the War of 1812-1814, and in 1816 it was reorganized as the American Fur Company. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii, 439-40; Johnson, _Michigan Fur Trade_. =MacLean, Colonel Allan= (1725-1784). Born in Scotland. Served in Holland, 1747. In 1757 with Montgomery’s Highlanders in America, and in 1761 major-commandant of the 114th Royal Highlanders. In 1775 lieutenant-colonel of the Royal Highland Emigrants. Served under Carleton in the defence of Quebec, 1775-1776. =Bib.=: Bradley, _The Making of Canada_; Lucas, _History of Canada_. =McLean, Archibald= (1791-1865). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to Canada with his father; educated at Cornwall Grammar School. In 1812 served in the war with the United States. After the war, called to the bar, and built up an extensive practice. For several years member for Stormont and Cornwall in the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada, of which he was twice elected Speaker. In 1837 judge of the Court of King’s Bench, and held the position till 1856. In 1862-1863 chief-justice of Upper Canada, and in 1864-1865 judge of the Court of Error and Appeal. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =McLean, John= (1828-1886). Born in Scotland. Educated at the University of Aberdeen; ordained priest, 1858, and became curate of St. Paul’s, London, Ontario. Removed to the Red River Settlement as archdeacon of Assiniboia, and professor in St. John’s College, 1866. Made bishop of Saskatchewan, 1874. Died at Prince Albert as the result of an accident. =Bib.=: Mockridge, _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_; Machray, _Life of Archbishop Machray_. =McLelan, A. W.= (1824-1890). Associated with Joseph Howe and others in the anti-Confederation movement. Appointed to the Canadian Senate in 1869 and sat there until 1881. In the latter year elected for Colchester to the House of Commons. Occupied successively the offices of president of the Council, minister of marine and fisheries, minister of finance and postmaster-general in the Dominion Cabinet, 1881-1888. Lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1888-1890. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Joseph Howe and the Anti-Confederation League_ (R. S. C., 1916). =McLeod, Alan Arnett.= Second Lieutenant, Royal Air Force. _Victoria Cross._ While flying with his observer, attacking hostile formations by bombs and machine-gun fire, he was attacked by eight enemy triplanes which dived at him from all directions. By skilful manœuvring he enabled his observer to fire bursts at each machine in turn, shooting three of them down out of control. By this time he had received five wounds. A bullet penetrated his petrol tank and set the machine on fire. He climbed out on to the left bottom plane, controlling his machine from the side of the fuselage, and by side-slipping steeply kept the flames to one side, thus enabling the observer to continue firing until the ground was reached. When the machine crashed in No-Man’s-Land, notwithstanding his own wounds, he dragged his observer away from the burning wreckage, under heavy machine-gun fire. Though again wounded by a bomb, he persevered until he had placed the observer in comparative safety, when he himself fell from exhaustion and loss of blood. =McLeod, Alexander N.= Montreal merchant. Associated with Gregory and others in opposition to the North West Company. When the X Y Company was absorbed by the North West Company in 1804 he refused to sign the agreement. Sometimes confused with Archibald Norman McLeod. =Bib.=: Davidson, _North West Company_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =McLeod, Alexander R.= Entered the service of the North West Company, and sent to the Peace River district. Transferred in 1809 to New Caledonia as a clerk under John Stuart. In charge of Rocky Mountain Portage, 1813. On the Columbia between 1825 and 1830. Promoted to chief factor, 1836. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =McLeod, Archibald Norman.= Entered the service of the North West Company some time before 1790. In charge of Fort Dauphin, 1799, and Swan River, 1800. Two years later removed to the Athabaska department, and remained there until 1809, when he took charge of New Caledonia. Had already become a partner of the Company, signing the agreement of 1804 as such. Took command of Fort Douglas after the Seven Oaks affair in 1816. Fort McLeod and McLeod lake in northern British Columbia named after him. =Bib.=: Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_; Davidson, _North West Company_. =McLeod, Donald= (1779-1879). Born in Scotland. Educated at Aberdeen University for the Church, but entered the navy, 1803, and the army, 1808. Served in the Peninsula under Sir John Moore, and in Canada during War of 1812-1814; wounded at the battles of Crysler’s Farm and Lundy’s Lane. Returned to Europe and fought at Waterloo. Came to Canada, 1816; opened a classical school at Prescott; began publication of the _Grenville Gazette_. Took part in the Rebellion of 1837, as a “major-general” in the insurgent army. Fled to the United States; arrested and tried at Detroit, but acquitted. Settled at Cleveland, Ohio, where he died. =Bib.=: _History of the Canadian Insurrection_. For biog., _see_ Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =McLeod, John= (1788-1849). Born in Scotland. Entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company; conducted Selkirk’s colonists from York Factory to the Red river, 1811; from that date to the union of the two fur companies in 1821, engaged in building trading posts and extending the operations of the Hudson’s Bay Company towards the Rocky mountains. Had taken a leading part in the long conflict between the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company, some account of which is given in his diary, 1814-1815, reproduced in part in Bryce’s _Hudson’s Bay Company_. On the union of the companies, given charge of the New Caledonia department, west of the mountains, where he remained for many years, finally retiring from the service, and spending the remainder of his days on the banks of the Ottawa. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =McLoughlin, John= (1784-1857). Born at Rivière du Loup. A grandson of Malcolm Fraser, seigneur of Mount Murray, who fought under Wolfe at Quebec, and whose interesting journal is printed in Wrong’s _Canadian Manor and its Seigneurs_. Studied medicine in Edinburgh; on his return to Canada joined the North West Company; stationed at Sault Ste. Marie in 1812; engaged for several years in the Rainy lake country; in charge of Fort William in 1821, when the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies were amalgamated, and appointed to take charge of the Columbia river department, 1823. Built Fort Vancouver, 1824, and made it the headquarters for the whole territory west of the mountains. Did more than any other man to strengthen the hold of the Company on the fur trade of the Pacific coast. For them he planned a fur trading empire extending from Alaska to California and the Sandwich Islands. Sent an expedition in 1824 to examine the country between the Columbia and the Fraser. Founded Fort Colville in 1825-1826, as a link in the communication between the Columbia and New Caledonia. Built Fort Langley, on the lower waters of the Fraser, in 1827, and Fort Simpson at the mouth of the Naas, in 1831. Sent some of his officers in 1833 to build Fort McLoughlin, on the coast north of Fort Simpson. He recognized the agricultural possibilities of Oregon and organized the Puget Sound Agricultural Society, as a subsidiary of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Through misunderstandings over his attitude towards the American settlers on the Columbia, retired from the Company’s service, 1846, and spent the rest of his life in Oregon City. He has been described as magnanimous and forgetful of self. If he inspired fear and awe it was for the Company he served. When his company’s interests, however, clashed with his sense of humanity, it was the company and his own fortunes that had to suffer. _See also_ Douglas; Fort Vancouver; Puget Sound Agricultural Society. =Bib.=: Holman, _Dr. John McLoughlin: the Father of Oregon_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Dye, _McLoughlin and Old Oregon_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =McMaster University.= Located at Toronto. Formed in 1887 from the union of Toronto Baptist College and Woodstock College. Mainly indebted for endowment to William McMaster. Woodstock College, Woodstock, and Moulton Ladies’ College, Toronto, are maintained in close connection. =McMillan, John= (1816-1886). Born in Scotland. Came to New Brunswick, 1832. Represented Restigouche in the Assembly, 1857-1867; surveyor-general, 1861-1865; postmaster-general, 1867-1868; inspector of post offices for New Brunswick, 1868-1886. A strong advocate of Confederation. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =MacNab, Sir Allan Napier= (1798-1862). Born at Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake). His father, Allan MacNab, was a lieutenant of cavalry in the Queen’s Rangers under Colonel Simcoe; accompanied him to Upper Canada, and became sergeant-at-arms of the Assembly. On the American invasion of Canada, the son served first as a midshipman under Sir James Yeo; joined the 100th Regiment under Colonel Murray, took part in the storming and capture of Niagara, was made an ensign in the 49th Regiment and served under General Riall at Fort Erie. Later took part in the attack on Plattsburg, commanding the advanced guard at the Sarnac bridge. In 1826 he was called to the bar of Upper Canada and practised in Hamilton. In 1829 he was first elected for Wentworth county to the Assembly, and during 1837-1841 Speaker of the House. Took an active part in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837-1838, and was knighted for his services. Sir Archibald Alison, in his _History of Europe_, speaking of MacNab’s association with the capture of the _Caroline_, as part of the suppression of the Rebellion in Upper Canada says: “This bold act, which reflected equal honour on the judgment and courage of Colonel MacNab, was decisive of the present fate of British North America.” After the union of Upper and Lower Canada he became Conservative leader and was elected Speaker of the House, 1844-1848, and again in 1862. Voted against the Rebellion Losses bill. Premier, 1854, and resigned, 1856. Created a baronet, 1858. One of the last survivors of the old Tories. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Sabine, _Loyalists_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =McNab, of McNab, Archibald= (1775-1860). Last of the chiefs of the Clan McNab. Known as The McNab. Born at Kinnel House, Killin, Perthshire, Scotland. Came to Canada with a part of his clan in 1825, and settled on the upper Ottawa river, some distance above the present city of Ottawa. His feudal control was so extreme that there were constant quarrels between the Laird and his tenants, which became so troublesome that the government in 1842 finally bought out his rights for $16,000. McNab moved to Hamilton where he lived until 1852, when he returned to Scotland to take over a small estate left to him in the Orkneys. He died in France. He was an old-fashioned Tory in politics, and a warm friend of Sir Francis Bond Head, to whom in 1837 he wrote offering the support of “the only Highland chieftain in America” and his clan. Sir Allan MacNab was a relative. =Bib.=: Scadding, _Toronto of Old_; Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =MacNab, James.= A member of Lord Falkland’s Council in Nova Scotia, 1840. He retired, and was again offered a seat in the Executive Council in 1846 but declined. Member of the Uniacke government, 1848, and receiver-general. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Macoun, John= (1831-1920). Came to Canada in 1850. Professor of botany and geology at Albert College, Belleville, Ontario, 1868-1879. Accompanied Sandford Fleming on his overland journey to British Columbia, described in Grant’s _Ocean to Ocean_. Carried out explorations for the Dominion government, 1879. Appointed botanist to the Geological Survey of Canada, 1882; assistant director and naturalist, 1887. Was a charter member of the Royal Society of Canada, and a fellow of the Linnæan Society. Accompanied the British Association to the Rocky mountains in 1884. Prepared catalogues of Canadian plants and birds. =Bib.=: _Manitoba and the Great North-West_; _The Forests of Canada and their Distribution_; _The Yukon Country_; _Autobiography_. =Macpherson, Sir David Lewis= (1818-1896). Born in Scotland. Came to Canada, 1835. In 1842 entered business in Montreal; in 1851 he, with others, obtained a charter for a railway from Montreal to Kingston, and was associated with the construction of other lines; formed the Inter-Oceanic Railway Company for the purpose of constructing the projected Canadian Pacific Railway, but the contract was given to the syndicate headed by Sir Hugh Allan. In 1864-1867 a member of the Legislative Council of Canada; in 1867 appointed to the Senate; Speaker, 1880; member of the Cabinet without portfolio; minister of the interior, 1883-1885; knighted, 1884. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_. =McTavish, Simon= (1750-1804). Born in the Highlands of Scotland. A man of “enormous energy and decision of character.” Settled at Montreal. Engaged in the fur trade soon after the cession of Canada to England, and was chiefly instrumental in organizing the North West Company, 1784. He was not generally popular. Known as _le Marquis_ and _le Premier_ because of his haughty temper and domineering spirit. He and Alexander Mackenzie cordially disliked each other, and it was not until after McTavish’s death that the X Y and North West Companies could be brought together. Purchased the seigniory of Terrebonne; entertained in princely style at his home in Montreal; and at the time of his death was engaged in building a huge mansion at the foot of Mount Royal. =Bib.=: Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Davidson, _North West Company_. =McTavish, William.= Chief factor in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1851. He was the last governor of Assiniboia under the Company. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Madras Schools.= Founded by Joseph Lancaster, and established in 1818 in New Brunswick. The system depended for its success on the use of monitors who were selected among the senior pupils to instruct the younger. Superseded by the free school system in 1872. =Bib.=: Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =Mafeking, Battle of.= In South African War, 1900. Canadian participation in the relief of Mafeking was confined pretty much to the artillery. By a forced march and skilful handling of their guns, the Canadians contributed very materially to the success of the engagement. They succeeded, after a protracted artillery duel, in dislodging the Boer guns, and the relieving column found the way clear into Mafeking. The battery, according to Lord Roberts, had done essential work after a march of “incredible rapidity.” =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great War_, vol. i. =Magazines.= Among the earliest magazines published in what is now Canada were the _Nova Scotia Magazine_, Halifax, 1789; the _Quebec Magazine_, Quebec, 1791-1793; _L’Abeille Canadienne_, Quebec, 1818-1819; the _Canadian Review_, 1824-1826; the _Bibliothéque Canadienne_, Montreal, 1825; _Literary Garland_, Montreal, 1838; _Acadian Magazine_, Halifax, 1826; and the _Revue Canadienne_, 1845. There have been several periodicals bearing the name of _Canadian Magazine_, the earliest published at Montreal in 1823; a second published at Toronto in 1833; another at Toronto, 1871; and the present periodical of the same name, which dates from 1893. Of the earlier magazines, the _Literary Garland_ and the _Revue Canadienne_ alone lived for any considerable time, the former having been published for over thirteen and the latter for seventy-eight years. _See also_ Canadian Historical Review; Revue Canadienne; Dalhousie Review; University Magazine. =Bib.=: Hopkins, _Canada: An Ency._, vol. v. =Magdalen Islands.= In Gulf of St. Lawrence. Uncertain who first discovered the group. They were known for many years as the Isles Ramées, or Ramea. This name first appears in narratives of voyages to the Gulf in 1590-1597, in Hakluyt. Champlain applied the present name to what is now known as Amherst Island, in the 1632 edition of his _Voyages_. It was afterwards given to the whole group. The islands, which had hitherto formed part of New France, were annexed to Newfoundland in 1763, and transferred to Quebec by the Quebec Act. The Union Act of 1840 provided for their annexation to Prince Edward Island, but the intention was not carried out and they remained in Quebec, and form part of the county of Gaspé. From 1789 to 1875 the family of Admiral Coffin were proprietors of the islands. In the latter year Quebec purchased their rights. =Bib.=: Ganong, _Cartography of Gulf of St. Lawrence_ (R. S. C., 1889); Clarke, _Heart of Gaspé_; Douglas, _Place Names in the Magdalen Islands_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Mail and Empire.= Toronto newspaper. The _Mail_ was founded in 1872 as a Conservative newspaper, with T. C. Patterson, a brilliant journalist, as its first editor, who made it a political power. In 1877 it passed into the hands of John Riordan and C. W. Bunting. Under their control its policy became more independent. As a consequence, and at the instance of Sir John Macdonald, the _Empire_ was established in 1887 as a Conservative government organ. In 1895 the two papers amalgamated, and the combined newspaper has since been recognized as the principal Conservative newspaper in Ontario. Martin J. Griffin, afterwards librarian of Parliament, edited the _Mail_ from 1880 to 1885. Edward Farrar was for a time a member of the staff, and Goldwin Smith was one of its contributors. =Bib.=: Hopkins, _Review of Canadian Journalism_, in _Canada: An Ency._ =Maillard, Antoine Simon.= Missionary to the Indians and French of Acadia and Cape Breton, 1734. Vicar-general at Louisbourg for several years. Invited by the governor of Nova Scotia to settle at Halifax, 1759. At first opposed British supremacy, but afterwards became a strong supporter of the government. Died in Halifax, 1768. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Maine Boundary.= By the Proclamation of 1763, the boundary between what was then Nova Scotia and Maine was assumed to be the St. Croix river and a due north line from its source to the height of land. The boundary between the colony of Quebec and New York was fixed at latitude 45°, and it is so laid down in the above Proclamation. The Treaty of Peace, 1783, gives the north-eastern boundary as the St. Croix to its source, the height of land, and the 45th parallel to the St. Lawrence. When attempts were made to define this more precisely in 1798, by the commissioners under the Jay treaty, serious differences in interpretation arose. The decision was referred to the king of the Netherlands, whose award, given in 1831, was not accepted by the United States Senate. The boundary was finally fixed by the Ashburton treaty, 1842. The different lines contended for, and the boundaries as awarded by the king of the Netherlands and fixed by the Ashburton treaty are clearly shown on p. 59 of the _Atlas of Canada_ and Egerton’s _Historical Geography of Canada_, p. 32. The area in dispute was 12,027 square miles. Of this, under the award of the king of the Netherlands, Canada would have got 4,119 square miles and the United States, 7,908. By the Ashburton treaty, Canada got 5,012 and the United States 7,015 square miles, or 893 square miles less than they refused to accept in 1831. The boundary through the islands in the Bay of Fundy was settled in 1817, as shown also on p. 59 of the _Atlas of Canada_. =Bib.=: White, _Boundary Disputes and Treaties_ in _Canada and its Provinces_. =Mair, Charles= (1840-). Born in Lanark, Ontario. Educated at Queen’s University, Kingston. Paymaster for the Dominion government at Fort Garry, 1868; captured by the rebels in Riel’s first rising, 1869; condemned to death, but escaped. In the second rising, 1885, served as quartermaster of the Governor-General’s Body Guard. He had made a trip to Ottawa in a vain attempt to make the authorities realize the seriousness of the situation. In 1893, appointed Canadian government immigration agent in charge of the Lethbridge district, Southern Alberta. He has been described as a walking encyclopædia on the early history of the Canadian west. Retired and made his home in Calgary, and afterwards in Victoria. =Bib.=: Works: _Dreamland and other Poems_; _Tecumseh: a Drama_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =Maisonneuve, Paul de Chomedy, Sieur de.= In this “devout and valiant gentleman,” as Parkman says, lived again the spirit of Godfrey de Bouillon, leader of the first Crusade. He had seen much service in European wars, before the opportunity came to consecrate his sword to the church in Canada. A group of enthusiasts in France had obtained a grant of the Island of Montreal from Lauson and the Company of New France, and purposed to establish there a religious colony, of which Maisonneuve was appointed governor. Sailed from Rochelle, in 1641, with a company of soldiers and artisans; wintered at Quebec; and on the eighteenth of May, 1642, landed on the same spot where Champlain had stood thirty-one years before. Here he and his men set to work to build a chapel, fort, and their simple habitations, thereby laying the foundation of the future city of Montreal. Was for twenty-two years governor of Montreal, but through the jealousy of De Mézy, governor-general of Canada, was recalled to France by Marquis De Tracy in 1664. Though no charges were made against him he found no possibility of reinstatement in office and resigned in 1669; died in 1676. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_ and _Old Régime_; Faillon, _La Colonie Française_; Dollier de Casson, _Histoire de Montréal_; Rousseau, _Paul de Chomedy, Histoire et Vie_. =Maitland, Sir Peregrine= (1777-1854). Born in Hampshire, England. Entered the army, 1792. Served in Flanders, 1794-1798; in Spain, 1809 and 1812; promoted major-general, 1814; took part in the battle of Waterloo and made a K. C. B. for his services. Lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1818-1828; and lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1828-1834. He granted a charter to King’s College, the oldest of English colleges in British North America. Commander-in-chief of the Madras army, 1836-1838; and governor and commander-in-chief at the Cape of Good Hope, 1844-1847. Knighted, 1852. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Read, _The Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Malartic, Anne Joseph Hyppolite, Count de= (1730-1800). Born in France. In 1745 entered the army; and in 1749 came to Quebec as assistant major. In 1756 served under Montcalm, and took part in all his campaigns; bore a conspicuous part in the siege of Quebec, 1759-1760, and severely wounded at the battle of Ste. Foy; served on the American side in the War of Independence. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_. =Malaspina, Alexandro= (1754-1809). A celebrated naval officer in the service of Spain. Walbran calls him “the most romantic figure among the navigators of the north Pacific.” In 1789 he sailed from Spain in command of a scientific and exploring expedition around the world. He had two vessels, the _Descubierta_ and the _Atrevida_. He spent the summer of 1791 exploring the north-west coast of America. Sailing from Nootka in September, he followed the coast down to Monterey, then across the Pacific to the Philippines, Australia and New Zealand, returning to Europe by way of Cape Horn. He was back at Cadiz in September, 1794. Shortly afterwards he seems to have become involved in some political quarrel or conspiracy, and was imprisoned at Corunna until 1803, when the Emperor Napoleon secured his release. He spent the remainder of his life in Italy. Malaspina Inlet, Malaspina Strait and Malaspina Point named after him. The curious Galiano gallery on Gabriola Island is near Malaspina Point. =Bib.=: Malaspina’s _Journals_, edited by Pedro de Novo y Colson, were published in Madrid, 1885; Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. _Malden._ _See_ Amherstburg. _Maligne Lake._ In Jasper Park, Canadian Rockies, discharging by Maligne river into the Athabaska. About twenty miles long, and one of the most beautiful lakes in the Rocky mountains. The name was originally applied to the river, and will be understood by anyone who has had occasion to travel up or down its banks before the present excellent trail was built. It is far from appropriate as applied to the lake. It was apparently first visited and described by Mrs. Mary T. S. Schäffer in 1908. =Bib.=: Schäffer, _Old Indian Trails of the Canadian Rockies_. _Mance, Jeanne_ (1606-1673). Born at Nogent-le-Roi. Filled with the prevailing enthusiasm for missionary work in Canada, she, in 1640, journeyed to Rochelle, intending to embark for the New World. At Rochelle met Dauversière and others interested in the project of a missionary settlement at Montreal, and determined to throw in her lot with them. Sailed to Quebec with Maisonneuve, and spent the winter there with the Ursulines. In May, 1642, the colonists ascended the river, having gained another convert at Quebec in the person of Madame de la Peltrie. The following year a hospital was built at Montreal, with money supplied by Madame de Bullion. Jeanne Mance was put in charge, and devoted the remainder of her life to ministering to the sick, native as well as white. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Faillon, _Vie de Mlle. Mance_; Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_. _Mandan Indians._ A Siouan tribe, whose home was on the banks of the Missouri when white men first visited them. They seem to have lived at some remote period in the neighbourhood of the upper Mississippi. The first recorded visit is that of La Vérendrye in 1738, who describes them and their villages in his journal of that year. In 1742 two of the sons of La Vérendrye visited the Mandans. Their manners and customs, villages, ceremonies, etc., were afterwards described by Lewis and Clark, who visited them in 1804, by David Thompson, Alexander Henry, Prince Maximilian of Weid and George Catlin. René Jussaume, a French-Canadian fur trader, seems to have visited them in 1791. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Expedition of Lewis and Clark_; Coues, _Henry-Thompson Journals_; Tyrrell, _Thompson’s Narrative_; Catlin, _North American Indians_; Maximilian, _Travels_; Burpee, _Journals of La Vérendrye_. _Manitoba._ Area, 231,926 square miles. Population by census of 1921, was 610,118. The province was created in 1870, the old Red River Settlement, founded by Lord Selkirk, forming the nucleus. The name is a contraction of the Cree word _Manitowaban_, and is said to mean _The God that speaks_. La Vérendrye and his sons were the first white men to set foot within what now forms the province. They built Fort Maurepas, at the mouth of Winnipeg river; Fort Rouge, at the mouth of the Assiniboine; and Fort la Reine, near present Portage la Prairie. They afterwards built Fort Dauphin, at the foot of Lake Winnipegosis; and Forts Bourbon and Pasquia on the Saskatchewan. The later history of the region is one of exploration and the fur trade, of the gradual development of settlement, the coming of the railways, and the reign of wheat. _See also_ La Vérendrye; Red River Colony; Fort Garry; Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870; Winnipeg. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Manitoba_; Gunn and Tuttle, _History of Manitoba_; Begg, _History of the North-West_; Bryce, _Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; Hargrave, _Red River_; Ross, _Red River Settlement_; Schofield, _Story of Manitoba_; Burpee, _Journals of La Vérendrye_. =Manitoba, Lake.= South-west of Lake Winnipeg. Area, 1,817 square miles. Bishop Taché, in his _Sketch of the North-West of America_, says that the name is a corruption of _Manitowapaw_, meaning straits of Manitou, or extraordinary or supernatural straits. The lake appears as _Lac des Cignes_ on one of La Vérendrye’s maps. The first white men to see the lake were probably the sons of La Vérendrye. Fort la Reine was built by La Vérendrye on the portage from the Assiniboine to Lake Manitoba. At a later date the North West Company had trading posts on or near the lake. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Manitoulin Island.= A large island on the north side of Lake Huron. The name is said to be a corruption of the Algonquian word _Manitowin_, derived from Manitou, the “Great Spirit.” It is possible that Étienne Brûlé may have been the first white man to see the island, about 1620. In the next fifty years or so it was seen and probably landed upon by many explorers, missionaries and fur traders, on their way to Lake Superior, Lake Michigan and the Mississippi. Lahontan says in his _Voyages_: “Après avoir traversé plusiers iles peu considérables, nous en trouvames le quatrième jour une fameuse nommée l’Ile de Manitoulin.” The Indians arranged a gigantic moose hunt here for St. Lusson, on his way to Sault Ste. Marie in 1670. Thomas Moore refers to the island in some verses addressed to Lady Charlotte Rawdon, and says in a footnote: “Manataulin signifies a place of spirits, and this island in Lake Huron is held sacred by the Indians.” =Mansel Island.= In Hudson Bay, near the entrance to Hudson Straits. Named by Sir Thomas Button after Vice-Admiral Sir Robert Mansel (1573-1653), treasurer of the navy. Button married Mansel’s niece. The usual course of vessels entering and leaving the Bay is between Mansel and Coats Islands. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Manson, Donald.= Engaged in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, west of the Rocky mountains. Led three brigades from the Columbia to Langley on the Eraser, 1848. Appointed a justice of the peace. He is said to have established the first circulating library on the Pacific coast. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Mantet, Nicholas d’Ailleboust, Sieur de= (1663-1709). In 1689 defeated the Iroquois at the Lake of the Two Mountains; and in 1690 led an expedition against Schenectady. Killed during an attack on Fort St. Anne, Hudson Bay. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Maps.= Of cartographers of New France, the principal were Nicolas Sanson d’Abbeville, Geographe du Roi, Jean Baptiste Louis Franquelin, Hydrographe du Roi, Guillaume de l’Isle, Geographe du Roi, Joseph Nicolas de l’Isle, Philippe Buache, and Nicolas Bellin. One of the earliest cartographers whose maps included Canada during the British period was Thomas Jeffreys. Others were John Mitchell, Samuel Dunn, Thomas Kitchin, Joseph Bouchette, John Arrowsmith. The greatest of all surveyors and map-makers of what is to-day western Canada was David Thompson. Much of his work was incorporated in the maps of Arrowsmith and others without acknowledgment. In more recent times, the making of surveys, maps and charts has been mainly by officers of the Geological Survey of Canada, the Topographical Survey of Canada, the Geodetic Survey of Canada, and the Hydrographic Survey of Canada. Many important maps have also been prepared by the various International and Interprovincial Boundary Commissions. Collections of maps relating to Canada will be found in the public Archives of Canada, the Library of Parliament, the office of the Chief Geographer of Canada, the Library of Congress, the British Museum, and the principal provincial and university libraries in Canada. =Bib.=: Marcel, _Cartographie de la Nouvelle France_; Bellin, _Remarques sur la carte de l’Amérique septentrionale_; Phillips, _List of Maps of America in the Library of Congress_; Winsor, _The Kohl Collection of Maps relating to America_; “Notes on Maps,” in _Documents relating to the Boundaries of Ontario_; _Atlas of Canada_; Burpee, _Historical Atlas of Canada_; Harrisse, _Notes pour servir... à la cartographie de la Nouvelle France_. =Marchand, Étienne= (1755-1793). Engaged in the trade between the West Indies and North and South America. In 1790 sailed from Marseilles on a voyage of trade and exploration, in which he made careful surveys of the coast of Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia, visited the islands of Polynesia, sailed up the west coast of America, visited China and Siberia, and finally returned to Europe, 1792. In the course of this voyage he explored part of what is to-day the coast of British Columbia. =Bib.=: _Voyage autour du Monde_, ed. by Fluerien. For biog., _see Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Marchand, Félix Gabriel= (1832-1900). Born in St. Johns, Quebec. Educated at St. Hyacinthe College. Elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, 1867; provincial secretary, 1878-1879; commissioner of crown lands, 1879; speaker of the Assembly, 1887-1892; premier of Quebec, 1897. For many years proprietor and editor of _Le Franco-Canadien_. =Bib.=: Works: _Manuel et Formulaire du Notariat_; _Fatenville_; _Erreur n’est pas Compte_; _Un Bonheur en Attire un Autre_; _Les Faux Brillants_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Maret, Gabriel= (1662-1714). Came to Canada from France as a missionary in 1694, and the same year accompanied Iberville from Quebec to Hudson Bay with the frigates _Poli_ and _Salamandre_. Toward the end of September they reached the mouth of the Nelson and entered it. In November the Hudson’s Bay Company’s fort surrendered. In September, 1695, Iberville sailed away to France, leaving a garrison behind; Maret decided to remain. Shortly afterward a British fleet appeared in the bay, recaptured the fort, and carried the missionary away to England, where he spent several months in prison, and on his release crossed over to France. He returned to Canada, and in 1712 was stationed at Kaskaskia. There he spent two years, teaching the Indians not only to be Christians, but also to cultivate the soil and raise live stock. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Marganne.= _See_ La Valtrie. =Marie de l’Incarnation, Marie Martin=, _née_ =Guyart= (1599-1672). Born at Tours, France. Married early, and was left a widow after two years, with an only child. For twelve years devoted herself to his education, and then entered the Ursuline convent at Tours; in 1639 accompanied Madame de la Peltrie to Canada, and became the first superior of the Ursuline convent at Quebec. Her _Lettres Historiques_, written for the edification of her son Claude Martin, form one of the most valuable sources of information on the history of the period. They are a mine of information on such men and incidents as Laval, Dollard, the famous earthquake, Fenélon, Talon, the manners and customs of the early Canadians, and the Indians. Composed a catechism in Huron, three in Algonquian and a dictionary of French and Algonquian. =Bib.=: _Lettres de la Vénérable Mère Marie de l’Incarnation_; Martin, _La Vie de la Vénérable Mère Marie de l’Incarnation_; Charlevoix. _Vie de Mère Marie de l’Incarnation_; Casgrain, _Vie de Mère Marie de l’Incarnation_; _Life of Marie de l’Incarnation_, by a Religious of the Ursuline Community; Sulte, _La Mère Marie de l’Incarnation_ (R. S. C., 1900); Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_. =Marin, Pierre Paul= (1692-1753). A well-known French trader in the west. In 1727 he was stationed at the trading post among the Sioux, and in 1730 was among the Folles Avoines in what is now Wisconsin. After working in 1739 and 1740 at Rock River and La Baye, he spent part of 1741 in France. In 1745 he commanded an expedition against Saratoga, and in 1747 was in command at St. Joseph’s River. In 1750 he was sent to re-occupy the post among the Sioux, and in 1752 was put in charge of the Ohio country, where he built Fort le Bœuf. He died there and was succeeded by Saint-Pierre. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Colls._, xvii, 315. =Maritime Provinces.= _See_ New Brunswick; Nova Scotia; Prince Edward Island; Cape Breton. =Maritime Union.= Proposals for the union of the Maritime Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, with the possible inclusion also of Newfoundland, have been brought forward from time to time. In a letter to Chief-Justice Sewell in 1814, the Duke of Kent proposed a union of the Maritime Provinces or Colonies as preliminary to a general union of the British possessions in North America. Annapolis Royal or Windsor was to be the capital of the Maritime Union. In 1858 Nova Scotian delegates discussed the idea with Mr. Labouchere, then colonial secretary, who was favourable. Nothing more was done at the time, but in 1864, as a result of resolutions introduced in the Nova Scotia Assembly by Joseph Howe, in that of New Brunswick by Leonard Tilley, and in that of Prince Edward Island by J. H. Pope, delegates from the three colonies met in Charlottetown to consider the question of Maritime Union. The appearance of representatives of the Canadian Legislature with proposals for a larger confederation, killed the movement for Maritime Union. The idea was revived in 1925 by H. J. Logan, M.P. for Cumberland, as a means of overcoming the commercial and industrial depression in the Maritime Provinces. A similar project, in the field of education, was the proposed Maritime University, to include all the existing universities and colleges in the three provinces. Nothing came of it beyond the union of Dalhousie and King’s. =Marquette, Jacques Lésperance= (1637-1675). Born at Laon, in the north of France. Joined the Society of Jesus about 1654, and sailed for Canada, 1666. Sent to the Upper Lakes in 1668, he was one of the founders of the mission at Sault Ste. Marie, and spent 1669 at Chequamegon, south shore of Lake Superior, with the Ottawas. Founded the Michilimackinac mission to the Hurons, 1671. He was gifted as a linguist, having mastered six Indian languages. At Michilimackinac he heard from the Illinois of a great river flowing far to the south, and was filled with an ardent desire to explore it. His opportunity came two years later, when he was chosen by the Intendant Talon to accompany Louis Jolliet on his memorable exploration of the Mississippi, 1673. Descending the river to the mouth of the Arkansas, and satisfying themselves that it flowed neither into the Atlantic nor the Gulf of California, but into the Gulf of Mexico, they returned to Green Bay, arriving in September, 1673. Marquette remained at the mission of De Père until 1675, when he established a mission at Kaskaskia, on the Illinois. His strength had been broken by the difficult journey of 1673, and on his return from Kaskaskia to Michilimackinac, he died at the mouth of the Marquette river, on the shore of Lake Michigan, May 18th, 1675. In the winter of 1676 his bones were brought to Michilimackinac and buried there. _See also_ Jolliet. =Bib.=: Shea, _Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley_; Griffin, _Discovery of the Mississippi_; Parkman, _La Salle_; Breese, _Early History of Illinois_; Sparks, _American Biography_, ser. 1, vol. x. Photographic facsimile of Marquette’s unfinished autograph journal, 1674-1675, from the original manuscript in the archives of St. Mary’s College, Montreal, is in _Wis. Hist. Coll._, vol. xvi, pp. 96-97; and of his manuscript map accompanying the journal of 1673, p. 88. =Marriage.= The first marriage in Canada is said to have been that of Étienne Couillard and Anne Hébert at Quebec in 1617. In Upper Canada, for the first few years, marriages were made by the officers commanding the different military posts, or their adjutants. After 1784, the ceremony was usually performed by a justice of the peace, until clergyman began to arrive in the settlements. At the second session of the Assembly, 1793, an Act was passed legalizing all marriages contracted irregularly in the province in the past, and providing that in future the ceremony might be performed by a justice of the peace, if a clergyman of the Church of England were not available. In 1796 Simcoe was petitioned to allow ministers of the various religious bodies to solemnize marriage, but he refused. It was not until 1830 that the restriction was entirely removed, although in 1827 the privilege had been extended to clergymen of the Church of Scotland. In New Brunswick a somewhat similar situation prevailed up to 1834, when the restrictions were removed. In the west, in the days of the fur trade, it was the custom to take Indian wives, by a sort of common law marriage, and they were usually left behind when the trader finally retired to the civilized east. Harmon was a notable exception. Although he had never been formally married to his Indian wife, he took her and their children back with him to Lower Canada. Conolly of New Caledonia had an Indian wife, and when he left the fur country he married again. As the result of a lawsuit after his death, the first marriages in such cases were declared binding and the children legitimate. =Marshall, John George= (1786-1880). Born in Nova Scotia. Educated at Halifax, and called to the bar, 1808. Represented Sydney in the Nova Scotia Assembly, 1811-1823. Subsequently appointed chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas. Died in Halifax. =Bib.=: _Brief History of Events in Nova Scotia during the Earliest Years of the Present Century_. =Marsolet, Nicolas= (1587-1677). Came to Canada from France about 1608 with Champlain, and for many years an interpreter for the Montagnais and Algonquian tribes. In 1629, when Kirke took Quebec, he deserted to the English. Champlain reproached him as one who had sold his country. He afterwards returned to his own people and, according to Dionne, became a good citizen. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Martial Law.= Canada kept under, for four years after the Conquest, but the law was not strictly enforced by Murray. Declared by Sir Guy Carleton in 1775; and by Major-General De Rottenburg in Upper Canada in 1813. In February, 1814, the Legislature of the province adopted a resolution condemning De Rottenburg’s action as arbitrary and unconstitutional. The law was revoked by Gordon Drummond in April, 1814. An opinion by Chief-Justice Monk, dated July, 1812, on the limitations of martial law, will be found in Doughty and McArthur, _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_, p. 432. =Martin, Abraham= (1589-1664). He is said to have been born in Scotland. Came to Canada in 1614, from France, having married Marguerite Langlois the previous year. Engaged as a pilot at Quebec. In 1635 granted lands on the heights of Quebec by the Hundred Associates, and in 1648 and 1652 received further gifts of land from Adrien Duchesne. Plains of Abraham named after him. In 1923 a monument was erected to his memory on the water-front at Quebec. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _Fight for Canada_. =Martin (or Marten), Sir Henry= (1562-1641). Born in London. Educated at Oxford. Sent to the Palatinate, 1613; chancellor of London diocese, 1616; judge of the Admiralty Court, 1617-1641. A member of the Court of High Commission, 1620-1641. One of the commissioners appointed to negotiate a settlement in Canadian affairs between England and France, 1629-1630. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Martin, Joseph= (1852-1923). Born in Milton, Ontario. Educated at the public schools and at the Toronto Normal School. Taught school for a time; studied law at Ottawa; removed to Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, 1882, and the same year called to the bar of Manitoba. Member of the Manitoba Assembly, 1883-1892; attorney-general, 1888-1891; carried through the Act abolishing separate schools in Manitoba, 1890. In 1891 contested Selkirk for the House of Commons, but defeated; elected for Winnipeg, 1893, but defeated, 1896. Removed to British Columbia, 1897; elected to the British Columbia Assembly for Vancouver; subsequently attorney-general and premier of the province. Removed to England, 1909, and in the same year contested Stratford-on-Avon for the British House of Commons, but defeated; elected to represent East St. Pancras, London, 1910. Advocated the abolition of the House of Lords, and also unrestricted reciprocity of trade between Canada and the United States. Died at Vancouver. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_; Ewart, _The Manitoba School Question_. =Martinez, Estévan José.= Accompanied Perez to north-west coast in 1773 as pilot. In 1788 sent again to the north-west coast as joint commander with De Haro of an expedition to watch the operations of the Russians; the following year again sent north from Mexico in command of the _Princessa_. Claimed Nootka by right of conquest, but the claim was disputed. Also asserted Spanish sovereignty over the Pacific. Seized the _Iphigenia_ at Nootka, but afterwards released it; fortified Hog Island near Friendly Cove, and took formal possession of Nootka; also seized several other vessels at Nootka, and imprisoned Captain Colnett. After carrying out some local explorations returned to Mexico. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_. =Mascarène, Paul= (1684-1760). Born at Castres, in Languedoc, France. Educated at Geneva, and afterwards went to England; naturalized, 1706. Entered the army, 1708; accompanied his regiment to America, 1710; took part in the capture of Port Royal. Became lieutenant-colonel of Philipps’s regiment, and a member of the Council of Nova Scotia. Lieutenant-governor of Annapolis, 1740, and administrator of the government of the province until the arrival of Governor Cornwallis, 1749. Defended Annapolis against Du Vivier, 1744. Retired from active service on account of advancing age; gazetted major-general. Lived in Boston until his death. _See also_ Acadians, Expulsion of the. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Mascouten Indians.= An Algonquian tribe. The name means “Little prairie people.” They were known to the French as _Nation du feu_. First mentioned by Champlain in 1616; Perrot visited their village, near Fox River, Wisconsin, some time before 1669. They were also known to Allouez in 1670, and to Marquette in 1673. Always a small tribe, they disappeared entirely before the end of the eighteenth century. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Masères, Francis= (1731-1824). Born in London, of Huguenot descent. Educated at Cambridge. In 1766 appointed attorney-general of Quebec, holding the position until 1769. Conducted prosecution in the Walker case (_q.v._). Was called upon to report on a system of law for the country. Went to England and opposed Carleton’s views on question of Canadian laws. Called as a witness when the Quebec Act was under consideration by the British Parliament. Returned again to England; was cursitor baron of the Exchequer, 1773-1824; and in 1780 became senior judge of the Sheriff’s Court, London. =Bib.=: Works: _Account of the Proceedings of the British and other Protestant Inhabitants of the Province of Quebec, in Order to Obtain an House of Assembly_; _Additional Papers Concerning the Province of Quebec_; _Canadian Freeholder_; _Collection of Commissions, etc., Relating to the Province of Quebec_; _Occasional Essays_. For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_. =Massé, Enemond= (1574-1646). Born in France. Entered the Society of Jesus, 1596. In 1611 went to Port Royal (Annapolis); and later to Mount Desert Island, where he established a mission and built a fort. In 1613 Captain Samuel Argall (_q.v._) attacked the fort, and Massé and most of the colonists were taken prisoners. In 1614 went to France; returned in 1625, and spent the remainder of his life in mission work among the Algonquians and Montagnais. Taken prisoner at Quebec in 1629, but afterwards released. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Parkman, _Old Régime_; Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Masson, Louis François Rodrigue= (1833-1903). Born at Terrebonne. Entered Parliament in 1867 as member for Terrebonne; minister of militia and defence, 1878; president of the Council, 1880; called to the Senate, 1882; lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1884; again called to the Senate, 1890. He came of a fur trading family, and devoted some years to the collection and editing of journals and other documents relating to the fur trade. =Bib.=: _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Matheson, Samuel Pritchard= (1852-). Born at Kildonan, Manitoba. Educated at St. John’s College, Winnipeg. Ordained deacon, 1875; priest, 1876. Became canon, St. John’s Cathedral, Winnipeg, 1882; dean of Rupert’s Land, 1902; prolocutor of the Provincial Synod of Rupert’s Land, 1883-1902; prolocutor of the General Synod of Canada, 1902. Was successively master of St. John’s College School, deputy headmaster and headmaster; deputy warden, warden, and chancellor of St. John’s College. Became coadjutor-bishop of Rupert’s Land, 1903; bishop of Rupert’s Land, metropolitan of the ecclesiastical province, and archbishop, 1905. Elected primate of all Canada, 1909. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Mathews, Peter.= His father was a United Empire Loyalist who settled in the county of York, near Toronto. The son served under Brock in the War of 1812-1814. For his complicity in the Rebellion of 1837-1838 he was executed, 1838. Sympathisers in 1903 erected a monument to Mathews and William Lount (_q.v._), in the Necropolis at Toronto. =Bib.=: Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Mathews, Robert.= Came out with Haldimand as his English secretary. Married Mary Simpson, with whom Nelson had been infatuated at Quebec. Returned to England with Haldimand in 1784. Returned to Canada as aide-de-camp to Dorchester. In 1787 became lieutenant-governor of Detroit. Afterwards governor of Chelsea hospital, where he died. =Bib.=: McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_. =Maurelle, Francisco Antonio.= Sailed to the north-west coast with Quadra in 1775, and again in 1779. Embodied the results of the explorations in several charts of the coast with explanatory text, which were published in Mexico and also in London. His journal of the 1775 expedition published in Barrington’s _Miscellany_, 1781. Commanded the _Princessa_, 1781-1782, on a voyage from Manila to San Blas. Maurelle Island named after him. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_; Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Greenhow, _History of Oregon_. =Mavor, James= (1854-1925). Born at Stanraer, Scotland. His school-days were spent in Glasgow, where he came in contact with Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Attended lectures at the University of Glasgow, but illness prevented him from proceeding to a degree. At first interested in mechanical science, he turned to economics and became professor of that subject in St. Mungo’s College. In 1892 he became professor of economics in the University of Toronto, and remained in that position until his retirement in 1924. An omnivorous reader, blessed with a marvellous memory, and a wide traveller, his mind became almost encyclopædic in its range. Took a deep interest in the Doukhobors (_q.v._), and was largely instrumental in bringing a party of them to Canada and finding homes for them in the west. Investigated and reported upon the question of immigration from Europe to Canada, 1899; also labour colonies in Germany and other European countries, Workmen’s Compensation Acts in Europe, municipal administration in the United States, the production and transportation of grain in Canada, and other similar problems. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. Among his numerous writings are a delightful autobiography, _My Windows on the Street of the World_; the monumental _Economic History of Russia_; _Notes on Art_; _Railway Transportation in America_; _Taxation of Corporations in Canada_; _Niagara in Politics_. =May, Sir Humphrey= (1573-1630). Had been chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and in 1625 a privy councillor. In 1629 one of the commissioners appointed to negotiate a settlement of North American affairs between England and France. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Meade, George Gordon= (1815-1872). In 1865-1866 commanded the United States military division of the Atlantic, during which period he prevented the Fenians from making Eastport, Maine, the base of operations against New Brunswick. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Meares, John= (1756-1809). Born in England. Entered the navy, 1776, and served against the French until 1783. Entered the merchant service, 1783, and explored the coast of Alaska, 1786. Wintered in Prince William Sound, and lost half his crew from scurvy. Explored and surveyed the north-west coast of America, 1788-1789, and became involved in the Nootka affair. Purchased land from the Indian chief Maquinna for a fur trading post. Built _North West America_ at Nootka, the first ship launched in what is now British Columbia. Entered and examined the Strait of Juan de Fuca and took possession of neighbouring lands for Great Britain. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Measures of Distance.= Students of early narratives of travel in Canada have sometimes been confused by the use of the term “league” as a measure of distance. French explorers in America nearly always used the expression, and, in narratives of the fur trade, it survived well into the period of British rule, because most of the _voyageurs_ and many of the traders were French. The standard French league is about 2.42 English miles, but, except when used by travellers equipped with instruments, the distance is only approximate as it is estimated instead of measured. The _arpent_ is an old French measure of distance, used in measuring land, equivalent to 192 English linear feet. The _brasse_, another old French measure, equals 5.318 English feet. Among the _voyageurs_ it was customary to measure the distance paddled by _poses_, or the number of times they stopped to smoke a pipe. =Medicine Hat.= City of Alberta. First house was built on the site in 1882. Name is a translation of the Blackfeet name of the place _Saamis_, or “head-dress of a medicine man.” There are a variety of theories as to why this particular native name was applied to the locality. Incorporated as a town in 1899, and as a city in 1907. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Medley, John= (1804-1892). Born in London, England. Graduated at Oxford, 1826; ordained priest, 1829; vicar of St. John’s, Truro, 1831; of St. Thomas, Exeter, 1838; and prebendary of Exeter cathedral, 1842. Elected first bishop of Fredericton, New Brunswick, 1845; metropolitan of Canada, 1879. A close friend of Juliana Horatio Ewing and her husband. She wrote most of her delightful children’s books in Fredericton. =Bib.=: Mockridge. _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_; Dent. _Can. Por._ =Meighen, Arthur= (1876-). Born at Anderson, Ontario. Educated at Toronto University. Studied law, and practised his profession in Portage la Prairie, Manitoba. Represented Portage la Prairie in the House of Commons, 1908-1921; Grenville, 1922-1925; Portage la Prairie, 1925. Appointed solicitor-general in the Borden government, 1913; secretary of state and minister of mines, 1917; minister of the interior and superintendent-general of Indian affairs, 1917. Attended Imperial Conference, 1918. Sworn in as prime minister and secretary of state for external affairs, 1920. Became an Imperial privy councillor the same year. Resigned after the defeat of his government in the general election of 1921. Leader of the Opposition in Parliament. In the general elections of 1925 he was returned as leader of the largest group in the House of Commons. =Bib.=: Chambers, _Can. Parl. Guide_. =Meilleur, Jean Baptiste= (1795-1878). Born in St. Laurent, near Montreal. Educated at the College of St. Sulpice, Montreal; studied law, and, later, medicine. Elected to the Assembly, 1834, and appointed superintendent of public instruction by Sir Charles Bagot, 1842. Held this position for fifteen years, during which time forty-five educational institutions were established. In 1862 appointed postmaster of Montreal. One of the founders of the college of L’Assomption. =Bib.=: Bibaud, _Dict. Hist._; Bibaud, _Pan. Can._ =Melville, Henry Dundas, first Viscount= (1742-1811). Sat for Midlothian, 1774-1790, and for Edinburgh, 1790-1802; home secretary, 1791-1794, and as such had to do with the administrations of Dorchester and Simcoe, as to the wisdom of whose policies he was sometimes very frank. Dundas Street, in Upper Canada, and the town and county of Dundas, named after him. Secretary of war, 1794-1801; first lord of admiralty, 1804-1805. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Blog._ =Melville, Henry Dundas, third Viscount= (1801-1876). Served through the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in Upper Canada. Defended Windmill Point on the St. Lawrence, and accepted Schoultz’s surrender. General, 1868. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Melville Island.= In the Arctic archipelago, north of Victoria Island. Named by Parry in 1819 after Robert Saunders Dundas, Viscount Melville (1771-1851), who filled the offices of lord privy seal, 1811-1812, and first lord of the admiralty, 1812, and again in 1828. Melville Sound lies between Melville Island and Victoria Island; and Melville Peninsula, between Fox Channel and the Gulf of Boothia. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Membertou, Henry= (1510?-1611). Micmac sagamore; became a convert to Christianity in extreme old age. In 1604 De Monts and his band of colonists landed in Acadia, and the chief received them hospitably. Assisted the French against hostile Indians, and in 1607 with a force of Micmacs defeated the Armouchiquois Indians. In 1610 baptized with his family and other Indians; and was counted a zealous son of the church. Is reputed to have been over a hundred years of age at his death. Said to have remembered Jacques Cartier. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Membré, Zenobius= (1645-1687). Born in France. The first novice in the Récollet province of St. Anthony. In 1675 came to Canada; in 1679 a member of La Salle’s expedition to the west; and in 1682 accompanied La Salle on his voyage down the Mississippi. In 1684 again associated with La Salle on his second expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi. Killed at Fort St. Louis, in an Indian attack. =Bib.=: Parkman, _La Salle_. =Memphremagog, Lake.= On the international boundary, between Quebec and Vermont. The lake lies partly in Canada and partly in the United States, and is about thirty miles long with a breadth of from one to four miles. The name is a corruption of the Indian name _Memphlcwbowque_, meaning beautiful water. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer_. =Ménard, René= (1604-1661). Between 1629 and 1639 he was first a student at the Jesuit colleges of Paris, La Flèche, Bourges and Rouen, and afterwards an instructor at Orleans and Moulin. In March, 1640, he sailed from Dieppe for Canada. There is a vivid account of the voyage in the _Relation_ for that year. During the next year he studied Algonquin, and started with Father Ragueneau for the Huron country. He escaped martyrdom in Huronia, and in 1650-1651 was superior of the mission at Three Rivers. In 1656 he was sent to the Cayugas, and later to the Onondagas, both of which tribes, although they did not actually take his life, treated him at first with cruelty and contempt. In the end he gained a marked influence over them. In 1659 he was back at Three Rivers, and the following year started out with a party of Ottawas for the Lake Superior country. He spent the winter of 1660-1661 with the Ottawas on the south shore of Lake Superior, and in the summer of 1661 attempted to cross over to the Hurons on Green Bay, lost the trail, and was either killed by Indians or died of exhaustion. His body was never found. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Menneval, Louis Alexandre des Friches, Sieur de.= Governor of Acadia in 1689, with headquarters at Port Royal. In 1690 Port Royal was attacked by the English, under Phipps, and after vainly attempting to defend it, he was captured and sent prisoner to Boston, but subsequently released. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; Roy, _Louis Alexandre des Friches, Sieur de Menneval_ (_Bull. des Rech. Hist._ 1922). =Mennonites.= A religious brotherhood widely distributed in Europe. Dutch Mennonites from Pennsylvania trekked to Canada toward the end of the eighteenth century, and made the first settlements in what afterwards became Waterloo county. _See_ Mabel Dunham’s _Trail of the Conestoga_. The first colony of Russian Mennonites came to Canada in 1874 and settled in the north-west. Others followed in 1875 and 1876, making altogether nearly six thousand. The Federal government advanced them nearly one hundred thousand dollars, which they repaid in full with interest. By the census of 1921, there were in Canada a total of 58,797 Mennonites, mainly in Ontario, Manitoba and Saskatchewan. =Menominee Indians.= A tribe of Algonquian stock inhabiting part of what is now the State of Wisconsin, when first visited by white men. Described by Nicolet. The oldest inhabitants of Wisconsin. Some of the tribe still live on Green Bay. Always very friendly to the whites. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Menzies, Archibald= (1754-1842). Botanist and traveller. Educated for the medical profession, he entered the navy as assistant surgeon on the _Nonsuch_, and was present at Rodney’s victory over the French fleet in the West Indies, 1782. Four years later he joined the merchant ship _Prince of Wales_ as surgeon, under Captain Colnett, who made a fur trading expedition to the north-west coast. Returned to England by way of China in 1789. In 1791 he joined the _Discovery_ as botanist, and sailed with Vancouver. He made a large collection of plants, etc., during the voyage, the _Arbutus menziesii_ being named after him, as were also Menzies Bay, Discovery Passage, and Menzies Point, Burke Channel. He subsequently made a voyage to the West Indies, under Lord Hugh Seymour. Retired from the navy, and practised his profession in London. =Bib.=: _Journal of Vancouver’s Voyage_, ed. by C. F. Newcombe; Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =Mercer, M. S.= Went overseas in 1914 as commander of the First Infantry Brigade, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Promoted brigadier-general the same year. Saw service in the Ypres salient and in various engagements in 1915 and 1916; promoted major-general, 1915, and given command of the Third Division. Shortly before the battle of Sanctuary Wood, in June, 1916, General Mercer went forward with his aide-de-camp to inspect the positions of the Fourth Canadian Mounted Rifles. The Germans got wind of it, and concentrated a heavy bombardment on this section of the Canadian line. General Mercer was thrown down and stunned, but escaped serious injury. However, in attempting to make his way back to headquarters, he was hit in the leg by a chance shot, and shortly afterwards killed by a piece of shrapnel from a British shell. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Mercier, Honoré= (1840-1894). Born at Ste. Athanase, Quebec. Educated at the Jesuit College, Montreal. In 1865 called to the Quebec bar; and in 1872 elected to the Dominion Parliament for Rouville. In 1879 appointed solicitor-general in the Quebec provincial Assembly; and in 1883 elected member for St. Hyacinthe, and Liberal leader in the House. One of the founders of _Le Parti National_ and its organ _Le National_. Led an agitation in Quebec for the pardon of Riel. In 1887 premier of Quebec and held office until December 15th, 1891, when the ministry was dismissed because of the Baie de Chaleur Railway scandal. Introduced and passed the Jesuits’ Estates Act in the Quebec Legislature. =Bib.=: Legendre, _Honoré Mercier_ in _Men of the Day_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =Mercury.= Newspaper of Quebec, established, 1805. Voiced the sentiments of the English element in Lower Canada. Said to have been antagonistic to aspirations of the French Canadians. Editor called before Legislature and forced to apologize for objectionable criticism. =Meredith, Sir William Collis= (1812-1894). Born in Dublin, Ireland. Emigrated to Canada; in 1836 called to the bar of Montreal, and in 1844 appointed Q. C. From 1849 to 1859 a judge of the Superior Court for the province of Quebec; in 1859-1866 judge of the Queen’s Bench; in 1866 chief-justice of the Superior Court; retired in 1884. During Lord Elgin’s administration as governor-general of Canada (1847-1854), one of the judges of the Seigniorial Court. In 1886 knighted. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Meredith, Sir William Ralph= (1840-1923). Born in the county of Middlesex, Ontario. Educated at the London District Grammar School, and at the University of Toronto. Studied law, and called to the bar, 1861. Sat in the Ontario Assembly, 1872-1894; leader of the Opposition, 1878-1894. Appointed chief-justice of the Common Pleas Division of the High Court of Justice, 1894. Chief-justice of the Supreme Court of Ontario, 1912. Knighted, 1896. Chancellor of the University of Toronto. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Merriefield, William.= Sergeant, 4th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During the attack near Abancourt, on October 1st, 1918, when his men were held up by intense fire from two machine-gun emplacements, he attacked them both single-handed. Dashing from shell hole to shell hole, he killed the occupants of the first post, and, although wounded, continued to attack the second post, and with a bomb killed the occupants. He refused to be evacuated and led his platoon until again severely wounded. =Merritt, William Hamilton= (1793-1862). Born in Westchester county, New York. Came to Canada with his parents, 1796. Served during the War of 1812-1814; took part in the capture of Detroit and the battles of Queenston Heights, Stony Creek, and Lundy’s Lane, where he commanded cavalry detachments. The principal promoter of the Welland Canal, opened in 1830. In 1832 elected to the Legislative Assembly. Sued William Lyon Mackenzie for libel. In 1845 projected the Niagara Falls suspension bridge. In 1848 president of the Council in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration; in 1850 commissioner of public works; and in 1860 a member of the Legislative Council. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Merritt, _Hon. W. H. Merritt_. =Mesplet, Fleury= (1735-1794). Born in France. Established himself as a printer in London, 1773. Franklin met him there and persuaded him to go to Philadelphia. Commissioned by Congress to publish the appeal to the French in Canada. Accompanied Franklin to Canada in 1776, and remained after the Americans had departed. Ordered to quit the province by September 15th, 1778. Several respectable citizens appealed in his behalf and offered to be responsible for his good conduct. Haldimand thereupon suspended the order of expulsion, on condition that Mesplet and his associates should take the oath of allegiance and publish nothing not first submitted for official sanction. The latter condition was violated. Mesplet was the proprietor of the first printing press in Canada, published the first books in Montreal, and founded the Montreal _Gazette_, 1778. He is described as “an irresponsible, bibulous artisan, quite under the influence of the attorney, Valantin Jautard, his editor, who was equally irresponsible and bibulous, but endowed with much more intelligence and spirit.” They were both imprisoned from June, 1779, to September, 1782. After his release, Mesplet resumed his work as a printer in Montreal, where he spent the remainder of his life. =Bib.=: McLachlan, _Fleury Mesplet_ (R. S. C., 1906); Sulte, _Historical Literature of Quebec_ (R. S. C., 1897). =Metcalf, William Henry.= Lance-corporal, 16th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ On September 4th, 1918, at Arras, when the right flank of his battalion was held up, he rushed forward under intense machine-gun fire to a passing tank on the left. With his signal flag he walked in front of the tank, directing it along the trench in a perfect hail of bullets and bombs. The machine-gun positions were overcome, very heavy casualties inflicted on the enemy, and a very critical situation relieved. Later, although wounded, he continued to advance until ordered to get into a shell hole and have his wounds dressed. =Metcalfe, Charles Theophilus, Baron= (1785-1846). Born in Calcutta, India. Educated at Eton. Resident of Delhi, 1811-1820; in 1820-1827 resident of Hyderabad; and member of the Supreme Council of India, 1827. Provisional governor-general, 1835-1836; and lieutenant-governor of the north-west provinces, 1836-1838; governor of Jamaica, 1839-1842. In 1843 appointed governor-general of Canada, and held the position until 1845. Hincks believed he was sent out to Canada for the deliberate purpose of overthrowing responsible government. Lewis, in his life of George Brown, thinks this may be putting it too strongly, but that Metcalfe “must have come to Canada filled with distrust of the Canadian ministry, filled with the idea that the demand for responsible government was a cloak for seditious designs, and ready to take strong measures to preserve British connection.” Relations between him and his advisers, the Baldwin-LaFontaine ministry, became increasingly strained, until in November, 1843, the governor finally broke with his ministers, and for some months attempted to govern the country without either a responsible ministry or a Parliament. In his quarrel with the Reformers he was supported by Stanley the colonial secretary, by Lord John Russell, Peel and Buller, and in Canada by Ryerson, Daly and MacNab. The fact that he was suffering from an incurable and painful disease added seriously to the difficulties of his position. Although his friends urged him to retire, he stuck manfully at what he considered his post of duty, and it was not until the end of 1845 that he finally resigned and returned to England. Canada had had in Sydenham a governor who came out to put into effect Durham’s ideas as to responsible government, without quite believing that they were practicable; in Bagot a governor who earned the detestation of the Tories by his earnest desire to live up to the new constitutional principle; Metcalfe represented a reaction toward the old rule of irresponsible government; Cathcart, who immediately followed him, was more concerned about the military than the political situation; and with Elgin came the final recognition of the principle that the people rule through their representatives in Parliament, to whom the Cabinet is responsible. Described by Macaulay as “a statesman tried in many offices and difficult conjunctures, and found equal to all.” =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Kaye, _Life and Correspondence of Lord Metcalfe_; Ryerson, _Story of My Life_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Davin, _Irishman in Canada_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_. =Methodist Church in Canada.= Can be traced back to 1772, when a party of Yorkshire Methodists settled in Nova Scotia. The first provincial Methodist Conference was held at Halifax in 1786. Introduced into Upper Canada by the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States, 1791. Methodism introduced into Lower Canada, 1799. In 1807 the first Methodist Conference was held at Elizabethtown (Brockville), and in 1814 the British Conference appointed missionaries to Quebec and Montreal. In 1828 the Canada Conference became independent of the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States; and in 1833 the Canada Methodist Episcopal Church united with the British Wesleyans. In 1874 the Wesleyan Methodist Conference of Canada, the Canadian Wesleyan New Connexion Conference, and the Wesleyan Conference of Eastern British America became one as the Methodist Church of Canada. The first session of the General Conference was held the same year. In 1883 the Primitive Methodist Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church also became part of the Methodist Church in Canada. The census of 1921 gave the number of Methodists then in Canada as 1,159,458. In 1925 merged in the United Church of Canada (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Sanderson, _The First Century of Methodism in Canada_; Ryerson, _Canadian Methodism_; Carman, _Historical Sketch of Canadian Methodism_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. ii. =Methye Portage.= Also known as Portage La Loche. Named after the methye or loche (_Lota maculosa_), which has always been abundant in neighbouring waters. This portage was an important point in the palmy days of the fur trade. It leads from the Churchill to the Clearwater, and so to the Athabaska and the immense systems of northern and western waterways that lie beyond. It is noted for its beautiful scenery, which has been described or mentioned by Mackenzie, Franklin, Back, and other northern travellers. It was first crossed by Peter Pond in 1778. The route has now been abandoned for some years, supplies for the northern posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company being transported overland from Edmonton to Athabaska Landing, and thence down the Athabaska. A railway now connects the two points. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Métis.= _See_ Half-breeds. =Metlakatla.= An Indian village and harbour on a passage between Chatham Sound and Tuck Inlet, northern coast of British Columbia. Adapted from the Tsimshian word _Metla-kah-thla_ meaning a passage between two bodies of salt water. It was the principal home of the Tsimshian Indians before they left it for Fort Simpson in 1834. William Duncan persuaded them to return to their old home in 1862, where under his direction they built comfortable homes and a large wooden church. Under the guidance of the missionary the settlement throve in both a spiritual and temporal sense. Owing to untoward circumstances, for which Duncan was not responsible, the settlement had to be abandoned in 1887, and the Indians and their possessions were moved to Annette Island, Alaska, where New Metlakatla was founded. The church at the old mission was destroyed by fire in 1900. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Meulles, Chevalier Jacques de.= Intendant of New France, 1682-1686. The son of François Meulles, seignior of the forest of Montpensier, in Poitou; held the office of grand bailiff, or magistrate, of Orleans, before coming to Canada. Married a sister of Michel Bégon, intendant of Rochefort, and father of Michel Bégon, afterwards intendant of New France. The year before he was recalled, he made a visit of inspection to Acadia, remaining until the following summer. Was in Paris as late as 1707. He is described as incapable and conceited =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903); Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Mézy, Augustin de Saffray, Chevalier de.= Governor of New France from 1663 until his death in 1665. Appointed on Laval’s recommendation, with whom he afterwards quarrelled. In the matter of supplying liquor to the Indians, he was inclined to take the commercial view of the traders as opposed to the Church’s viewpoint. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_ and _Old Régime_. =Miami Indians.= A tribe of the Algonquian family, belonging chiefly to what is now Wisconsin, where the French first came in contact with them in 1690. After 1700 many removed to Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and adjoining territory. In the colonial wars they fought indifferently on both sides. In 1812 they served under Tecumseh with the British against the Americans. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Miami River.= Also known as the Maumee. Flows into the west end of Lake Erie. Fort Miami stood on its banks, and at a later date Fort Wayne. The city of Toledo stands to-day near its mouth. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Michigan, Lake.= The third in size of the Great Lakes; its area, 22,450 square miles. Name derived from the Chippewa _Mitchi Sawgyegan_, meaning Great Lake. Discovered by Nicolet in 1634. That year he reached Green Bay and Fox river. Radisson coasted around its northern shore in 1654. Marquette, Dablon and La Salle called it the Lake of the Illinois. Galinée in 1670 regarded lakes Huron and Michigan as one, and named them “the Fresh Water Sea of the Hurons, or in Algonquin, Michigan.” Claude Allouez, who was on it in 1676, gave it the name of Lac St. Joseph. Father Membré called it Lake Dauphin. The present name is found on early maps in a variety of forms. Under the terms of the treaty of 1909 Canada secured the free navigation of Lake Michigan. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Michilimackinac.= A missionary station and fur trading post, on the straits between Lakes Huron and Michigan. Name derived from an Algonquian tribe, the Mishinimaki, and in its original form meant “Place of the big wounded person.” The name is now shortened to Mackinac. It was an important centre throughout the greater part of the French _régime_ and for some time thereafter. The first white man to go through the straits of Mackinac was probably Nicolet, who visited Lake Michigan in 1634. The earliest attempt at a trading post or settlement dates from about 1668. Two years later the Jesuits established their mission of St. Ignace, on the island of Mackinac, which was soon thereafter moved to the north mainland. Repentigny built a fort on the south shore in 1751. It was destroyed by fire in 1762. The following year Mackinac was the scene of the famous massacre described by Alexander Henry in his _Travels_ and by Parkman in the _Conspiracy of Pontiac_. In 1780-1781 Sinclair moved the fort and village from the south shore, where they had existed for some years, to the island. In 1783 the North West Company built a post on the north shore. It was burnt by the Americans in 1814. The Mackinac posts had been transferred by the French to the British in 1762, and in 1796 they were handed over by the British to the Americans. The fort was captured during the War of 1812-1814, and restored after the treaty of Ghent in 1815. A British fort was then built on Drummond Island, which was maintained until 1828 when, the island having been conveyed to the United States, the garrison was removed to Penetanguishene. _See_ Cook, _Drummond Island_. In 1822 the Americans built Fort Brady on the south shore of the strait. =Bib.=: Kelton, _Annals of Fort Mackinac_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; _Wis. Hist. Colls._, xviii, xix; _Mich. Hist. Colls._, xix; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Micmac Indians.= An Algonquian tribe, called by the French, Souriquois. Their _habitat_ was in Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Northern New Brunswick. Visited by Cabot in 1497; and by Corte-Real in 1501. They were for a long time bitterly hostile to the British. In 1611 they numbered about 3,000; and in 1884, 4,000. =Bib.=: Biard, _Relation_, 1616; Rand, _Micmac Dictionary_; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Middleton, Sir Frederick Dobson= (1825-1898). Born in Belfast, Ireland. Educated at Sandhurst, and entered the army, 1842. Served in India during the mutiny, 1857-1858. In 1868 stationed in Canada; and in 1884 general in command of the militia of Canada. In 1885 commanded the Canadian troops during the Riel Rebellion, and, for his services in suppressing it, knighted and received a grant of $20,000. Appointed, 1896, keeper of the crown jewels in the Tower of London. _See_ Riel Rebellion, 1885. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Denison, _Soldiering in Canada_. =Milan Decree.= Issued by Napoleon in 1808. By it “every ship which should have been searched by a British vessel, or should have paid any duty to the British government, or should come from or be destined to any port in the British possessions in any part of the world should be good prize.” One of the contributory causes of the War of 1812-1814. =Bib.=: _Dict. Eng. Hist._ =Milbank Sound.= West coast of British Columbia, north of Queen Charlotte Sound, and south of Princess Royal Island. Named in 1788 by Captain Charles Duncan, of the _Princess Royal_, after Vice-Admiral Mark Milbanke. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Militia and Defence.= The earliest record of militia in what is now Canada goes back to 1627, when the inhabitants of the _banlieue_ of Port Royal were required to assist the garrison if occasion should arise. In Quebec the records go back to 1648, when a few companies of French militia were organized. In 1649-1651 there was a _camp volant_ of about a hundred volunteers patrolling between Three Rivers and Montreal. One of the earliest military organizations in Canada was the fraternity of La Trés Sainte Verge, 1653, with a strength of sixty-three men. In 1664 all the men in Montreal capable of carrying arms were enrolled as volunteers. In 1674 Frontenac gave the militia a definite form, each parish or _cote_ forming a company to be brigaded in time of war. In the British period, up to 1812, the militia existed not much more than on paper, but in 1812-1814 they did valiant service. The force was practically disbanded in 1815, but was called out again in 1837-1838. In 1855, after the departure of most of the regulars for the Crimea, the Canadian Legislature voted money for the equipment and pay of 5,000 volunteers. In 1862 an Act was passed for the increase of the militia, and the Trent affair of 1861 materially helped in the volunteer movement. In 1863 provision was made for six days’ training of 100,000 men, and military schools were established. The Fenian Raids gave another impulse to the militia, and the annual appropriations ran up from $384,000 in 1864 to $1,887,000 in 1866. At Confederation a department of militia and defence was established, and the first Dominion Militia Act was passed in 1868. Gradually the Imperial garrisons were removed, and the citadels at Quebec and Halifax handed over to Canada. The permanent force dates from 1871 and 1883. In 1924 the department of national defence was created, to include the former departments of militia and defence and naval affairs and the air force. For the active service of the Canadian militia, _see_ War of 1812-1814; Rebellion of 1837-1838; Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870; Riel Rebellion, 1885; Fenian Raids; South African War; War of 1914-1918. =Miller, James Andrew= (1839-1886). Born in Gait, Ontario. Called to the bar, 1863; judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench for Manitoba, 1880-1882; attorney-general of Manitoba, 1882-1885; prepared, with Oliver Mowat, the special case on the boundaries of Ontario and Manitoba for submission to the Privy Council; registrar-general of titles of Manitoba, 1885. =Millet, Pierre= (1635-1708). Born at Bourges, France. Came to Canada, 1667; sent to the Onondaga mission the following year; and in 1672 to Oneida, where he remained until 1686, labouring with characteristic devotion among his savage flock. Met Denonville at Cataraqui in 1686, and, as a result of the governor’s expedition against the Iroquois, unjustly suspected by the Oneidas of being implicated. Captured by a war party at Cataraqui, in 1689, and carried back to Oneida as a prisoner. The Oneidas tortured and threatened to kill him, but he was finally released and adopted into the tribe. Remained at Oneida until 1694, when he returned to Quebec, where he spent his latter years. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests of North America_. =Mills, David= (1831-1903). Born in the township of Orford, Kent county, Ontario. Educated at the University of Michigan. Taught school for several years; afterwards inspector of schools for Kent county until 1865. In 1867 entered the Dominion Parliament; and in 1876-1878 minister of the interior in Mackenzie administration. In 1883 called to the bar of Ontario; practised in London; and created Q. C., 1890. Appointed to the Senate, 1896; minister of justice in the Laurier administration, 1897; justice of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1901-1903. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Milne, William Johnstone.= Private, 16th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ On April 19th, 1917, near Thelus, in an attack on the enemy, he captured a machine-gun single-handed, and, finding the advance again held up by another machine-gun in the support line, he again succeeded in putting the crew out of action and capturing the gun. His bravery and resourcefulness saved the lives of many of his comrades. He was killed shortly after capturing the second gun. =Milnes, Sir Robert Shore= (1746-1836). Born in England. Entered the army. In 1795 governor of the island of Martinique; in 1799 appointed lieutenant-governor of Lower Canada; and during the absence of General Robert Prescott, acting governor; retired, 1803. His tenure of office was marked by bitter relations between French and English in Lower Canada. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Milton and Cheadle.= Lord Milton and Dr. Cheadle arrived at Quebec in the spring of 1862, on an expedition to the far west. They made their way to Red river and over the prairies to White Fish lake, beyond Fort Carlton, where they wintered. Reached Edmonton in May, 1863, and determined to cross the mountains by Yellowhead pass. With a very weak party, and no experience of Rocky mountain conditions, they pushed their way through by pluck and determination, reaching Jasper House on June 29th and Yellowhead pass, July 17th. In making their way through the heavy timber of the valley of the Thompson they suffered severe hardships and privations, and finally reached Kamloops worn out with fatigue and at the point of starvation. After visiting the Cariboo gold-fields, they returned to England by way of California, Panama and New York. =Bib.=: _North-West Passage by Land_. =Minas Basin.= At the head of the Bay of Fundy. _Bassin des Mines_ on the old French maps of Acadia. Name said to be derived from the cape, known as Cap d’Or and Cap des Mines, in which veins of copper had been found. According to Richard, _Acadia_, and Hannay, _History of Acadia_, the first Acadian settlement on the shores of the Basin was made about 1672. The principal founder of the settlement was a wealthy inhabitant of Port Royal, Pierre Theriot, with whom were associated Claude and Antoine Landry and René LeBlanc. It grew in time to be the richest and most populous of the Acadian settlements. By the census of 1686 there were 164 people at Minas. _See also_ Acadians; Acadians, Expulsion of; Grand Pré. =Miner, Harry Garnet Bedford.= Corporal, 58th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ In an attack at Demuin, on August 8th, 1918, although severely wounded, he rushed an enemy machine-gun post single-handed, killed the entire crew, and turned the gun on the enemy. Later, with two others, he attacked another enemy machine-gun post, and put the gun out of action. He then rushed, single-handed, an enemy bombing post, and put the crew to flight. He was mortally wounded in this last gallant deed. =Minerals of Canada.= It is sometimes difficult to fix definite dates for the discovery of deposits of the several minerals, but the following are approximate dates of the first commercial working of the principal deposits in Canada: _Cobalt_, at Sudbury, Ontario, in 1892, at Cobalt, Ontario, in 1904; _Copper_, in British Columbia, 1894; _Gold_, in Cariboo and Quesnel, British Columbia, in 1858, in Tangier, Nova Scotia, in 1860, in the Yukon, 1878, in the Porcupine district, Ontario, 1909, in northern Manitoba, 1917, in the extreme west of Ontario, 1926; _Iron_, in Quebec, 1740, in Ontario, 1800, in Nova Scotia, 1828; _Lead_, in British Columbia, 1888; _Nickel_, in northern Ontario, 1892; _Silver_, near Port Arthur, Ontario, 1869, and northern Ontario, 1904, in British Columbia, 1878; _Corundum_, in Ontario, 1900; _Grindstones_, in New Brunswick, 1880; _Asbestos_, in Quebec, 1880; _Coal_, in Nova Scotia, 1720, British Columbia, 1836, Alberta, 1882; _Gypsum_, in Nova Scotia, 1779, New Brunswick, 1847; _Mica_, in the Ottawa valley, 1870; _Natural gas_, in Ontario, 1880, Alberta, 1891; _Petroleum_, in Ontario, 1860; _Salt_, in western Ontario, 1865, Nova Scotia, 1919; _Zinc_, in Quebec, 1744, British Columbia, 1899. _See also_ Copper; Silver; Gold. =Minerve, La.= A Montreal newspaper, established in 1826. Auguste Norbert Morin was its first editor. He was succeeded by Ludger du Germay. Among the paper’s notable contributors were L. H. LaFontaine, Léon Gosselin, Ovide Perreault and Gérin-Lajoie. =Minto, Gilbert John Murray Kynynmond Elliott, Earl= (1847-1914). Educated at Eton and Cambridge, and entered the army, 1867. Served with the Turkish army, 1877; in the Afghan War, 1879; private secretary to Lord Roberts at the Cape, 1881; took part in the Egyptian campaign, 1882. Military secretary to the Marquis of Lansdowne when governor-general of Canada, 1883-1885; and in 1885 served through the Riel Rebellion as chief of staff to General Middleton. Governor-general of Canada, 1898-1904; viceroy of India, 1905-1910. During his governorship in Canada, the Yukon district was established, the British preferential tariff went into force, the Joint High Commission met at Quebec, Canadian contingents served in the South African War, death of Queen Victoria and accession of King Edward, fourth Colonial Conference, Alaska Boundary Convention and Award. =Bib.=: Buchau, _Lord Minto_; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Miscou.= An island on the southern side of the entrance to the Baie de Chaleur. Name probably of Indian origin. First appears in Champlain’s narrative. It was the reputed home of the Gougou, a very remarkable monster, described by Champlain. Cartier sighted the island in 1534, when sailing into the Baie de Chaleur. He named Miscou Point, Cap d’Espérance. A Basque establishment is mentioned here as early as 1623; and in 1645 Nicolas Denys built a fort about the same place, having secured a concession from the Company of Miscou. =Bib.=: Ganong, _Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick_ (R. S. C., 1896); Denys, _Acadia_, ed. by Ganong; Dawson, _St. Lawrence Basin_. =Mississagua Indians.= A tribe of Algonquian stock. They are named on Galinée’s map of 1670 as occupying the north shore of Lake Huron, about the mouth of Thessalon river. Some were at the mission of Sault Ste. Marie, 1670-1673. They were engaged at one time in the ginseng trade. After the great Iroquois raid of 1650, they scattered to the north country. A hundred years later, some of the tribe were found on the borders of Lake Ontario. They had been absorbed by the Iroquois in 1746. About seven hundred are now living on reservations in Ontario. =Bib.=: Chamberlain, _Notes on the History, Customs and Beliefs of the Mississaguas_; Pilling, _Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages_; _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites. =Mississippi River.= Rises in northern Minnesota, its chief source being Itasca lake and, enters the Gulf of Mexico, after a course of 2,550 miles. It was discovered by the Spaniards, early in the sixteenth century. De Soto explored the lower part of the river, and died on its banks in 1541. Radisson was probably the first white man to see its upper waters, in 1659. Jean Nicolet reached Wisconsin river in 1634, but did not descend it to the Mississippi. Jolliet and Marquette in 1673 reached the Mississippi and descended as far as the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1682 La Salle descended the river from the mouth of the Illinois to the Gulf of Mexico. Its headwaters were discovered and their position ascertained by David Thompson, of the North West Company, in 1798. During the French period a number of posts were built on the Mississippi, which were finally taken over by British officers in 1765, and turned over to the Americans some time after the treaty of peace. When the treaty of peace was signed, the boundary between British and American territory was to run from the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods due west to the Mississippi, but that proved to be a physical impossibility, and the forty-ninth parallel was subsequently agreed upon. _See also_ La Salle; Marquette; Jolliet; Radisson. =Bib.=: Lippincott, _Gazetteer of the World_; Parkman, _La Salle_; Chambers, _The Mississippi River and its Wonderful Valley_; Thompson, _Narrative_; Pike, _Expeditions to Headwaters of the Mississippi_; Glazier, _Headwaters of the Mississippi_. See also _Literature of American History_. =Mistassini, Lake.= In northern Quebec. About one hundred miles long. Forms the headwaters of the Rupert river. Charles Albanel crossed the lake in 1671, and left a partial account of it. Michaux, the botanist, visited it in 1792. The Hudson’s Bay Company has had a trading post on the lake for over a century. Little Mistassini lies parallel to Great Mistassini. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer_. =Mitchell, Coulson Norman.= Captain, 4th Battalion Canadian Engineers. _Victoria Cross._ On the night of 8th-9th October, 1918, at the Canal de l’Escaut, north-east of Cambrai, he dashed across the main bridge over the canal, which was found to be heavily charged for demolition. While he was cutting the wires, the enemy attempted to rush the bridge in order to blow the charges. He dashed to the assistance of his sentry, who had been wounded, killed three of the enemy, captured twelve, and maintained the bridgehead until reinforced. Then, under heavy fire, he continued his task of cutting wires and removing charges, which he well knew might at any moment be fired by the enemy. =Mitchell, Peter= (1824-1899). Born in Newcastle, New Brunswick. Educated at the Newcastle Grammar School; called to the bar, 1848. Engaged in the lumbering and shipbuilding trades. Elected to the Assembly, 1856. Became a member of the government, 1858. Appointed to the Legislative Council, 1860. A strong advocate of Confederation. Delegate to the Charlottetown, Quebec, and Westminster Conferences. Premier of New Brunswick, 1865. Called to the Senate, 1867. Entered the government of Sir John A. Macdonald as minister of marine and fisheries, 1867. Resigned from the Senate, 1874, and elected to the House of Commons. Defeated, 1878, but again elected, 1882; defeated at general election of 1896. Appointed inspector of fisheries for Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, 1897. For some years after 1885, he had been proprietor and editor of the _Montreal Herald_. =Bib.=: Works: _Notes of a Holiday Trip_; _Review of President Grant’s Message Relative to Canadian Fisheries_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Moberly, Walter.= Born in 1832, he was for many years engaged in railway surveys, in eastern Canada and later in British Columbia. Was superintendent of public works under Colonel Moody, 1859, and in 1862-1863 engaged in construction of Cariboo road. In 1864 elected to Legislative Council of British Columbia; and in 1865 became assistant surveyor-general. Discovered Eagle pass. In charge of Canadian Pacific Railway surveys west of the Rockies, 1871, and subsequent years. Afterwards chief engineer of Manitoba South-Western Railway. =Bib.=: _Rocks and Rivers of British Columbia_; _History of Cariboo Wagon Road_. =Moffatt, George= (1787-1865). Born in England. Emigrated to Canada; and engaged in business in Montreal. Served during the War of 1812. In 1831 appointed to the Legislative Council of Lower Canada, being leader of the British party in that House and a member of the Constitutional Association. In 1841 elected for Montreal to the House of Assembly, and in 1844 re-elected, retiring in 1847. President of the British American League formed to oppose the annexation movement of 1849. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Mohawk Indians.= A tribe of the Iroquois confederacy. Known to the French in the early days of New France as _Agniers_. Their villages stood in the valley of the Mohawk river. From their position as the easternmost of the Iroquois tribes, they came first in contact with both the Dutch and English to the south and the French on the north. They took a leading part in most of the wars between the Iroquois and the French, as well as with other tribes. In the Revolutionary War, they sided with the British; and afterwards removed to Canada, settling principally on the Grand river, in the Niagara peninsula. _See also_ Iroquois. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Diefendorf, _The Historic Mohawk_. =Molson, John= (1787-1860). Born in Montreal. In 1837 a member of the Special Council of Lower Canada; served during the Rebellion; in 1849, as a protest against the passing of the Rebellion Losses bill, signed, with others, the Annexation Manifesto, and was in consequence relieved of his commission as colonel of militia and justice of the peace. In partnership with his brother William founded, in 1853, the Molsons Bank. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Weir, _Sixty Years in Canada_. =Monck, Sir Charles Stanley, fourth Viscount= (1819-1894). Born in Ireland. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin; and called to the Irish bar, 1841. Entered Parliament, 1852; lord of the treasury, 1855-1858. In 1861 appointed governor-general of Canada and British North America; in 1867 governor-general of the Dominion of Canada; in 1868 resigned office, after successfully inaugurating Confederation. In 1869 appointed a member of the Imperial Privy Council. He took a very keen interest in the negotiations leading up to Confederation, and was of material assistance in helping the movement through its final stages and securing the passage of the British North America Act. His relations with Canadian political leaders of all parties were uniformly friendly and tactful. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Lady Monck, _My Canadian Leaves_. =Monckton, Robert= (1726-1782). Born in England. Son of an Irish peer. Served in Flanders, 1742; sent to Nova Scotia, 1752, and appointed lieutenant-governor of Annapolis Royal, 1754. In 1755 captured several French forts; in 1757 transferred to the Royal American Regiment; and, 1758, in charge of the Western department; in 1759 brigadier-general, and served under Wolfe at the siege of Quebec, where he was wounded. Commanded British right in the Battle of the Plains. In 1761 promoted major-general, and made governor of New York. In 1762 cooperated with Rodney in the expedition which resulted in the capture of Martinique, Grenada, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent. Returning to England he entered Parliament. Refused to serve against the Americans in the Revolutionary War. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Campbell, _History of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_. =Moncton.= City of New Brunswick. Named after Robert Monckton, and the name of the township was so spelled. Founded, 1765. Incorporated as a town in 1875, and as a city in 1890. =Mondelet, Charles Joseph Elzéar= (1801-1877). Born in St. Charles, Quebec. Educated at Nicolet and Montreal. In 1822 called to the bar of Lower Canada; practised at Three Rivers and Montreal. Arrested in 1828 and 1838 for political offences, but never brought to trial. In 1842 district judge for Terrebonne, L’Assomption, and Berthier; in 1844 circuit judge at Montreal; and judge of the Superior Court, 1849; appointed judge of the Seigniorial Court, 1855, and in 1858 assistant judge in Appeals, Court of Queen’s Bench. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Monk, Sir James.= Attorney-general of Canada, 1786-1794; chief-justice of the Court of King’s Bench, Montreal, 1794-1825. Took a very active part in public affairs and carried on a voluminous correspondence with Nepean and other friends in England, which has been preserved and throws a valuable light on the history of the period in Canada. He was very unpopular with the French Canadians. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Making of Canada_. =Monongahela, Battle of= (1755). As part of the British campaign against New France, Braddock led an expedition against Fort Duquesne, taking with him as one of his aides-de-camps Colonel George Washington. Fort Duquesne stood where the city of Pittsburgh stands to-day. Braddock had about fourteen hundred men; the French leader Contrecœur about nine hundred, of whom two-thirds were Indians. Contrecœur having learned of Braddock’s approach, it was determined to ambuscade him at the ford of the Monongahela, about eight miles from the fort. The plans miscarried through the fickleness of the Indians, and the fight actually took place in the heavy forest. Beaujeu the French leader was killed early in the engagement, and for a time the British more than held their own. Dumas, however, rallied the French and Indians, who spread out on either side of the compact British column, and from the shelter of trees and rocks mowed down the defenceless red-coats. Braddock, with most of his officers, was mortally wounded, and the remnant of his veterans fled back to the river in wild disorder. Dunbar, with a few hundred men, retreated over the mountains to Fort Cumberland. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Mons.= Battle in the War of 1914-1918. In November, 1918, one of the last engagements of the war resulted in the capture of the town of Mons, in Belgium. On November 9th, the Princess Pats, the first Canadian regiment to enter the war, had the honour of being the first of the allied troops to re-enter Mons. Although the Armistice was even now being negotiated, the enemy had dug himself in to the east of the town. The attack was, therefore, renewed the morning of the 10th, and before midnight the Germans had completely evacuated Mons and its vicinity. At 11 a.m. on Monday, November 11th, the “Cease Fire” sounded, in accordance with the terms of the Armistice, and was celebrated in the Grande Place of Mons by a march past of the hard-fighting Seventh Brigade. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War._ =Montagnais Indians.= A tribe of Algonquian stock. Occupied the Saguenay country in 1608, when Champlain visited Tadoussac, and acted as intermediaries between the French and the tribes of the far north. They defeated a party of Iroquois in 1610, with Champlain’s assistance; but paid bitterly for their success in later years, when the warriors of the Five Nations hunted them relentlessly throughout all the region of their northern fastnesses. In 1633 the Jesuits first established missions among them, and laboured diligently for many years among this most degraded of the Algonquian tribes. They are described in modern narratives of exploration and travel in northern Quebec and Labrador. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_ and _Jesuits in North America_; Pilling, _Bibliography of Algonquian Languages_; Comeau, _Life and Sport on the North Shore of the Lower St. Lawrence and Gulf_; Low, _Report on Labrador_ (Geol. Survey, 1895). =Montcalm, Louis Joseph, Marquis de= (1712-1759). Born at the château of Candiac, near Nimes, France. Joined the army at fourteen. Married the grand niece of the Intendant Talon. In 1756 he was appointed by the king commander-in-chief of the army in North America with the rank of major-general. He had already seen service in Bohemia and Italy, and after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had enjoyed a few years of peace at his home at Candiac. He was fortunate in having as his associate in America the Chevalier de Lévis, who had been his companion-in-arms upon more than one field of battle. Montcalm arrived in Quebec in May, and a few days later went on to Montreal to confer with Vaudreuil as to the plan of campaign. The situation was extremely difficult for Montcalm. Hampered at every step by a weak and jealous governor and a corrupt and selfish intendant, he had, with insufficient troops and supplies, to meet an aggressive enemy. He was fortunate, however, in having very efficient lieutenants in Lévis, Bougainville, and Bourlamaque. With swift decision, he sent Lévis to take charge of Fort Carillon on Lake Champlain, and himself led an expedition to Oswego which he surprised and captured. In July of the following year he added to his achievements the capture of Fort William Henry on Lake George. But, though he had led his men to victory, Montcalm’s position was becoming exceedingly precarious. Both soldiers and citizens were on short rations, while Bigot made millions out of the corn he had monopolized; men were needed for the army—and the king sent seventy-five recruits. In the summer of 1758 Montcalm won the battle of Ticonderoga, but thereafter began to meet the ebb tide of his fortunes. The spring of 1759 found him, through no fault of his own, as ill-prepared as ever to meet the attack of the enemy, and he had now to deal with Wolfe, a very different man from Abercromby. On the other hand, his officers and men were inspired by his leadership, and he defended at Quebec what was believed to be an impregnable fortress. As prudent as he was firm, he took no chances with the enemy, but awaited his attack. Time was on his side. By playing a defensive game he might exhaust the British, or force them to raise the siege at the approach of winter. His army was entrenched along the river from Montmorency to the St. Charles, and he had made his headquarters at the manor of De Salaberry. Montcalm’s plans were carefully laid, and for some time it appeared that he might at least force a stalemate upon Wolfe. The British attack at Montmorency failed lamentably, and, although Saunders had succeeded in getting part of his fleet above Quebec, there seemed no probability of a serious attack from that quarter. Of Wolfe’s final plan to scale the heights at the Foulon (Wolfe’s Cove) Montcalm had no inkling, regarding such a plan as quite impracticable. He had a small force stationed there as a precaution, but most of these had been withdrawn when the critical moment came, through the folly of Vaudreuil. Montcalm was also apparently completely deceived by Wolfe’s _feint_ at Beauport, which appeared to be the main attack. As a result, the morning of September 13th found the British army on the Plains of Abraham. For the action that followed, in attacking the British without waiting for the support of Bougainville or the garrison of Quebec, Montcalm has been severely criticized. His view seems to have been that to delay would merely give Wolfe time to strengthen his own position. The details of the battle need not be given here. In the flight of the French army back to the city Montcalm was carried with the stream, and in attempting to rally some of his men outside the St. Louis gate, was mortally wounded. He died the following day. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Casgrain, _Wolfe-Montcalm_; Chapais, _Le Marquis de Montcalm_; Wood, _Passing of New France_; Bonnechose, _Montcalm et le Canada Français_; Casgrain, _Montcalm et Lévis_; Martin, _Le Marquis de Montcalm_; Guérin, _Montcalm_; Casgrain, _Manuscrits de Lévis_, vol. vi and vii; Gordon, _Letters of Montcalm to Lévis and Bourlamaque_. =Montgomery, John= (1783-1879). Born in Gagetown, New Brunswick. Accompanied his father to York about 1799, where he settled. Served with the York Volunteers during the War of 1812-1814. An active supporter of the Reform party in Upper Canada. At outbreak of Rebellion of 1837 was a boarder at the tavern, of which he was owner, on Yonge Street, Toronto. Charged with treason and arrested; imprisoned at Fort Henry, but escaped to the United States. After the passing of the Amnesty Act, returned to Canada and appointed postmaster at Davidtown. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =Montgomery, Richard= (1736-1775). Born in Ireland. Entered the British army, 1754, and in 1757 stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia; served under Wolfe at the siege of Louisbourg, and in 1759 in command of the force that captured the French forts on Lake Champlain; in 1760 took part in the campaign against Montreal; in 1775 joined the American revolutionists; made brigadier-general, and commanded the expedition to Canada; after reducing the forts at St. Johns and Chambly, and capturing Montreal, laid siege to Quebec, and on a final and unsuccessful attack on December 31st, 1775, was mortally wounded. Buried at Quebec. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_; Lucas, _History of Canada_; Smith, _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_; Jones, _The Campaign for the Conquest of Canada in 1776_. =Montigny, Jacques Testard, Sieur de= (1663-1737). As an ensign took part in the attack on Schenectady in 1690. He was wounded and promoted lieutenant. In Acadia, 1691, and commanded there, 1695. In 1696-1697 was with Iberville in the expedition against Newfoundland. He also led the Abnaki allies against the British in Newfoundland, 1703-1706. Made captain, 1706. He was at Port Royal in 1710 and surrendered the fort to Nicholson. Sent to France, and made chevalier of St. Louis, 1712. He was commandant at Green Bay, 1721-1723, and accompanied Charlevoix that far on his western expedition. In command at Michilimackinac, 1730. Died in Montreal. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii, 159-160. =Montmagny, Charles Huault de.= Born about 1684 in France, the youngest of four sons. Knight of Malta, 1622. Came to Canada as governor, 1636. Strongly opposed the settlement at Montreal, 1641-1642, but finding Maisonneuve determined, accompanied him from Quebec, and gave his official countenance to the founding of the new town. In 1642 he built a fort at the mouth of the Richelieu, where Sorel now stands, to check the inroads of the Iroquois; three years later arranged a treaty of peace with these troublesome neighbours. Returned to France in 1648; and in 1653 became governor of the island of St. Christopher. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Charlevoix, _History of New France_. =Montmorency, Henri, Duc de= (1595-1632). In 1620 purchased the viceroyalty of New France from the Comte de Soissons, his brother-in-law, and retained Champlain as his lieutenant; in 1624 conveyed his rights as viceroy to Henri de Lévis, Duc de Ventadour. Served at the sieges of Montaubon and Montpellier, and in 1625 captured the islands of Ré and Oleron. Having taken part in the rebellion of Gaston of Orleans against Louis XIII in 1632, he was arrested and executed. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Montreal.= Covers the site of the old Indian town of Hochelaga (_q.v._). Founded May 17th, 1642, by Chomedy de Maisonneuve. Champlain had selected the site thirty-one years before, as adapted to a settlement. With Maisonneuve, at the historic ceremony which gave birth to the future city of Canada, were Montmagny, governor of Quebec, Vimont, superior of the Jesuits, Madame de la Peltrie, and Mademoiselle Mance. Several years later another heroic woman, Marguerite Bourgeoys, joined the builders of the infant town. In 1653 colonization began in earnest, and in 1667 Montreal counted a population of 766. Its governors during the French régime included among others, after Maisonneuve, D’Ailleboust de Coulonge, Lamothe, Perrot, Callières, Vaudreuil, Ramezay, Longueuil, and Rigaud. It was defended by Lévis and captured by Amherst in 1759, and with it was surrendered the rest of Canada. Captured again, by the Americans, during the Invasion of 1775-1776, and released the latter year. Had been the headquarters of the western fur trade during the French period, and continued to be so throughout the better part of the first century of British rule. The North West Company was organized there by Montreal merchants, and continued to have its headquarters in Montreal until finally absorbed by the Hudson’s Bay Company. Incorporated as a city, 1832. It was the seat of government for some years, until the angry enthusiasm of a mob led to the destruction of the Parliament building in 1849. Here was established and developed one of Canada’s principal seats of learning, McGill University. The Bank of Montreal is the oldest and most powerful of Canadian financial institutions. Montreal is the headquarters of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Canadian National Railways, as well as of the principal Canadian steamship companies. Its population by the census of 1921 was 618,586. _See also_ Ville Marie; Maisonneuve; Jean-Jacques Olier; Marguerite Bourgeoys; Mademoiselle Mance; Jeanne Le Ber; Madame d’Youville. =Bib.=: Dollier de Casson, _Histoire du Montreal, 1640-1672_; Morin, _Le vieux Montreal_; McLennan, _Anciens Montrealais_ (“Canada Francais,” vol. iii); Atherton, _History of Montreal_; Bosworth, _Hochelaga Depicta_; Sandham, _Ville-Marie_; Warburton, _Hochelaga_; Leblond de Brumath, _Histoire Populaire de Montreal_; Lighthall, _Montreal after Two Hundred and Fifty Years_; McLennan, _Montreal, 1642-1842_, and Dawson, _Montreal, 1842-1892_ in the _Semi-centennial Report of the Montreal Board of Trade_; and in publications of the Soc. Hist, de Montreal, Quebec Literary and Historical Society, and Royal Society of Canada. Contemporary descriptions of old Montreal are found in narratives of Kalm, Lambert and Landmann. =Montreal Company.= Founded at Montreal, 1784, in opposition to the North West Company. Two Montreal merchants, John Gregory and Alexander Norman McLeod, formed a partnership with Peter Pond and Peter Pangman, western fur traders. Alexander Mackenzie joined the Company, and much of its success was due to his energy and resourcefulness. His cousin, Roderick Mackenzie, was also in its service. Keen rivalry resulted between the two companies, finally culminating in a tragedy; in the Athabaska department, Pond, who had deserted to the North West Company, quarrelled with his rival, Ross, and in the scuttle Ross was fatally shot. This serious news being brought down to the headquarters at Grand Portage, a conference was held, resulting in the union of the Companies in July, 1787. _See also_ North West Company; X Y Company. Bib.: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Davidson, _North West Company_; Willson, _The Great Company_. =Montreal, University of.= Authorized in 1876 as a branch of Laval University. As the result of a long controversy between the Quebec and Montreal educational interests, Laval University of Montreal became practically independent of the mother institution in 1889, and subsequently entirely so, the name being changed to the University of Montreal. =Bib.=: Hamel, _Sketch of Laval University, Quebec and Montreal_, in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. iv. =Montreuil, Chevalier de.= Served during the French campaigns in America from 1754 to 1758 as adjutant-general, and during the sieges of Quebec in 1759 and 1760, took part in the battle of the Plains and the battle of Ste. Foy, with rank of major-general. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_. =Monts, Pierre de, Seigneur de Guast= (1574?-1611). In 1603 became head of the Company formed by Champlain to plant colonies in New France, and to which a monopoly of the fur trade had been granted by the king. He was made lieutenant-general and obtained ten years’ privilege of exclusive trading. Had made the voyage to Tadoussac with Pont-Gravé in 1603, and had conceived no very high opinion of the St. Lawrence as a field for colonization; it was therefore decided to direct the operations of the Company to Acadia. In 1604, with Champlain, sailed to Acadia, explored the Bay of Fundy, and discovered Annapolis Basin and the St. John River; settlements were established at Ste. Croix Island and Port Royal; in 1606 returned to France; and the following year sent Champlain and Pont-Gravé on an expedition to the St. Lawrence. _See also_ Champlain. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; d’Hozier, _Armorial de France_, vol. iii, pt. II; Lachesnaye-Desbois, _Dictionnaire de la noblesse Française_, vol. xiv, 478. =Moodie, Susanna= (1803-1885). Born in England. Daughter of Thomas Strickland, and sister of Agnes Strickland and Katherine Parr Traill. In 1832 emigrated to Canada with her husband, John Wedderbar Dunbar Moodie, of Melsetter, in the Orkney Islands, whom she had married in 1831, and settled in the forest near the present city of Peterborough, In 1839 her home was in Belleville, and later in Toronto. Published numerous works of fiction, some of which are of value in the light they throw on pioneer life and conditions in Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Works: _Roughing it in the Bush_; _Life in the Clearings_. For full list of her writings, _see_ Morgan, _Bib. Can._ For biog., _see_ McMurchy, _Canadian Literature_; Baker, _History of English-Canadian Literature_. =Moody, James= (1744-1809). A native of New Jersey, he was forced by the animosity of the Whigs in the early days of the Revolution to leave his home and join the Royal Army. He became one of the most noted officers, and Sabine says that “his very name soon became a terror.” Showed extraordinary skill and perseverance in securing information as to the strength and position of rebel forces. In 1779 he captured a Whig colonel, a lieutenant-colonel, a major, two captains and several officers of inferior rank, and carried off quantities of public stores, defeating an enemy force double his own strength on his return journey. On another occasion he entered an enemy town with six followers, seized the jail and released a number of Loyalists. He was for a time Arnold’s prisoner at West Point, who kept him in a dungeon ironed hand and foot. He was released and taken to Washington’s camp, from which he escaped. In 1781 he succeeded in capturing Washington’s despatches. After a number of hairbreadth escapes, he finally, broken down in health, sailed for England After the peace he settled in Nova Scotia. His estates were confiscated, and, in spite of his invaluable services to the Royal cause, he remained as he had started a lieutenant, and got nothing more than a small land grant in Nova Scotia. He lived for a time in Halifax, and in 1786 settled in Weymouth, where he spent the rest of his days. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Moody, Richard Clement= (1813-1887). Born in the Barbadoes. West Indies. Entered Woolwich Military Academy, 1827; first lieutenant, 1835; and professor of fortifications, 1838. In 1841 governor of the Falkland Islands; promoted lieutenant-colonel, 1858; appointed chief commissioner of lands and works in British Columbia, 1858. Founded New Westminster, the former capital, and built a number of roads and other public works. In 1863 returned to England. Promoted major-general, 1866. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Begg, _History of British Columbia_. =Moose Jaw.= City of Saskatchewan. Takes its name from Moose Jaw creek, and the name of latter dates from Palliser’s visit in 1857, and his map of 1859. First settlers arrived in 1882. Main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway reached Moose Jaw the same year. Post office opened, 1883. =Moravians.= Society of Unitas Fratrum. In 1752 they made their first attempt to found a mission in Labrador among the Eskimo. This ended in failure; but they returned in 1764, and gained the support of the governor of Newfoundland. In 1769 they were granted a large area of land; and two years later they built their first mission house at Nain. Lieutenant Curtis, who was sent out by the British government in 1773 to report on the mission, wrote: “The progress which the mission has made in civilizing the Indians (Eskimo) is wonderful.” In 1775 they established a mission at Okkak, and in 1782 at Hopedale. After 1804 mission stations were built at Hebron, Zoar, Ramah and Makkovik. “The Moravians,” says Dr. Grenfell, “have converted a race of primeval savages, with whom murder was a passion and theft a craze, into mild and simple Christians.” =Bib.=: Grenfell, _Labrador_; Cartwright, _Labrador Journal_; Gosling, _Labrador_. =Moraviantown, battle of.= _See_ Thames. =Morel, Thomas.= Arrived at Quebec in August, 1661; appointed first curé of Chateau Richer and attached as mission priest to the Seminary at Quebec; spent several years in missionary work among the Indian tribes. He became director of the Seminary. Imprisoned by Frontenac for having prevented the publication of a decree, but was soon after released. Died, 1687. =Bib.=: De Brumath, _Bishop Laval_. =Morel de la Durantaye, Olivier= (1641-1716). Born at Notre-Dame de Gaure, in the diocese of Nantes. Entered the army, and obtained a lieutenancy in the regiment of Chambellé, afterwards being promoted to the rank of captain in the same regiment. Came to Canada, 1665, and was with La Motte the following year at Fort Ste. Anne; sailed for France, and returned in 1670; granted the seigniory of Bellechasse, and that of La Durantaye. Served as an officer of the garrison at Quebec; in charge of the post at Michilimackinac up to 1690; took part in the expeditions against the Iroquois in 1684 and 1687, and again in 1696. Named a member of the Superior Council in 1701, and granted a pension of six hundred francs. Died at St. Vallier. _Bib._: Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Morgan, Daniel= (1736?-1802). Served in the Indian and French wars. Took the colonial side in the Revolution; marched with Arnold to Quebec, where he commanded the Virginia Mountaineers; captured in an assault on one of the batteries, 1776, and released on parole. Subsequently served under Washington against Burgoyne, and defeated Tarleton at Cowpens. =Bib.=: Graham, _Life of Daniel Morgan_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Morin, Augustin Norbert= (1803-1865). Born in St. Michel, Quebec. Educated at the Seminary of Quebec, and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1828. Elected to the Assembly, 1830; commissioner of crown lands in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, 1842-1843; Speaker of the House, 1848. In 1851 joined Francis Hincks in forming an administration, Hincks being premier, and Morin provincial secretary until 1853; formed coalition government with MacNab, and became commissioner of crown lands, 1853. George Brown testified to the value of his services to the cause of responsible government. “He possessed,” says Bourinot, “the confidence and respect of his people, but was wanting in the energy and ability to initiate and press public measures.” Papineau opposed him in 1848, although they had been associates in their earlier years, and Morin had drafted the famous “Ninety-Two Resolutions.” Appointed judge of the Superior Court of Lower Canada, 1855; a commissioner for codifying the laws of Lower Canada, 1859. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Hincks, _Reminiscences_; Béchard, _L’hon. A. N. Morin_. =Mormons in Canada.= In 1886 a party of Mormons from Utah, under the leadership of President Card, arrived in Alberta, and laid the foundations of the present town of Cardston, about fourteen miles north of the international boundary. Hard-working and enterprising pioneers, they made good from the start as wheat farmers. They also established a system of irrigation in the neighbourhood of another of their towns, Raymond, where they created a successful beet-sugar industry. At Cardston they have built a magnificent temple, as the centre of their religion in Canada. By the census of 1921 there were 19,656 Mormons in Canada, of whom 11,373 were in Alberta. =Bib.=: Thwaite, _Alberta_. =Morris, Alexander= (1826-1889). Born at Perth, Upper Canada. Educated at the University of Glasgow and McGill University; studied law and called to the bar of both Upper and Lower Canada, 1851. Entered public life in 1861 as member for South Lanark, and advocated Confederation in pamphlets and speeches; minister of inland revenue, 1869-1872; appointed chief-justice of the Court of Queen’s Bench of Manitoba, 1872; and the same year lieutenant-governor of Manitoba and the North-West Territories. Returned to Ontario, 1877, and sat in the Ontario Legislature for East Toronto from 1878 to 1886. _Bib._: Works: _Nova Britannia_; _Canada and Her Resources_; _Treaties of Canada_. For biog., _see_ Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Morris, Charles.= Born in England. Under the direction of Governor Shirley of Massachusetts made a survey of the whole of Nova Scotia. Commanded a company during the action at Grand Pré. Assisted in laying out the city of Halifax. Member of the Council of Nova Scotia, 1775; surveyor-general; acting judge of the Supreme Court. Died, 1781. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Morris, James= (1798-1865). Born in Paisley, Scotland. Came to Canada as a child with his parents; in business at Brockville with his brothers, William and Alexander. Member for Leeds county in the Upper Canada Assembly, 1837; a commissioner for the improvement of navigation of the St. Lawrence, 1838; and member of the United Canada Parliament, 1841. In 1844 appointed to the Legislative Council; in 1851 to the Executive Council, and postmaster-general; in 1853-1854 Speaker of the Legislative Assembly; in 1858 member of the Executive Council and Speaker of the Legislative Council; in 1862-1863 receiver-general. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Morris, William= (1786-1858). Born in Paisley, Scotland. Emigrated with his parents to Canada in 1801, and engaged in business in Montreal; served in the militia in the War of 1812, and in 1816 settled in Perth. Member for Lanark in the Upper Canada Assembly, 1820-1836, when he was appointed to the Legislative Council; claimed a share of the Clergy Reserves for the Church of Scotland; protested against removal of the capital from Montreal; in 1837-1838 served as colonel of the militia during the Rebellion; in 1844 appointed receiver-general; and in 1846-1848 president of the Executive Council. Died in Montreal. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Morrison, Sir Edward Whipple Bancroft= (1867-1925). Born London, Ontario. Engaged in newspaper work, first on the Hamilton _Spectator_, and later editor-in-chief of the Ottawa _Citizen_. Joined the 4th Field Battery in 1898, and was an enthusiastic student of artillery. Promoted captain, 1901, major, 1905, lieutenant-colonel, 1909. Served in the South African War, 1899-1900. Went overseas in 1914 as officer commanding the 1st Artillery Brigade, and rose to the command of the artillery of the Canadian Corps, with the rank of major-general. The splendid efficiency and spirit of the Canadian artillery was largely due to his inspiration and guidance. On his return to Canada, after the Armistice, he became adjutant-general of the Canadian militia. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Morrison, Joseph Curran= (1816-1885). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada with his father. In 1839 called to the bar of Upper Canada; in 1843-1847 deputy clerk of the Executive Council of Canada. In 1847 elected for West York to the Assembly; solicitor-general in the Hincks-Morin ministry, 1853-1854; a member of the Executive Council, 1856; and the same year receiver-general in the Taché-Macdonald administration. Registrar of Toronto, 1859. Solicitor-general in the Cartier-Macdonald ministry, 1860. Puisne judge of the Court of Common Pleas, 1862; judge in the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1863; judge of the Court of Appeal, 1877, which position he filled until his death. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Morrison, Thomas David.= An associate of William Lyon Mackenzie in his agitation for constitutional reform. Refused to sign the “Declaration of Independence.” Joined the Rebellion in 1837, but apparently avoided active participation. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =Moss, Sir Charles= (1840-1912). Born in Cobourg, Ontario. Studied law and called to the bar of Ontario, 1869. Lecturer and examiner to the Law Society, 1872-1879; bencher, 1880; Q. C., 1881; vice-chancellor of the University of Toronto, 1900-1906; judge of the Court of Appeal, 1897; chief-justice of Ontario, 1902-1912. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Moss, Thomas= (1836-1881). Born in Cobourg, Ontario. Educated at Gale’s Institute, Upper Canada College, Toronto, and at the University of Toronto; graduated with triple first-class honours and gold medals in classics, mathematics and modern languages. Studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1861. For a time lecturer in equity at Osgoode Hall, and registrar of the University of Toronto. Bencher of the Law Society, 1871; Q. C., 1872; member of the Law Reform Commission, 1875. Sat in the House of Commons for West Toronto, 1873-1875. Appointed judge of the Court of Appeal, 1875; chief-justice of Ontario, 1877-1881. Vice-chancellor of the University of Toronto, 1874. Died in Nice, France. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Mount Allison College.= Located at Sackville, New Brunswick. In 1858 an Act of the New Brunswick Legislature authorized the trustees of the Mount Allison Wesleyan College to establish a degree-conferring institution at Sackville, under the name of the Mount Allison Wesleyan College. Work regularly organized, 1862. Corporate name changed to University of Mount Allison College, 1886. =Mount Stephen, George Stephen, first Baron= (1829-1921). Born in Dufftown, Banffshire, Scotland. In 1850 came to Canada; built up a successful business in Montreal; in 1873 vice-president of the Bank of Montreal, and in 1876 president. Closely identified with the early history of the Canadian Pacific Railway, of which in 1881 he was elected president, and for his valuable services in promoting its construction created a baronet, 1886. Joined Lord Strathcona in 1886 in donating $1,000,000 for the erection of the Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal. In 1888 retired from the presidency of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1891 created a baron; and in 1905 G. C. V. O. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Who’s Who_. =Mountain, George Jehoshaphat= (1789-1863). Born in England. Educated at Cambridge; ordained deacon, 1812, and priest, 1816. In 1814-1817 rector of Fredericton, New Brunswick; in 1817 rector of Quebec; and in 1821 archdeacon of Lower Canada. Appointed suffragan bishop of Montreal, 1836, as coadjutor to Dr. C. J. Stewart, bishop of Quebec; and in 1850 bishop of Quebec. Established Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, which was incorporated as a college, 1843, and as a university, 1853. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._ and _Last Three Bishops_; Mockridge, _Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. =Mountain, Jacob= (1750-1825). Born Thwaites Hall, in Norfolk. England. Graduated at Cambridge, 1777, and became fellow, 1779. After holding several livings, appointed prebendary of Lincoln cathedral, 1788. Through the friendship of William Pitt, appointed in 1793 first Anglican bishop of Quebec. He is regarded as the father of the Church of England in British North America. During his administration the number of clergy increased from nine to sixty-one. The cathedral of Quebec erected under his auspices. Became a member of the Legislative and Executive Councils of Canada. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Mockridge, _Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. =Mountain Passes.= _See_ Akamina; Athabaska; Bush; Canoe; Crowsnest; Fortress; Howse; Kananaskis; Kicking Horse; North Fork; North Kootenay; Middle Kootenay; Peace River; Robson; Rogers; Simpson; Smoky; South Kootenay; Thompson; Tonquin; Vermilion; Whirlpool; Whiteman; Yellowhead. =Mountain Peaks.= _See_ Aberdeen; Assiniboine; Athabaska; Balfour; Biddle; Brown; Bryce; Cathedral; Chancellor; Collie; Columbia; Consolation; Deltaform; Diadem; Dome; Forbes; Freshfield; Goodsir; Gordon; Hector; Hooker; Hungabee; Kaufmann; Lefroy; Logan; Lyell; Miette; Murchison; Neptuak; Resplendant; Robson; Sarbach; Sir Alexander; Sir Donald; Stephen; Temple; Thompson; Turret; Vaux; Victoria; Whitehorn; Wilson. =Mounted Police.= _See_ Royal Canadian Mounted Police. =Mowat, Sir Oliver= (1820-1903). Born in Kingston, Ontario. Educated there; called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1841, and practised in Kingston and Toronto. He had been a law student in the office of John A. Macdonald, who many years later was to be his opponent in the Ontario Boundary dispute, and other political controversies. In 1857-1864 represented South Ontario in the Canada Assembly; in 1858 provincial secretary in the Brown-Dorion ministry; postmaster-general in the Macdonald-Dorion administration, 1863-1864, and in the Taché coalition government, 1864. From 1864 to 1872 vice-chancellor of Ontario. In 1872 succeeded Edward Blake as premier and attorney-general of Ontario, and held office until 1896. In 1896 minister of justice in the Dominion Cabinet, with leadership in the Senate; and in 1897 lieutenant-governor of Ontario, a position he held until his death. He took an active part in the movement for Confederation and attended the Quebec Conference, favoured an elective Senate, and was an active member of the Anti-Slavery Society. Dr. Skelton describes him as “a Liberal by conviction and a Tory by temperament,” one who gave his province “honest and cautiously progressive government.” He was, says Parkin, “a keen and sagacious constitutional lawyer, and during his long premiership of twenty-four years did more than anyone else to settle the relations of the province to the Dominion.” =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Morgan, _Can. Men_; Biggar, _Sir Oliver Mowat_; Clarke, _Sixty Years in Upper Canada_. =Mullin, George Harry.= Sergeant, Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry. _Victoria Cross._ In an attack at Passchendaele, on October 30th, 1917, he captured, single-handed, a “pill-box,” which was holding up the attack and causing heavy casualties. He rushed a sniper’s post in front, destroyed the garrison with bombs, and reaching the entrance of the “pill-box” forced the garrison of ten to surrender. Rapid fire was directed on him all the time, and his clothes were riddled by bullets. =Mulock, Sir William= (1843-). Born in Bond Head, Simcoe county, Ontario. Educated at the University of Toronto. In 1868 called to the bar of Ontario, and appointed an examiner and a lecturer on equity of the Law Society. In 1882 entered the Dominion Parliament; 1896-1905, postmaster-general of Canada, and through his initiative the Inter-Imperial Postal Conference adopted penny postage within the empire. Created K. C. M. G., 1902. In 1905 appointed chief-justice of the Exchequer Division of the High Court of Justice for the province of Ontario. Chief-justice of Ontario, 1923. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Municipal Government.= Did not exist in the modern sense, in New France. Had its beginnings in Upper Canada in the days of Simcoe. In 1793 an Act was passed “to provide for the nomination and appointment of parish and town officers.” It gave but small powers to the township councils, but, as J. M. McEvoy has said: “It was the conception of law that was fostered in the men of Ontario by their town meeting which led in large measure to the establishment of responsible government.” It remained for Robert Baldwin to bring about the “culmination and final triumph of the agitation for local self-government that had, for over fifty years, run a parallel course with the movement for responsible government.” The Municipal Corporations Act of 1849 is not only in all essential principles embodied in the municipal system of to-day in Ontario, but it has become the model for most of the other Canadian provinces. A brief history of the movement for municipal government will be found in Leacock’s _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_, and more fully in Shortt’s _Municipal Government in Ontario_. _See also_ Wickett, _City Government in Canada_ and _Municipal Government in the North-West Territories_; Ewart, _Municipal History of Manitoba_; Weir, _Municipal Institutions in Quebec_. =Murdoch, Beamish.= Historian. One of the contributors to _The Club_ edited by Joseph Howe in the _Nova Scotian_. He was for some years a member of the Nova Scotia Assembly, where he took a very independent stand. =Bib.=: _History of Nova Scotia_. =Murray Canal.= An open waterway across the isthmus of the Prince Edward county peninsula, Ontario. Is regarded as forming part of the Trent Canal system The first proposal to construct this canal appears to have been made in 1796, and the project was frequently discussed thereafter in the provincial Legislature. Construction was not actually begun until 1882, and the canal was completed in 1889. =Murray, Sir George= (1772-1846). Born in Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh University, and entered the army, 1789, Served in Flanders, 1794; in the West Indies, 1795-1796; in Egypt, 1801; in the Baltic expedition, and in Portugal, 1808; quartermaster-general in the Peninsular War, and for his services promoted major-general, and made K. C. B., 1813. In 1815 appointed provisional lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada. Returned to England. Entered Parliament, 1823; commander-in-chief in Ireland, 1825-1828; colonial secretary, 1828-1830. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Murray, George Henry= (1861-). Born in Grand Narrows, Nova Scotia. Educated at the public schools and at Boston University; studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1883. Q. C., 1895. Appointed to the Nova Scotia Legislative Council, 1889; took office in the Fielding administration, 1891; premier of Nova Scotia, 1896-1923. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Murray, James= (1719-1794). Entered the army, 1740, and served in the West Indies, Flanders, and Brittany. In 1758 commanded a brigade at Louisbourg; and the left wing of the army at the Battle of the Plains, 1759. After the surrender of Quebec, he was left in command, and defended the city against the French, 1760. Beaten by Lévis at Ste. Foy, 1760. On October 27th, 1760, appointed governor of Quebec, and from 1763 to 1766 governor of Canada. In 1772 lieutenant-general; in 1774 governor of Minorca; and in 1783 promoted general. He is described as impetuous, brave to rashness, and extremely ambitious. He and his officers “administered the laws fairly and justly and did everything in their power to mitigate those sufferings, inevitable at the close of a devastating war, which in this case had been aggravated by the monstrous frauds and corruption of Bigot and his gang.” He made himself very popular with the French Canadians, and found congenial companions among their _noblesse_. On the other hand, his relations with the British merchants in Quebec and Montreal, many of whom are described as “inferior representatives of their nation,” were far from cordial. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _The Fight with France_ and _The Making of Canada_; Lucas, _History of Canada_; Casgrain, _Wolfe, Montcalm_; Bradley, _Dorchester_; Mahon, _Life of General James Murray_. =Musgrave, Sir Anthony= (1828-1888). Born in England. Entered the Inner Temple, London, 1851; governor of the island of St. Vincent, 1861; governor of Newfoundland, 1864-1869; governor of British Columbia, 1869; governor of Natal, 1872; governor of South Australia, 1873; governor of Jamaica, 1877; governor of Queensland, 1888. As governor of British Columbia he took an active part in the movement for Confederation with the Dominion. After touring the colony, he prepared a series of resolutions for the Council, and cooperated in every way with those who were drafting the terms of union. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Begg, _History of British Columbia_. =Muy.= _See_ Daneaux. =Myrand, Ernest.= Historian. Author of several scholarly and impartial works on phases of the history of New France and those who made that history. =Bib.=: _Frontenac et ses amis_; _Sir William Phipps devant Québec_. =Nancy.= A schooner built at Detroit in 1789. She was in the service of the X Y Company until its amalgamation with the North West Company in 1804. During the War of 1812-1814 she was used by the Canadian government as a transport. In the summer of 1814 she was the sole remaining British vessel on Lake Huron or Georgian Bay. In August she was anchored in the Nottawasaga river, under the protection of a blockhouse. An American squadron, the _Niagara_, _Tigress_ and _Scorpion_, with twenty-four pieces of cannon and 500 men, attacked the blockhouse, which was defended by twenty men with three guns. Both the blockhouse and the _Nancy_ were blown up. =Bib.=: James, _Naval History of Great Britain_. =National Parks.= The more important of these are in the Rocky Mountains. Rocky Mountains National Park, with headquarters at Banff, was reserved by Order-in-Council in 1885 and established by Act of Parliament in 1887. It was subsequently enlarged and the present area is 2,751 square miles. Jasper National Park, with headquarters at Jasper, was reserved by Order-in-Council in 1907. Its present area is 4,400 square miles. Waterton Lakes National Park, reserved 1895, present area 220 square miles. Glacier National Park, reserved 1886, present area 468 square miles. Yoho National Park, reserved 1886, present area 476 square miles. Kootenay National Park, reserved 1920, present area 587 square miles. Revelstoke National Park, reserved 1914, present area 100 square miles. Elk Island National Park, reserved 1911, present area 51 square miles. Buffalo National Park, at Wainwright, northern Alberta, reserved 1908, present area 161.5 square miles. Nemiskan National Park, reserved as an antelope sanctuary, 1922, present area 8½ square miles. This reserve is in south-eastern Alberta. Fort Howe National Park, St. John, New Brunswick, reserved 1914. Fort Anne National Park, Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, reserved 1917. St. Lawrence Islands National Park, secured from the Mississagua Indians, 1904. Point Pelee National Park, Lake Erie, a bird sanctuary, reserved 1918. The Province of Ontario maintains a large reservation in Algonquin Park; and Quebec in Laurentides Park. British Columbia has at present five provincial reservations, Strathcona Park on Vancouver Island, 800 square miles in area; Mount Garibaldi Park in southern British Columbia, 400 square miles in area; Kokanee Park in West Kootenay, 100 square miles in area; Mount Robson Park, adjoining Jasper National Park, 840 square miles in area; Mount Assiniboine Park, adjoining Rocky Mountains National Park, 20 square miles in area. =National Policy.= In 1876 Sir John Macdonald brought forward a resolution in the House of Commons advocating a National Policy of increased protection to mining, manufacturing and agricultural interests. That became the accepted policy of the Conservative party. It was no new principle, James W. Johnstone having moved a similar resolution in the Nova Scotia Assembly in 1847, and an association having been formed in Toronto in 1858, with W. B. Jarvis, Mackenzie Bowell and Isaac Buchanan as its leading spirits, based on the principle of imposing higher duties on those foreign products that came into competition with Canadian products; but Macdonald, with characteristic political sagacity, seized the psychological moment of a period of unparalleled commercial depression to offer his solution, and captured the public imagination. For a brief account of the tariff history that led up to the adoption of the National Policy, _see_ Parkin, _Macdonald_, and Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. _See also_ Macdonald, Sir John A.; Conservative Party. =National Transcontinental Railway.= When the third Canadian transcontinental railway was proposed, it was agreed that the government should build the eastern section, from Moncton to Winnipeg, and lease it to the Grand Trunk for a fifty-year period, the railway paying no rent for the first seven years and three per cent, on the cost of the railway for the remaining forty-three years. The war destroyed the expectations of the promoters of the railway, and eventually the government had to take over both this eastern section and the western section, or Grand Trunk Pacific. _See also_ Canadian National Railways; Grand Trunk Pacific Railway; Grand Trunk Railway. =Bib.=: _Canada Year Book_. =Naturalization Convention.= Between Great Britain and the United States. Signed at London, 1870. Provided for the naturalization of former British subjects in the United States, and of former American citizens in the British Dominions including Canada. A supplementary Convention, signed in 1871, provided for the renunciation of naturalization. =Bib.=: _Treaties and Agreements affecting Canada_. =Naval Forces on the Lakes.= By an Exchange of Notes, in 1817, Great Britain and the United States agreed that after that date the naval forces of the respective countries on the Great Lakes should be confined to one vessel each of not more than one hundred tons burthen on Lake Ontario and two on the upper lakes, also one each of the same burthen on Lake Champlain. =Bib.=: _Treaties and Agreements affecting Canada_. =Navigation Acts.= Regulated the privileges of British shipping and conditions under which foreign ships were admitted to trade in British ports. Such restrictive legislation goes back to the reigns of Henry VII and Elizabeth. The Navigation Act of 1651 forbade the importation of goods into England except in English ships; that of 1660 provided that all colonial produce must be exported in English vessels; that of 1663 enacted that the colonies should receive no goods whatever in foreign vessels; that of 1672 enumerated a long list of prohibited articles. By the treaty of Ghent discriminating duties were mutually abolished, so far as Great Britain and the United States were concerned. Subsequent legislation gradually modified the severity of these laws, but in the forties they still imposed a severe burden on Canadian trade, and in 1847 the Legislature passed an address to the crown praying for the repeal of the laws which prevented the free use of the St. Lawrence by ships of all nations. They were finally abolished in 1849. =Bib.=: _Dict. Eng. Hist._ =Navy Hall.= Built at Niagara, or Newark, by Haldimand during the Revolutionary War, for the accommodation of officers of the naval department on Lake Ontario. Simcoe made it his official residence. Here he entertained such distinguished guests as Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the father of Queen Victoria, Alexander Mackenzie the explorer, the American General Lincoln, and the Duc de la Rochefoucauld. The building was destroyed by the Americans in 1813. =Bib.=: Scott, _John Graves Simcoe_. =Navy Island.= In the Niagara river above the falls. Occupied by American sympathizers with William Lyon Mackenzie and his followers, in December, 1837. They were led by Rensselaer Van Rensselaer of Albany, who managed to get possession of several pieces of artillery and opened fire on the Canadian shore. The Canadian government sent formal complaints both to Washington and to the governor of New York State, but as no steps apparently were taken to check the raiders. Colonel MacNab sent Captain Drew with a small party of volunteers to destroy the _Caroline_ (_q.v._) which was being used to carry men and munitions to the island from the American side. A desultory fire was kept up by the island guns for some days, but they were finally silenced by the fire of a twenty-four-pounder mounted on a scow. Van Rensselaer and Mackenzie finally evacuated the island on January 14th. =Bib.=: _Upper Canadian Rebellion_, in _Canada in the Great War_, vol. i.; Riddell, _A Contemporary Account of the Navy Island Episode_ (R. S. C., 1919). =Neilson, John= (1776-1848). Born in Scotland. In 1790 came to Canada, and in 1797 edited the Quebec _Gazette_. Member of the provincial Assembly for Quebec county, 1818. In 1822 one of the delegates, with Papineau, sent to England to oppose the union of Upper and Lower Canada; and in 1830 went on a similar mission. Member of the Special Council of Lower Canada, 1839, and of the Canadian Legislature, 1840, in both of which, as well as in his newspaper, he bitterly opposed the union of the provinces, even after it had become an accomplished fact. He was also opposed to responsible government. He is described as the real leader of the French Canadians in 1841. He had been a warm friend and supporter of Papineau, but deserted him later because of the increasing violence of the latter’s language and methods. He became Speaker of the Legislative Council, 1844. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Nelson, Robert= (1794-1873). Born in Montreal. Practised as a surveyor; and in 1812 served during the war. In 1827 elected with Louis J. Papineau to the Assembly as member for Montreal. In 1838, while residing in the United States, organized a force of 600 filibusters, and invaded Canada, making his headquarters at Napierville, and as president of a provisional government proclaimed a Canadian republic. The insurgents were defeated at Lacolle and Odelltown, and Nelson fled to the United States. From 1862 to 1873 practised as a surgeon in New York. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Nelson, Wolfred= (1792-1863). Born in Montreal. Practised medicine and served as a surgeon in the War of 1812. One of the leaders of the Rebellion of 1837; accompanied Papineau to the St. Charles meeting, and led the _Patriotes_ at St. Denis. A price was put upon his head; he was captured and banished to the Bermudas, but released in October, 1838. In 1842 he returned to Montreal and resumed the practice of his profession. In 1844 was elected to Parliament for Richelieu county, defeating Viger. Inspector of prisons, 1851; and chairman of the Board of Prison Inspectors, 1859. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Nelson River.= Flows from Lake Winnipeg, and empties into Hudson Bay, but its ultimate source is in the Rocky Mountains, at the headwaters of Bow river, a branch of the South Saskatchewan. Length to Lake Winnipeg, 390 miles; to headwaters of the Bow, 1,660 miles. The mouth of the river was discovered, and named, by Sir Thomas Button in 1612. He wintered there, 1612-1613. Captain Luke Foxe spent eleven days at Port Nelson in 1631. The river itself was explored by David Thompson in 1792. Pierre Radisson visited its mouth in 1669, and built the first trading fort there. In later years the post was repeatedly captured by the French, and recaptured by or restored to the Hudson’s Bay Company, in whose hands it finally remained, under the name of York Factory (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Pathfinders of the West_ and _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Nelson.= City in British Columbia. Dates from about 1887. First known as Salisbury, after Lord Salisbury; then Stanley, after the then governor-general. In 1888 named Nelson after Hugh Nelson (1830-1896) lieutenant-governor of British Columbia. Incorporated as a town in 1897. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Nesbitt, William.= Accompanied Governor Cornwallis to Halifax. Acted as secretary of Nova Scotia for several years. Afterwards practised the profession of law at Halifax. Attorney-general for twenty-five years. Elected to the Assembly, 1758; Speaker of the House, 1759-1783; retired on a pension, 1783. Died, 1784. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Neutral Nation.= An Iroquoian tribe, occupying the north shore of Lake Erie. First visited by the Jesuit Fathers, Brébeuf and Chaumonot, in 1640, who described them as ferocious and extremely superstitious. Despite all efforts, the attempted mission had to be abandoned. The tribe was exterminated by the Iroquois in 1650. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Lalement, _Relations_, 1641, 1643; Ragueneau, _Relations_, 1648, 1651. =New Brunswick.= Area, 27,911 square miles. Population by the census of 1921, was 387,876. The gulf coast of the province was discovered by Cartier in 1534; first settlement made by De Monts and Champlain, on St. Croix Island, near the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, in 1604. The same year they discovered and named the St. John river, at the mouth of which La Tour built a fort in 1635. The territory embraced in this province formed part of Acadie under French rule. It was included in Nova Scotia from the date of the cession to England up to 1784, when it became a separate province. Its development dates from the coming of the United Empire Loyalists in 1783. French settlements already existed on the east coast and Chignecto basin, and on the St. John river. The same struggle for responsible government took place here as in the other provinces, marked by the same final triumph. Confederation became for a time a burning issue, as in Nova Scotia; and also the Intercolonial and its route through the province. Boundary disputes embittered the relations of the province with Maine, but these also were finally adjusted, more or less to the satisfaction of both sides. _See also_ Acadia; Nova Scotia; St. John; Fredericton; Monts; Champlain; Aroostook War; Wilmot; Tilley. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of Acadia_ and _History of New Brunswick_. =New Brunswick, University of.= The College of New Brunswick was founded by a provincial charter granted by lieutenant-governor Carleton in 1800. Charter granted by George IV in 1828, to King’s College, Fredericton. The legislature of New Brunswick provided an endowment of eleven hundred pounds a year, in addition to ten hundred pounds granted by the king out of the casual and territorial revenues of the province. Sir Howard Douglas, the then lieutenant-governor, a man of liberal views, took a deep interest in the college, and sought to have the charter drawn upon broad lines. It was, however, so framed as to make it essentially a Church of England College. After years of controversy, in which L. A. Wilmot took a leading part, a bill was finally assented to in 1846 removing some of the restrictions of the charter. In 1859 King’s College became the University of New Brunswick, and was transformed into a provincial undenominational institution. =Bib.=: Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =New Caledonia.= Name applied in the days of the fur trade, to what is now the north-eastern part of British Columbia. First visited by Alexander Mackenzie in 1793. Simon Eraser and John Stuart, of the North West Company, established posts there in 1806-1807. Later, the fur trade in this district was associated with the names of William Conolly, James Douglas and John Tod. Name seems to have originated about 1806, and as the fur traders who gave it were Scotch the reason for its selection is obvious. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Morice, _Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Newfoundland.= Although it is a separate Dominion, the history of Newfoundland is so interwoven with that of Canada that it has seemed desirable to include here a very brief sketch. Discovered by Cabot in 1497. Sir Humphrey Gilbert established a short-lived colony on the island in 1583. Another attempt was made in 1610, by the Company of London. A more successful effort at colonization was that of Lord Baltimore in 1621. For a time the colony was governed by the so-called “Fishing Admirals,” the most famous of whom was Richard Whitbourne, author of _A Discourse and Discoverie of Newfoundland_. The relations between Newfoundland and Canada, warlike or peaceful, go back to the seventeenth century, when the little settlement of Placentia, founded 1660, represented the interests of the French king in Newfoundland, and when French and English privateers alternately attacked and plundered St. Johns and Placentia. In 1696 Iberville captured St. Johns, and again in 1705 the French were successful under Subercase, and once more in 1709, under St. Ovide. By the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, France finally surrendered whatever rights she had in Newfoundland to England, with the exception of fishing rights on the treaty shore. In 1762 St. Johns was again captured, by a French fleet, and retaken by Amherst the same year. With the cession of Canada to Great Britain, relations with Newfoundland became peaceful. Trade developed between the two colonies. Newfoundland artificers helped to defend Quebec in 1776. The Royal Newfoundland Regiment saw service in Canada in 1812-1814. Irish settlers emigrated from Newfoundland to Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. A Legislative Assembly was granted to the colony in 1832 as a result of popular agitation, and responsible government was established in 1855. The Labrador question has been a fruitful source of dispute between Canada and Newfoundland for many years. _See_ Labrador. Newfoundland was represented at the Quebec Conference, but decided not to join the Confederation. In 1895 delegates were sent to Ottawa to discuss terms of union with the Canadian government, but they failed to reach an agreement. To-day, Newfoundland has apparently made up her mind to be a sister to Canada but not to marry. =Bib.=: Auspach, _History of the Island of Newfoundland_; Pedley, _History of Newfoundland from the Earliest Times_; Millais, _Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways_; Bonnycastle, _Newfoundland in 1842_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_; Prowse, _History of Newfoundland_; Reeves, _History of the Government of Newfoundland_; Hatton and Harvey, _Newfoundland_; Willson, _The Tenth Island_; Rogers, _Newfoundland, Historical and Geographical_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =New France.= Name given to the French possessions in North America, otherwise known as Canada and Acadia. First discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1534. First settlement made in Acadia by De Monts, in 1604; and in Canada, by Champlain, in 1608. _See also_ Canada; Acadia; Quebec; Port Royal; Louisbourg; Montreal; Cartier; Champlain; Monts; Frontenac; La Salle; etc. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_; Lescarbot, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_; Cartier, _Voyages_; Champlain, _Voyages_; Parkman, _Works_; Garneau, _Histoire du Canada_; Faillon, _Histoire de la Colonie Française en Canada_. =New Langley.= A small town on the Fraser river. Now known as Langley. Suggested in 1858 as the capital of British Columbia. _See also_ Fort Langley. =New Ontario.= Includes that part of the province known as northern and north-western Ontario, lying west of the Upper Ottawa river and its tributary lakes, north of Lake Huron and Lake Superior, and extending to the eastern boundary of the province of Manitoba on the west, and to the Albany river and James Bay on the north. It is traversed by the transcontinental lines of both the Canadian Pacific and the Canadian National Railways. =Bib.=: _North-Western Ontario, its Boundaries, Resources, and Communications_. =New Westminster.= A city of British Columbia, founded by Colonel R. C. Moody in 1859, and first named Queensborough. The present name was given by Queen Victoria the same year, when the new town was selected as the capital of British Columbia. It was incorporated in 1860; and in 1868 the seat of government was removed to Victoria. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_; Begg, _History of British Columbia_. =Newark.= _See_ Niagara. =Newcastle, Henry Pelham Tiennes Clinton, Duke of= (1811-1864). Entered Parliament, 1832; chief secretary for Ireland, 1846; and secretary for war and the colonies, 1852-1854; secretary for war in 1854-1855; colonial secretary, 1859-1864; visited Canada in 1860, with the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII. In 1859 he had threatened to disallow the high tariff proposed by the Canadian government, but thought better of it when Gait, the Canadian finance minister, stood firm. In the Intercolonial Railway question, he offered the delegates of the provinces, on behalf of the British government, an Imperial guarantee of interest. Confederation he regarded as entirely a question for the colonies themselves. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Newspapers.= The first published in British North America was the Halifax _Gazette_, 1752; followed by the Quebec _Gazette_, 1764; the Montreal _Gazette_, 1778; _Royal Gazette_, St. John, New Brunswick, 1785; _Royal Gazette_, Charlottetown, 1791; the _Upper Canada Gazette_, Newark, 1793. The first newspaper in British Columbia was the _British Colonist_, 1858; in what is now Manitoba, the _Nor’Wester_, 1859. _See also_ under names of individual newspapers. =Niagara= (=Newark=). Settled by Loyalists about 1782. Selected by Simcoe ten years later as the capital of Upper Canada, and named by him Newark. The first Legislature of the province met there in 1792. The first public library in the province established there in 1800. Settled largely by United Empire Loyalists. Known to-day as Niagara-on-the-Lake. _See also_ Fort George. =Bib.=: Kirby, _Annals of Niagara_; _Reminiscences of Niagara_ (Niagara Hist. Soc., n.d.); Carnochan, _Niagara Library, 1800 to 1820_; and _History of Niagara_; Cruikshank, _Notes on the History of Niagara_. =Niagara Falls.= First described from actual observation by Father Hennepin, in the narrative of his journey of 1678. The falls are indicated on Champlain’s map of 1632; he apparently heard of them from the Indians. They are briefly mentioned in Ragueneau’s _Relation des Hurons_, 1648. The name is of Iroquoian origin. =Bib.=: Hulbert, _Niagara River_; Spencer, _Falls of Niagara_; Dow, _Anthology and Bibliography of Niagara Falls_; Severance, _An Old Frontier of France_. =Nicholson, Sir Francis= (1660-1728). Born in England. Entered the army, 1678; lieutenant-governor of the colonies north of Chesapeake Bay, 1686-1689; and lieutenant-governor of Virginia, 1690-1694. Governor of Maryland, 1694; and of Virginia, 1698-1705. From 1705 to 1713 engaged in military operations against the French in Canada, and, by capturing Port Royal, made Acadia British territory. In 1712 appointed governor of Nova Scotia; and in 1719 of South Carolina. Subsequently appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in North America, and a lieutenant-general. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_. =Nicolet, Jean= (1598-1642). Born at Cherbourg, Normandy. Brought to Canada, 1618, by Champlain, to learn to be an interpreter, for which his aptitude for languages and adventurous disposition admirably fitted him. The same year sent to the Algonquins of Allumette Island, on the Ottawa, to learn their language. Remained with the tribe two years; and afterwards spent eight or nine years with the Nipissings, gaining so much of their confidence that he was made a member of the tribe and took part in their councils. His memoirs on this tribe, furnished to Father Le Jeune, were embodied in the _Jesuit Relations_. Returned to Quebec, 1633, after an absence of fifteen years. There met Champlain, who sent him west once more, in 1634. Reached Green Bay the same year, and ascended Fox river to the Wisconsin portage. The following year returned to Quebec, and employed as commissary of the fur trade, and interpreter at Three Rivers. He married in 1637 the grand-daughter of Louis Hébert (_q.v._). Drowned in the St. Lawrence by the swamping of his boat in a storm. =Bib.=: Butterfield, _Discovery of the North-West by Jean Nicolet_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, viii, 188-194; p. 41-46; xi, 1-25; xvi, 2; Vimont in _Jes. Rel._ xxiii; Gosselin, _Jean Nicolet_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Nile Expedition.= In 1884 Lord Wolseley, who was in command of the expedition for the relief of General Gordon, and needed expert boatmen to navigate the dangerous waters of the Nile, remembered the Canadian _voyageurs_ who had been invaluable to him in 1869-1870 when he commanded the expedition for the suppression of the first Riel Rebellion, and appealed to Canada for a picked force of Canadian _voyageurs_. A force of 378 men under the command of Colonel F. C. Denison, was sent to Egypt and served throughout the campaign. They won the warm commendation of the commander-in-chief. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_, vol, i, pp. 264-5. =Ninety-Two Resolutions.= Adopted by the Assembly of Lower Canada in 1834. Inspired by Papineau and drafted by A. N. Morin. Embodied, in intemperate language, a number of real, as well as some fanciful, grievances of the French-Canadian people. The Assembly declared that “the French Canadians had been treated with contumely, that they had been debarred from public office, and that their habits, customs and interests had been disregarded.” It appealed to the “justice of the king and parliament of Great Britain, likewise to the honourable feeling of the whole British people.” =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Nipigon Lake.= Probably seen by Radisson in 1662, on his journey from Lake Superior to Hudson Bay. The first definite record of discovery is that of Charles de Greysolon, Sieur de La Tourette, brother of Du Lhut, about 1678. He built several trading posts on or near the lake, between 1678 and 1686. La Vérendrye had charge of these forts in 1727-1728, and acquired there much of the information which induced him to undertake his long search for the Western Sea. In 1784 Edouard Umfreville was sent by the North West Company to discover a canoe route from the lake west to the Winnipeg river. The narrative of his successful expedition is in the archives of McGill University. The North West Company had posts on the lake for many years, and also the Hudson’s Bay Company. Their post, Nipigon House, is still in operation. =Nipissing Indians.= A tribe of the widespread Algonquian family, occupying the upper waters of the Ottawa river, and the country about Lake Nipissing. First mentioned and described by Champlain, who calls them the _Nebecerini_. The name also appears, in ever-varying form, in the narratives of other early French explorers and missionaries. Parkman mentions that they were also known as _Sorciers_, from their ill repute as magicians. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of North American Indians_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Nipissing Lake.= Named after the Algonquian tribe of the same name. Discovered by the Récollet missionary Le Caron in 1615, on his way to the country of the Hurons. Traversed by Champlain the same year. Constant references are made to the lake in the early journals of explorers, missionaries, and fur traders. It formed part of the western route of the fur traders under both French and British rule. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Niverville, Joseph Boucher, Chevalier de.= Born in 1715, he became an ensign in 1743, and fought in the War of 1744-1748, during which he led a raiding party into New England and attacked Fort Massachusetts. He was on close terms with the Abnaki Indians and had great influence with them. Accompanied Céloron de Blainville on his expedition down the Ohio in 1749; and the same year was sent with LeGardeur de Saint Pierre (_q.v._) to the far west, the Post of the Western Sea. He built Fort La Jonquière on the upper Saskatchewan. In 1755 he led a raid against Fort Cumberland; commanded the Indians at the siege of Fort William Henry in 1775; and the following year was in command of Fort Machault in Pennsylvania. Employed in scouting operations during the siege of Quebec, 1759. Awarded the Cross of St. Louis, 1763, for distinguished services. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Noble, Colonel Arthur.= A Massachusetts officer, sent by Governor Shirley in 1746 to oppose Ramesay in Acadia. Occupied Grand Pré without opposition, Ramesay having retreated to Chignecto. In February of the following year a party of Canadians and Indians under Coulon de Villiers surprised the British garrison at Grand Pré, and in the fight Noble and his brother, with a large number of men, were killed, and the rest forced to capitulate. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Half Century of Conflict_; Hannay, _History of Acadia_. =Nomenclature.= _See_ Place-Names in Canada. =Nootka Affair.= Had its origin in the fur trading operations of the British captain, Meares, in 1788 at Friendly Cove, Nootka. Meares purchased from the Indian chief Maquinna a tract of land on the shore of the cove, and erected a fort. The following year his vessels were seized by the Spaniards, who claimed sovereignty, and held Nootka until 1795. The dispute over Nootka led to a controversy between England and Spain as to the sovereignty of the Pacific. The minor dispute was settled by Spain making restitution for the seizure of buildings and vessels. The larger question remained unsettled, owing to England’s preoccupation with the European situation. Spain finally abandoned the north-west coast, but her claims, such as they were, were assumed by the United States in later years to support their claims to the Oregon territory. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of North-West Coast_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Nootka Sound.= On west coast of Vancouver Island. Discovered and named by Captain James Cook in 1778. He refitted his ships there. Grey and Kendrick were there in 1788-1789, and Metcalfe the last-named year. Prior discovery in 1774 claimed by Spaniards, but not established. They built a fort there in 1789, renamed the place Port San Lorenzo, and remained in possession until 1795, when the district was taken over on behalf of Britain. Here Vancouver and Quadra carried on the negotiations of 1792 for the restoration of the territory. The natives destroyed the American ship _Boston_ in 1803 and murdered her crew. The National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada erected a cairn and memorial plate at Friendly Cove in 1925. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Norquay, John= (1841-1889). Born in St. Andrews, Manitoba. After the suppression of the Riel Rebellion, elected to the Assembly of Manitoba, and entered the government as minister of public works. Defeated for election to the House of Commons, 1872. Resigned from the ministry, 1874, but became provincial secretary, 1875; and again minister of public works, 1876; premier, 1878. Held office continuously until 1887, when he resigned. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Norse Voyages.= The Norsemen had discovered and made settlements on Iceland as early as 874; Eric the Red in 980 discovered and named Greenland, and founded a colony; in 980 Bjarne, on his way from Iceland to Greenland, was driven out of his course and reached the mainland of America, coasted north up it without landing, and eventually arrived at his destination. In the year 1000, Leif, the son of Eric the Red, sailed from Greenland to the south and reached the mainland of America. The first land he discovered and landed upon he named Helluland, or the Land of Stones. Still sailing south along the coast, he came to another place which he named Markland or the Country of Forests. Again putting to sea, he came in two days to another land which he named Vinland, where one of his men found wild grapes. Helluland is supposed to have been Labrador, and Markland either Newfoundland or the coast of Nova Scotia. The identity of Vinland has been for many years a matter of controversy, different scholars placing it anywhere from Nova Scotia or Prince Edward Island to Connecticut. Leif returned in 1001, and other voyages followed, by Thorwald, Karlsevne and others. Karlsevne tried to found a colony in 1007, but after remaining four years it was abandoned. =Bib.=: Leacock, _Dawn of Canadian History_; De Costa, _Pre-Columbian Discovery of America_; Reeves, _Finding of Wineland the Good_; Fiske, _Discovery of America_; Olson, _Voyages of the Northmen_; Nansen, _In Northern Mists_; Burpee, _Atlas of Canadian History_. =North, Frederick, Second Earl of Guilford= (1732-1792). Entered British parliament, 1754; chancellor of the exchequer, 1767; premier, 1770; resigned, 1783. In 1773 he thought a Legislative Council preferable to an Assembly for Canada, with powers of legislation but not of taxation. In 1783 he wrote Haldimand that the United Empire Loyalists were to receive assistance and support in Canada. Suggested a military settlement in the Eastern Townships. Unpopular with the settlers at Vincennes, and burnt in effigy. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_; Shortt and Doughty, _Canadian Constitutional Documents_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =North American.= Radical newspaper published at Toronto. Edited by William McDougall. The organ of the Clear Grits. Afterwards absorbed by the _Globe_. It published a bitter personal attack on George Brown. =Bib.=: Lewis, _George Brown_. =North American Fur Company.= Controlled by John Jacob Astor. Succeeded the Pacific Fur Company. _See also_ Astor; Pacific Fur Company. =North Atlantic Coast Fisheries.= Under the terms of the Convention of Commerce between Great Britain and the United States, signed at London in 1818, citizens of the United States were given in perpetuity the right to take, dry, and cure fish on certain parts of the coasts of Newfoundland, Labrador and the Magdalen Islands; and at the same time renounced forever any rights or privileges they had hitherto claimed or enjoyed on other parts of the coast of British North America, but might enter bays and harbours for shelter or repairs or obtaining wood or water. By a Special Agreement dated 1908, it was decided to submit certain questions arising out of the Convention of 1818 to a Tribunal of Arbitration. The Tribunal, which consisted of members of the Permanent Court at The Hague, made its award in 1910; and in 1912 an Agreement was signed at Washington giving effect to the recommendations of the Hague Tribunal. =Bib.=: _Treaties and Agreements affecting Canada_. =North Devon Island.= North of Baffin Island, in the Arctic Archipelago. Lancaster Sound lies south of it, and Jones Sound north. Discovered by Parry in 1820, who named it after the county of Devon, of which his second in command, Lieutenant Liddon, was a native. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =North Somerset Island.= In the Arctic Archipelago, immediately north of Boothia Peninsula. Named by Parry in 1820 after his native county in England. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =North-West America.= First ship launched in what is now British Columbia. _See_ Meares. =North-West Angle.= By the treaty of Versailles, 1783, the boundary between the United States and the British possessions was to run through the Lake of the Woods “to the most north-western point thereof,” and thence due west to the Mississippi. By the treaty of Ghent, 1814, commissioners were appointed to fix the boundary to the most north-western point of the Lake of the Woods. The commissioners failing to do so, and in 1818 the 49th parallel having been decided upon as the boundary from the Lake of the Woods to the mountains, and in 1824 the latitude and longitude of the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods having been determined, the Ashburton treaty, 1842, provided that the boundary should run to the most north-western point of the Lake of the Woods, being lat. 49° 23’55” north, and long. 95° 14’38” west, thence due south to the 49th parallel. In 1872 a line was run south from this north-western point—of what was then known as the “North-West Angle Inlet” of the Lake of the Woods—to the 49th parallel. By a treaty signed at Washington in 1925 provision was made, among other things, for the correction of certain slight anomalies in the boundary at the “northwesternmost point.” =North-West Coast.= Following the proclamation by Balboa, 1513, of Spanish sovereignty over the Pacific, and the conquest of Mexico six years later, Spanish navigators explored the west coast of North America until, in 1543, they had reached the northern limit of the present state of California or 43° N. Drake sailed the same coast in 1578, and spent some time repairing his ship in a little harbour north of San Francisco. He named the coast New Albion and took possession in the name of Queen Elizabeth. Cavendish followed in 1587. Juan de Fuca, or Apostolos Velerianos, in the service of the viceroy of Mexico, is said to have explored the coast of Vancouver Island in 1592. Nothing more was done until the latter part of the eighteenth century, when Perez and Martinez, Heceta and Quadra and Maurelle, for Spain, and Cook and Vancouver and the British traders Hanna, Meares, Portlock and Dixon, Duncan and others, for Great Britain, Gray and Kendrick, for the United States, completed the exploration of the North-West Coast. Meanwhile, in 1728, Peter the Great had sent Vitus Bering to explore the land beyond the strait that now bears his name. Between that year and 1741 he carried out his discoveries on the far north-west coast of America, and he and his successors explored for Russia most of what is now Alaskan coast, down to lat. 55°, in many cases covering ground that had already been discovered by British navigators. In fact, there is so much overlapping in the whole story of the discovery and exploration of the north-west coast, that the only really safe statement is that it was the joint work of Spanish, British, Russian and American explorers. _See also_ Cook; Vancouver; Drake; Bering; Quadra; Maurelle; Perez; Meares; Gray, etc. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_; Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_. =North West Company.= Organized in 1783-1784, by a number of merchants chiefly of Montreal, engaged in the fur trade. The first “partners,” or _bourgeois_, of the Company were Simon McTavish, Joseph Frobisher, John Gregory, William McGillivray, Angus Shaw, Roderick McKenzie, Cuthbert Grant, Alexander McLeod and William Thorburn. Most of them had previously been in the north-west as independent fur traders. A new agreement was entered into by the then partners in 1802; in 1804 the Company absorbed its vigorous rival, the X Y Company; and in 1821 was itself absorbed by the Hudson’s Bay Company. In the beginning the Montreal traders had taken over the old posts of the French at Detroit, Michilimackinac, Sault Ste. Marie, Grand Portage, and on the rivers south of the Great Lakes. From Grand Portage they made their way into the west, by way of Rainy lake, the Lake of the Woods, and Lake Winnipeg. The North West Company gradually spread out throughout the vast interior of the continent, building trading posts on the Red, Assiniboine and Saskatchewan rivers, then on the Churchill and Athabaska, the Peace and the Mackenzie, and west of the mountains throughout most of what is to-day British Columbia and the states immediately south of it. It was mainly because of the energetic and aggressive policy of the North West Company that its great rival, the Hudson’s Bay Company, was forced to leave the shores of the Bay and defend its trade by building posts in the interior. The North West Company, through such of its famous members as Alexander Mackenzie, David Thompson, Simon Fraser, Peter Skene Ogden, Alexander Henry, and Daniel Williams Harmon, contributed very materially to the discovery and exploration of western Canada. For the relations of the Company with Selkirk and the Red River Colony, _see_ under those titles. _See also_ Hudson’s Bay Company; X Y Company; Montreal Company. =Bib.=: Davidson, _North West Company_; _Origin and Progress of the North West Company_; Mackenzie, _Voyages_; Henry, _Travels and Adventures_; _Henry-Thompson Journals_, ed. by Coues; Harmon, _Journal_; _Narrative of Occurrences in the Indian Country_; _Sketch of the British Fur Trade_; Ross, _Fur Traders of the Far West_; Cox, _Adventures on the Columbia_; Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Begg, _History of the North-West_; Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; Tassé, _Canadiens de l’Ouest_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =North-West Passage.= The long story of the search for a sea passage north of the continent of America to Asia cannot be told here except in barest outline. It goes back at least to Sir Martin Frobisher, whose voyages of 1576-1578 led to the discovery of Frobisher Sound and Baffin Island. He was followed by John Davis, Hall, Hudson, Button, Bylot, Baffin, Foxe and others, from 1585 to 1616, resulting in the discovery of Hudson Strait and Bay, Fox Channel, and Baffin Bay. Thereafter nothing was attempted of any moment until Ross’ expedition of 1818. The voyages of Ross, Parry, Franklin, McClintock, McClure, Belcher and others, 1818 to 1854, carried the tide of western exploration through Lancaster Sound and Barrow Strait to Melville Sound and McClure Strait, and down Peel Sound and Franklin Strait to Victoria Strait; also from Fox Channel through Fury and Hecla Strait to the Gulf of Boothia. McClure in 1850 had entered the Arctic by way of Bering Strait, and following the coast eastward to Franklin Bay, and then north around Banks Island to the strait that bears his name, had become the actual discoverer of the North West Passage. He was compelled, however, to abandon his ship and was rescued by Captain Kellett, of the Belcher expedition. It remained for Amundsen, 1903-1906, to sail completely through the North-West Passage, from Davis Strait to Bering Strait. _See also_ Arctic, and under names of individual explorers. =Bib.=: Barrow, _Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions_; Rundall, _Voyages towards the North-West_; White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_; and under names of individual explorers. =North-West Rebellion.= _See_ Riel Rebellion. =North-West Territories.= The early history of the region is the history of exploration and the western fur trade, whose posts became in course of time the centres of settlement. As originally constituted, the Territories embraced all of what had formerly been known as Rupert’s Land, except the newly-created province of Manitoba, 1870. The extension of the boundaries of Ontario and Manitoba reduced the area of the Territories, the intervening district having been known as Keewatin from 1876 to 1889. In 1882 that part of the Territories lying between Manitoba and British Columbia was divided into four provisional districts, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and Athabaska. These became in 1905 the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta. In 1895 northern Canada had been divided into the districts of Ungava, Franklin, Mackenzie and Yukon. In 1912 Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec were all enlarged considerably by extensions to the north. By Order-in-Council, 1918, the provisional districts of Mackenzie, Keewatin and Franklin were defined, the new boundaries to take effect from January, 1920. Yukon remained as before. Present area of the North West Territories, including the three districts of Mackenzie, Keewatin and Franklin, 1,207,926 square miles. Population by the census of 1921, 7,988. _See also_ Assiniboia; Alberta; Athabaska; Keewatin; Saskatchewan; Yukon. =Bib.=: _Canada Year Book_; _Atlas of Canada_. For the history of the region, _see_ Begg, _History of the North-West_; Hind, _North-West Territory_; MacBeth, _Making of the Canadian West_; Adam, _Canadian North-West_; Taché, _Sketch of the North-West of Canada_; Oliver, _Canadian North-West_. =Northern Railway.= Chartered in 1849 as the Toronto, Sarnia and Lake Huron Railway. Sandford Fleming was on the staff of the railway from 1853 to 1863, first as assistant and later as chief engineer. The line ran north from Toronto to Lake Simcoe, thence to Georgian Bay. In 1879 the Northern acquired the Hamilton and North-Western; and in 1888 was itself absorbed by the Grand Trunk. =Bib.=: Skelton, _The Railway Builders_. =Norton, John.= Born in Scotland. Came to America and settled among the Mohawks, who made him a chief. He took part in the battle of Queenston Heights, in command of a party of Mohawks. After the close of the War of 1812, he went to Georgia. Died in Scotland. =Bib.=: Richardson, _War of 1812_, ed. by Casselman. =Norway House.= Also known at one time as Jack River House. A post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, on Little Playgreen lake, at the northern end of Lake Winnipeg. In 1814 a number of Selkirk’s colonists fled there from Red River, after an attack on the colony by employees of the North West Company. The post formerly stood on Mossy Point, where the Nelson river flows out of Lake Winnipeg, but was burnt to the ground about 1826. The present fort was completed in 1828. It is described in McLeod’s _Peace River_, pp. 49-50. In Sir George Simpson’s day, Norway House was the inland headquarters of the Company, where the governor and Council met annually to discuss and arrange its affairs. The name originated in the fact that a party of Scandinavians had been employed in building the old fort. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Nor’Wester.= Newspaper established at Fort Garry (Winnipeg) in 1859 by William Buckingham and William Coldwell, journalists from Toronto. They brought an antiquated press with them from Toronto, and bought the type in St. Paul, transporting these and their other supplies by ox-teams from St. Paul to Fort Garry. The _Nor’Wester_ fought the battle of self-government in this little outpost of civilization. The newspaper lived until 1872, when the offices were burnt down by a mob. It counted (Sir) John Schultz as one of its later editors, and Thomas D’Arcy McGee as a contributor. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Sketch of Canadian Journalism_. =Notre Dame de la Recouvrance.= First parish church of Quebec; built by Champlain, 1633, and enlarged, 1635. Totally destroyed by fire, June 14th, 1640. Replaced in 1645 by the Church of Notre Dame de la Paix, now the Basilica of Quebec, which has also gone through a disastrous fire and been rebuilt. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Cradle of New France_. =Notre Dame des Victoires.= Church in Quebec. The corner-stone was laid May 1st, 1688, Bishop Laval officiating. The building was completed the following year. In 1690 the name was changed to Notre Dame de la Victoire, to commemorate the repulse of Phipps. In 1711 the name was again changed to its present form, to mark the second deliverance of the city from the English fleet under Walker. The church was destroyed in the siege of 1759; restored in 1765; and the interior completed in 1817. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Cradle of New France_. =Nottawasaga.= From Algonquin words meaning “Iroquois” and “Outlet of river.” Known for some time as Iroquois Bay. At the foot of Georgian Bay. Name given to bay and river. The country was embraced in the Huron missions of the seventeenth century. In the early days of Upper Canada a much travelled route ran from York (Toronto) up Yonge Street to Holland Landing and Lake Simcoe, thence by a nine-mile portage to Willow Creek and the Nottawasaga. The destruction of the _Nancy_ occurred near the mouth of the Nottawasaga in 1814. In 1816 Fort Nottawasaga was built about four miles above the mouth of the river. It had a garrison of thirty or forty men under a naval officer. A small settlement grew about the fort, but in 1818 the garrison was moved to Penetanguishene, and the fort abandoned. =Bib.=: Hunter, _History of Simcoe County_; Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Nottingham Island.= In western entrance to Hudson Straits. Named by Henry Hudson in honour of Lord Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham (1536-1624), then lord high admiral of England, who had given his support to the voyage of 1610. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Noüe, Anne de= (1580-1646). Born near Paris. Was for a time one of the queen’s pages. Entered the Jesuit novitiate when thirty years of age; and came to Canada in 1626. For several years he laboured among the Hurons and Montagnais, and from 1632 spent the remainder of his life in mission work in the French settlements along the St. Lawrence. Frozen to death on his way on snowshoes from Three Rivers to Fort Richelieu. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_. d’Hozier, _Armorial général de France_, vol. vii, 347. =Nova Scotia.= Acadia of the French régime. Area, 21,068 square miles. Population by the census of 1921, 523,837. The present name dates from 1621, when Sir William Alexander (_q.v._) obtained from King James I a grant of all the territory now constituting the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. After many vicissitudes the territory was finally ceded to England by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713. Halifax was founded in 1749, as the capital of the young colony; and in 1784 New Brunswick was made a separate colony. Cape Breton was annexed to Nova Scotia in 1763, detached in 1784, and finally annexed in 1820. From 1763 to 1769 Prince Edward Island formed part of Nova Scotia. The history of the colony up to Confederation is largely taken up with the struggle for responsible government; and for some years with the struggle to keep out of the new Dominion. Nevertheless, Nova Scotia gave to the Dominion some of its ablest public men, such as Joseph Howe, Sir Charles Tupper, W. S. Fielding and Sir John Thompson. _See also_ Acadia; New Brunswick; Cape Breton; Prince Edward Island; Halifax; Pictou; Lunenburg; Yarmouth; Digby, etc. =Bib.=: Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; Haliburton, _Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Bourinot, _Builders of Nova Scotia_; Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_; Moorson, _Letters from Nova Scotia_; Cozzens, _Acadia_; Willson, _Nova Scotia_; Towne, _Ambling through Acadia_. =Nova Scotia Archives.= In 1857 Thomas Beamish Akins was appointed Commissioner of Public Records. Under his direction the manuscript documents relating to the history of Nova Scotia were collected, arranged, bound, indexed and catalogued. A Catalogue was printed in 1886. Three volumes of archives have been published. The first, edited by Dr. Akins (1868) contains papers relating to the Acadians; relations between French Canada and Nova Scotia; Seven Years’ War; founding of Halifax; and the establishment of representative government in 1758. The second and third, edited by Dr. Archibald MacMechan, (1900, 1908) contain respectively a calendar of letter books and a commission book, 1713-1741; and the minutes of His Majesty’s Council at Annapolis Royal, 1720-1739. =Nova Scotia Historical Society.= Founded, 1878. Headquarters at Halifax. Has published more than a score of volumes of _Collections_, including such important historical documents and essays as Nicholson’s Journal of the Capture of Annapolis 1710, Thomas’ Diary of the Expedition against the Acadians 1755, Journal of Witherspoon, Memoir of James Murdoch 1767-1799, Memoir of Sir Alexander Cook, Winslow’s Journal of the Expulsion of the Acadians, Sir Adams Archibald’s Memoir on the Expulsion of the Acadians, Gordon’s Journal of the Siege of Quebec, J. P. Edwards’ Louisbourg, Thomas B. Akins’ History of Halifax, Moses Harvey’s Voyages of the Cabots, The Trent Affair by George Johnson, James William Johnstone by John Y. Payzant, The Militia of Nova Scotia 1749-1867 by J. P. Edwards, Wolfe’s Men and Nova Scotia by Beckles Willson, Early Scottish Settlers in Cape Breton by Mrs. Charles Archibald, Life of Sir Samuel Cunard by A. M. Payne, The Privateers of Nova Scotia by George Mullane, Life of Sir John Wentworth by Sir Adams Archibald, Sources of Canadian History by J. P. Edwards. =Nova Scotian.= Newspaper published at Halifax. Joseph Howe became its editor and proprietor in 1828, and extended its circulation and influence throughout the province. Thomas Chandler Haliburton was one of its contributors, also Lawrence O’Connor Doyle. It was published by William Annand, 1841. =Bib.=: Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Noyelles, Nicolas Joseph des, Sieur de Fleurimont= (1694-1765?). Born at Meaux, in France. Came to Canada. Described as “one of the best-known officers in the Canadian service.” He was an ensign in 1710, promoted lieutenant 1721, and captain 1732. Served in the west in the country of the Miami, 1728. Led an unsuccessful expedition against the Foxes, 1732. Commanded at Detroit, 1733 and 1737. Served in the far west, 1743-1746, in succession to La Vérendrye. Promoted major. Commanded at Michilimackinac, 1747; and at Three Rivers, 1759, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Made chevalier of St. Louis. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Noyon, Jacques de.= Born at Three Rivers in 1668. Twenty years later he was sent west to explore the country beyond Lake Superior. He left Kaministikwia, at the mouth of the river of the same name, and made his way by a series of rivers and lakes to Cristinaux lake (Rainy lake), and wintered on the Ouchichig river (Rainy river). The Indians with whom he travelled took him in the spring of 1689 to the Lac des Assiniboiles (Lake of the Woods). They told him of a river that emptied into the sea—the river evidently being the Winnipeg, and the sea Lake Winnipeg, but De Noyon got no farther than Lake of the Woods. After his return to Canada, he traded for some years to New England, and about 1710 settled at Boucherville, where he married and spent the remainder of his life. =Bib.=: Prud’homme, _Pierre Gaultier de Varennes_. =Nunney, Claude Joseph Patrick.= Private, 38th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During the operations against the Drocourt-Quéant Line, on September 1st-2nd, 1918, he made his way, on his own initiative, through a heavy barrage, to the outpost lines of his company, going from post to post and encouraging the men by his own fearless example. The enemy, who were counter-attacking, were repulsed, and a critical situation was saved. He died of his wounds in a clearing station on September 18th. =Oblate Fathers.= A religious order founded in 1816 in France, and first established in Canada at St. Hillaire, Quebec, in 1841. Its headquarters in Canada are at Montreal, and it has missions in Quebec, Ontario, and in the western provinces. The University of Ottawa is administered under its auspices. =O’Brien, William Edward= (1831-1914). Born at Thornhill, Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College; engaged in journalism at Toronto; studied law and called to the bar of Ontario, 1874. In command of the York and Simcoe Regiment during the Rebellion of 1885. Sat in the House of Commons, 1882-1896; defeated in the general election of 1896. A strong opponent of the Jesuits’ Estates Act, and of the Remedial bill, 1896. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =O’Callaghan, Edmund Bailey= (1797-1880). Born in Ireland. In 1823 emigrated to Canada, and practised medicine at Quebec. Edited the _Vindicator_, 1834. Elected to the Assembly of Lower Canada, 1836, as a supporter of Papineau, and advocated annexation to the United States. Having been involved in the Rebellion of 1837, after its collapse he escaped to New York, and for many years was employed in editing the records of the state at Albany. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Ocean Navigation.= The first vessel to cross the Atlantic entirely by steam was a Canadian steamer the _Royal William_ (_q.v._). Nova Scotia, that had sent clipper ships to the seven seas, also took a leading part in ocean steam navigation. Samuel Cunard (_q.v._) of Halifax sent the first subsidized steamship, the _Unicorn_, from Liverpool to Halifax and Boston in 1840. The _Britannia_ was the first regular steamship of the Cunard Line. The Allan Line began running from Montreal to Liverpool in 1852; the Dominion Line in 1870; the Canadian Pacific Steamship Line dates from 1889; and the Canada-Australia Line from 1893. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_; Croil, _Steam Navigation_. =O’Connor, John= (1824-1887). Born in Boston, Massachusetts. Came to Canada, 1828. Studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1854. Practised at Sandwich. Defeated for the Assembly, 1861; elected, 1863, but unseated by order of the House. Elected to the House of Commons, 1867; president of the Council, 1872; minister of inland revenue, 1873; postmaster-general, 1873; defeated for re-election, 1874; again elected, 1878. Appointed judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1884. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Odell, Jonathan.= United Empire Loyalist. Left New Jersey after the Revolution and settled in Nova Scotia. Became provincial secretary of New Brunswick. Died, 1818. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Odell, William Hunter= (1811-1891). Born in New Brunswick. Called to the bar, 1838; appointed clerk of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, and subsequently deputy provincial secretary, registrar and clerk of the Executive Council. In 1847 appointed judge of the Court of Common Pleas; and in 1850 a member of the Legislative Council of New Brunswick. A member of the Executive Council, and postmaster-general of the province, 1865-1866. Called to the Dominion Senate, 1867. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Odelltown.= _See_ Lacolle. =O’Donoghue, William B.= A professor in St. Boniface College. Elected a member of the first convention called by Louis Riel, and afterwards a member of the Council. When the Rebellion was suppressed, fled to the United States. Pardoned, 1877. Died in St. Paul, Minnesota, 1878. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North West_. =Ogden, Charles Richard= (1791-1866). Son of following. Studied law and called to the bar, 1812; elected to the Assembly for Three Rivers, 1815; attorney-general for district of Three Rivers, 1818; solicitor-general, 1823; attorney-general for Lower Canada, 1833-1842. He is said to have been unpopular with the French. On his retirement went to England, and appointed attorney-general for the Isle of Man, as well as district registrar at Liverpool. =Bib.=: Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Ogden, Isaac.= Born in New England. Took the Loyalist side in the Revolution, and, when New York was evacuated in 1783, went to England. Came to Canada, 1784, and was appointed judge of the Admiralty Court for the Montreal district; judge of the Superior Court, 1796. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Ogden, Peter Skene= (1794-1854). Son of Isaac Ogden (_q.v._). Entered the fur trade, was sent out to Astoria by John Jacob Astor, and, finding that Astoria had been transferred to the North West Company, entered their service. After the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies, led trading expeditions into the interior, explored the Yellowstone country, Lewis river and Utah, and discovered the Ogden river in California. Moved to New Caledonia and became chief factor in 1835, with headquarters at Fort St. James. Later became a member, with McLoughlin and Douglas, of the board of management for the western department. He is described as a man of even temper, good humour, patience and tact. His dominating personality overawed the Indians and prevented further trouble, after the white man had demonstrated his friendliness and fair-mindedness toward the natives. Died at Oregon City, Oregon. =Bib.=: Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Wheeler, _The Ogden Family_. =Ogdensburg.= Town on the upper St. Lawrence, in the state of New York. Formerly Oswegatchie, and at a still earlier period La Présentation, Abbé Piquet’s mission. The French fort there was known as La Galette. A British garrison maintained there for some years after the treaty of 1783, which put it on American territory. Captured during the War of 1812-1814, but remained in possession of the Americans at its conclusion. =Bib.=: Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Ohio River.= First known as _La Belle Rivière_. One of the largest tributaries of the Mississippi, discovered by La Salle in 1669. The short portages from Lake Erie to the navigable tributaries of the Ohio, and the continuous waterway to the Gulf of Mexico, made the river an important route for the explorer, missionary, and settler of the early colonial days. Several trading posts stood upon or near its banks during the French period, and later. =Bib.=: Parkman, _La Salle_. =O’Kelly, Christopher Patrick John.= Captain, 52nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ In an action south-west of Passchendaele, October 26th, 1917, he led his men with such inspiring courage that they gained one thousand yards under heavy fire. He then personally organized and led a series of attacks against enemy “pill-boxes,” his company capturing six of them with one hundred prisoners and ten machine-guns. Later his company repelled a strong counter-attack, and during the night captured a hostile raiding party. Throughout he showed magnificent courage, daring and leadership. =Old Company.= _See_ Company of New France. =Olier de Verneuil, Jean Jacques= (1608-1687). In 1640 parish priest of St. Sulpice, Paris, and established the St. Sulpice Seminary in 1645. Founded in 1636 the Company of Montreal, through whose instrumentality Maisonneuve was sent out in 1641-1642 to lay the foundations of the future city. Obtained a grant of the island. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; Lachesnaye-Desbois, _Dictionnaire_, vol. xv, p. 159. =Oneidas.= A tribe of the Iroquois confederacy. Their villages stood between those of the Mohawks on the east and the Onondagas on the west. In the American Revolution, they alone with some of the Tuscaroras took the side of the colonists, the rest of the confederacy remaining loyal to Great Britain. The remnant of the tribe is now settled on reservations in New York, in Wisconsin, and on the Niagara peninsula. _See_ Iroquois. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Onondagas.= A tribe of the Iroquois confederacy. Their country lay west of that of the Oneidas. They took the British side in the Revolutionary War; and on its conclusion many of them settled on Canadian reservations. Some are now on reservations in New York state. _See_ Iroquois. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Onontio= (=Great Mountain=). Name applied by the Indians to Montmagny, then governor of New France, as a play upon his name. Afterwards given as a general designation to his successors. =Ontario.= Area, 365,880 square miles. Population by the 1921 census, 2,933,662. Formerly Upper Canada. As a separate province, its existence dates from 1791. The population at that time was insignificant. Its first great influx of population came from the United Empire Loyalists. Simcoe became the first governor, and the first Legislature met at Newark (Niagara) in 1792. The province was reunited to Lower Canada in 1841; and in 1867 became a member of the new Confederation, under its present name. The greater part of the province was explored by Champlain, Étienne Brûlé, and Brébeuf, Chaumonot, and other Jesuit missionaries, in the first half of the seventeenth century. Up to the time of the Union the history of Upper Canada is largely taken up with the incidents of a pioneer settlement, the War of 1812 and the struggle for responsible government, of which the Rebellion of 1837-1838 may be considered a part, and the settlement of the Clergy Reserves question an incident. It is associated with such names as John Strachan, William Lyon Mackenzie, Robert Baldwin, John Beverley Robinson, Sir Allan MacNab and Egerton Ryerson; and after the Union, with such as Sir John A. Macdonald, George Brown, Alexander Mackenzie, Edward Blake, Oliver Mowat, Sir Richard Cartwright, Sir Alexander Campbell, Sir Francis Hincks, and John Sandfield Macdonald. The story of Ontario since Confederation is, in the main, one of material progress, the provision of transportation facilities, development of municipal institutions, and the building up of an efficient system of education. _See also_ Upper Canada; New Ontario. Bib.: Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Smith, _Geographical View of Upper Canada_; Gourlay, _Statistical Account of Upper Canada_; Haight, _Country Life in Canada_; Canniff, _History of the Settlement of Upper Canada_; Moodie, _Roughing it in the Bush_; Edgar, _Ten Years of Upper Canada_; Strickland, _Twenty-Seven Years in Canada West_; Clarke, _Sixty Years in Upper Canada_; Conant, _Upper Canada Sketches_. =Ontario Archives.= In 1903 the government of Ontario established a Bureau of Archives, and appointed Alexander Fraser as provincial archivist. A preliminary report was issued the same year, outlining the material available in Ontario government departments, and elsewhere, relating to the history of Ontario. Since then reports have been issued annually, containing valuable documentary material relating to the early settlement of Ontario, the United Empire Loyalists, the Jesuit Missions in Huronia, early legislative records, and other subjects. =Ontario Historical Society.= Organized, 1888. Headquarters, Normal School building, Toronto. Most of the county and other local historical societies in Ontario are affiliated with it. Secretary, A. F. Hunter. Has published _Papers and Records_, vols. 1 to 22 (1899-1925); _Correspondence of Governor Simcoe_, vols, i-ii; _Annual Reports_. The _Papers and Records_ contain a great deal of valuable historical material relating to the early history of Ontario, pioneer conditions, the coming of the United Empire Loyalists, the founding of towns, pioneer schools of Upper Canada, early memoirs, reminiscences, etc. =Ontario, Lake.= The smallest of the Great Lakes; area, 7,260 square miles. Discovered by Champlain and, probably, by Étienne Brûlé in 1615, the former at the east and the latter at the west end of the lake. Champlain named it _Entouhonoron_, which was later softened into Ontario. It was also known as Lac des Iroquois and Lac St. Louis. Both Cartier and Champlain had heard of it from the Indians. Father Le Moyne ascended the St. Lawrence to the lake in 1654. Jean Peré went west from Montreal by way of Lake Ontario in 1668. Dollier de Casson and La Salle were on the lake in 1669. Forts Frontenac, Rouillé, Niagara, and Oswego were on its shores. La Salle seems to have built the first vessel on its waters. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Ontario-Manitoba Boundary Dispute.= Began in 1871 as an entirely friendly agreement between Sir John A. Macdonald for the Dominion, and John Sandfield Macdonald for Ontario, to appoint commissioners to define the northern and western boundaries of Ontario. It rapidly assumed, however, a political complexion, when Macdonald proposed, and Blake refused, the height of land as the northern boundary, and a line about six miles east of Port Arthur as the western boundary. Macdonald suggested an appeal to the judicial committee of the Privy Council, but Blake preferred a Canadian commission. When Mackenzie succeeded Macdonald, Sir Francis Hincks, Chief-Justice Harrison and Sir Edward Thornton were appointed commissioners to arbitrate the question. Their unanimous award in 1878 put the western boundary a little west of the Lake of the Woods, and the northern along a line of lakes and rivers some distance beyond the height of land. Macdonald, on his return to power, refused to accept the award, and the long duel began between him and Mowat. Quebec objected to the increase of territory to Ontario unless her boundaries were also extended; and Manitoba was brought into the controversy because Macdonald supported her claim to the disputed territory between Lake Superior and her existing eastern boundary. In 1883 both provinces tried to take possession of the area in dispute, their respective police clashed, and the situation grew so intolerable that the two provinces agreed on a special case to the judicial committee, which in 1884 decided in favour of Ontario. A further question as to proprietary rights was also decided in favour of Ontario in 1888. =Bib.=: Mills, _Report on Boundaries of Ontario_; Lindsey, _Unsettled Boundaries of Ontario_; _Documents relating to the Boundaries of Ontario, 1878_; _Correspondence, etc., relating to the Boundaries of Ontario, 1882_; _Proceedings before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 1889_; Biggar, _Life of Sir Oliver Mowat_; Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_. =Orders-in-Council.= Adopted by the British government in 1806 in retaliation for the Berlin decrees of Napoleon. They prohibited neutral trade between hostile ports. They were revoked in 1812, but in the meantime had become one of the contributary causes of the war, as they bore heavily upon American foreign trade. =Bib.=: _Dict. Eng. Hist._ =Ordre du Bon Temps.= A social club organized by Champlain, Lescarbot and their associates at Port Royal in 1606-1607. There is a spirited account of it in Lescarbot’s _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_. =Oregon.= Origin of name uncertain. Said to have been used first by Jonathan Carver, who applied it to a vague territory in the remote west. Became applied in course of time to the valley of the Columbia, and ultimately to the state that now bears the name. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Nicolay, _Oregon Territory_; Foster, _Bibliography of Oregon_ in _Mag. of Amer. Hist._, vol. xxv; Dunn, _The Oregon Territory_. =Oregon Boundary Question.= By the terms of the Ashburton treaty, 1842, the international boundary was to run west along the forty-ninth parallel to the Rocky mountains. From the mountains to the Pacific was left uncertain. The question of the Oregon boundary goes back much farther, however, than 1842. The United States claimed the entire Pacific coast up to the southern boundary of the Russian territory, partly because of the explorations of American seamen, partly as heir to the discoveries of the Spaniards. In particular, they claimed the valley of the Columbia by reason of Grey’s discovery in 1792 and the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804-1806. Great Britain’s claim rested on the discoveries of Cook and Vancouver by sea and of Alexander Mackenzie, Simon Fraser and David Thompson by land. The situation was complicated by the American founding of Astoria and its transfer to a British company during the War of 1812-1814. In 1818 an agreement was entered into which left both countries in occupation but settled nothing, and this was renewed in 1827. As American settlers occupied the valley of the lower Columbia, the question became acute, and in 1844, “Fifty-Four-Forty or Fight” became the slogan of American politicians and the watchword of thousands of jingoes. Finally, Great Britain suggested the extension of the forty-ninth parallel to the sea, which was agreed to and embodied in the treaty of 1846. =Bib.=: _Lit. Amer. Hist._; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Nicolay, _Oregon Territory_; Gray, _History of Oregon_; Hodgins, _British and American Diplomacy Affecting Canada_; Begg, _History of British Columbia_; Schafer, _History of the Pacific North-West_; Egerton, _Canada_; White, _Boundary Disputes and Treaties in Canada and its Provinces_; Burpee, _Atlas of Canadian History_. =Oriskany.= Colonel St. Leger, in 1777, marching against Fort Stanwix, found that eight hundred Colonial troops were marching to reinforce the garrison. Sir John Johnson, who was sent to intercept them, with a somewhat larger force, succeeded in ambushing the Americans and killed or wounded half their numbers. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_. =Orleans, Isle of.= In the St. Lawrence river, below Quebec. It was first named by Jacques Cartier, in 1535, the Island of Bacchus, on account of the numerous grape-vines growing there. Guillaume de Caën is said to have possessed it in the days of Champlain. Erected, 1676, into a Comté de St. Laurent, which carried with it the title of Count, provided the owner was of noble birth or held a certain grade of office in the state. Granted to François Berthelot, 1676. Sold, 1704, to the Sieurs Juchereau. Berthelot got it back in 1705, and sold to Guillaume Gaillard, of the Sovereign Council, in 1712. Laval is said to have had it at one time, and exchanged it for Ile Jésus. In 1759 it was occupied by Wolfe and the British troops during the siege of Quebec. Contains several interesting old churches and other buildings dating back to the French period. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_. =Ormiston, William.= Born in the parish of Symington, on the banks of the Clyde, Scotland, 1821. Came to Upper Canada, 1834, and settled with his parents in the township of Darlington, then a comparative wilderness; studied divinity at Victoria College under Egerton Ryerson, 1843; appointed professor of moral philosophy and logic, 1847; mathematical master at Toronto Normal School, 1853-1861; minister of the Central Presbyterian Church, Hamilton, 1857. =O’Rourke, Michael James.= Private, 7th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ At Hill 60, near Lens, August 15th-17th, 1917, he worked unceasingly bringing wounded into safety, dressing them and getting them food and water. During the entire period the area in which he worked was subjected to very severe shelling and swept by heavy machine-gun and rifle fire. On several occasions he was knocked down and partially buried by enemy shells. He showed throughout an absolute disregard for his own safety, going wherever there were wounded to succour, in spite of exhaustion and incessant heavy enemy fire. =Osgoode Hall.= In Toronto. In 1820 the Law Society of Upper Canada passed a resolution providing five hundred pounds for the erection of a building to be called Osgoode Hall, after William Osgoode, first chief-justice of Upper Canada. Nothing was done then, but in 1832 the building was completed, at a cost of about three thousand pounds. Enlarged in 1833; used as barracks for troops, 1838-44; again enlarged in 1845 and 1860. =Bib.=: Riddell, _Legal Profession in Upper Canada_. =Osgoode, William= (1754-1824). Born in England. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford; studied law, and called to the English bar, 1779. Appointed chief-justice of Upper Canada, 1791, and a member of both the Legislative and Executive councils, being named president of the former. Became chief-justice of Lower Canada, 1794. He was for a time a member of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada, of which he became president, and of the Executive Council. Relations between Osgoode and the governor, Prescott, became so strained that the Duke of Portland wrote the governor pointing out the need of reconciliation, and when that became impossible Prescott was recalled. Osgoode retired 1801, returned to England, and died in London. Osgoode Hall, Toronto, the seat of the provincial law courts, is named after him. =Bib.=: Morgan _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_; Audet, _Les juges en chef de la province de Québec_ (Revue du Droit, 1925); Doughty and McArthur, _Documents relating to Constitutional History of Canada_. =Osler, Sir Edmund Boyd= (1845-1924). Born in the county of Simcoe, Ontario. Brother of following. Began his business career in the Bank of Upper Canada. For many years a member of the Toronto Stock Exchange. President of the Dominion Bank. Represented West Toronto in the House of Commons from 1896. =Bib.=: _Can. Men_. =Osler, Sir William= (1849-1919). Born in Bond Head, Ontario. Educated at Toronto and McGill Universities; from 1874 to 1884 professor of medicine at McGill University; from 1884 to 1889 professor of clinical medicine in the University of Pennsylvania; Gulstonian lecturer at the Royal College of Physicians, London, 1885; and professor of medicine at Johns Hopkins University, 1889-1904; appointed regius professor of medicine at Oxford, 1904. Left his medical library to McGill University. =Bib.=: Cushing, _Life of Sir William Osler_. =Oswegatchie.= _See_ Ogdensburg. =Oswego.= A town on the United States side of Lake Ontario. Formerly a British post built about 1724. In 1726-1728 Governor Burnet of New York added a military work for its protection. Sir William Johnson in 1743 built his trading-house under its walls. Captured by Montcalm in 1756, who had to abandon it two years later. After the Seven Years’ War, Oswego was rebuilt, and became a rallying-point for Loyalists during the Revolutionary War. Restored in 1782. It was surrendered to the United States after Jay’s treaty, 1794. Captured by Yeo and Drummond in 1814. Oswego is an Indian word meaning “rapid water.” The place was known to the French as Chouageun. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii; McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Ottawa.= Formerly Bytown. Founded about the year 1826, and named after Colonel By, a Royal Engineer, who built the Rideau canal, and whose workmen formed the nucleus of the infant town. The name was changed to Ottawa in 1854, and Queen Victoria, in 1858, selected the place as the seat of government. In 1867 it became the capital of the new Dominion. The beautiful gothic Parliament buildings were erected in 1859-1865. Anthony Trollope praised their “purity of art and manliness of conception.” Ottawa is the capital of the Dominion, the seat of the Supreme Court, also residence of the governor-general. It contains the National Museum, National Gallery and Public Archives. _See also_ Bytown. =Bib.=: Edgar, _Canada and its Capital_; Gourlay, _History of the Ottawa Valley_; Gard, _The Hub and the Spokes_; Scott, _The Choice of the Capital_. _See also_ papers by Mrs. H. J. Friel, M. Jamieson, F. G. Kenny, Eva Read, in Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa _Trans._, vol. i; B. Sulte, _The Name of Ottawa_, in Ottawa Lit. and Sc. Soc. _Trans._, 1898-1899. =Ottawa Canals.= On the Ottawa river, about midway between Montreal and the capital, are the Carillon and Grenville canals, built originally by the Imperial government in 1825, and reconstructed between 1881 and 1884. The Ste. Anne lock, at the west end of the island of Montreal and the mouth of the Ottawa, was originally built between 1840 and 1843. A second lock was built between 1880 and 1883. On the upper Ottawa, above Bryson, the Colbute canal was built in 1876, and abandoned in 1894. Its two locks were of wood. Between 1854 and 1856, an effort was made to build a canal at the Chats falls, but was abandoned as too expensive. _See also_ Rideau canal. =Ottawa Indians.= A tribe of the Algonquian family. Closely allied to the Chippewa, Pottawatomi, Mascouten, Sauk and Foxes. First mentioned in Champlain’s narrative, 1615. The explorer met a party of these Indians on French river. They were called the _Cheveux Relevés_, because of their peculiar method of dressing the hair. They occupied Manitoulin island from about 1615 to 1650; were attacked and dispersed by the Iroquois the latter year, and settled west of Green Bay. They were keen fur traders, and throughout the greater part of the seventeenth century continued to bring down quantities of furs from the west to Montreal by way of the Ottawa river. Fought under Pontiac in 1763; made peace with Sir William Johnson at Niagara in 1764. A few thousand are now scattered on reservations in Ontario. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Pilling, _Bibliography of Algonquian Languages_; Champlain, _Voyages_; Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_; _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites. _See also_ Suite’s papers in the Royal Society of Canada _Trans._, 1903 and 1904. =Ottawa River.= _La Grande Rivière_ of Champlain’s day. Also known as _Rivière_ des Algonquins, and _Rivière des Prairies_. A tributary of the St. Lawrence. Total length, 685 miles. Explored by Champlain in 1613 and 1615. Named after Ottawa Indians. The river formed for many years the throughfare of explorers, missionaries, and fur traders, from Montreal to the far west. It furnishes the major portion of the route of the proposed Georgian Bay canal, which was to supply a deep water route from Montreal to Lake Huron by way of the Ottawa, Lake Nipissing and French river. =Bib.=: Champlain, _Voyages_; Sulte, _The Valley of the Grand River, 1600-1650_ (R. S. C., 1898-1899); Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Keefer, _Montreal and the Ottawa_; Stewart, _Georgian Bay Canal_; _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Burpee, _By Canadian Streams_. =Ottawa, University of.= Established, 1848. Originally incorporated under the title of “College of Bytown;” received the name of “College of Ottawa,” 1866. Pope Leo XIII raised it to the rank of a Roman Catholic university, 1889. It suffered from a serious fire, 1903. The university is conducted by the Oblate Fathers (_q.v._). =Otter, Sir William Dillon.= Born near Clinton, Ontario, 1843. Joined the Victoria Rifles, Toronto, 1861. Served on the Niagara frontier, 1864-1865. Adjutant of the Queen’s Own Rifles, 1865, and served through the Fenian Raid, 1866. Promoted major, 1869, and lieutenant-colonel, 1875. Commandant of the School of Infantry at Toronto, 1883. Commanded Battleford column in the Rebellion of 1885, including the engagement at Cut Knife Hill. Appointed to command of Military District No. 2 in 1886. Commanded Canadian Contingent in South African War, 1899-1900, and promoted brigadier-general, and major-general. Commanded Western Ontario military district, 1908-1910; chief of the general staff at headquarters, 1908-1910; inspector-general, 1910-1912; director internment operations, 1914-1918. K. C. B., 1913. =Bib.=: _Can. Men_. =Overland to British Columbia.= Several overland parties made their way from Ontario to British Columbia in the early days. In 1859 John Jessop with a companion travelled from Toronto to Fort Garry by the old fur trade route through Fort William. Continuing west at Fort Ellice they were joined by half a dozen Americans. They reached the Rockies in October, crossed by South Kootenay pass, and arrived at Fort Colville, on the Columbia, early in November. Another overland journey was made by a much larger party in 1862, at the time of the gold rush in the Cariboo district. In June of that year a number of gold-seekers from Ontario, and various parts of the United States, met at Fort Garry. From there they set out, a party of about 150, by way of Forts Ellice, Carlton, Pitt, and Edmonton, and crossed the mountains by the Yellowhead pass. From Tête Jaune Cache they travelled in two main parties, one by way of the Fraser to Quesnel, and the other by the North Thompson. Thomas McMicking, who was captain of the party from Fort Garry, left a narrative of the expedition, selections from which were published by Mrs. Margaret McNaughton. R. B. McMicking wrote a short account for the _British Columbia Year Book_, 1897. =Bib.=: Howay, _Overland Journey of the Argonauts of 1862_ (R. S. C., 1919). =Owen Sound.= City of Ontario. Founded about 1840. Then known as Sydenham. Incorporated as a town in 1857, when it got its present name; and as a city in 1920. Named after the sound in Georgian Bay, and that after Admiral Sir Edward William Campbell Richard Owen (1771-1849) who was in command of H. M. ships and vessels on the Great Lakes for a time, returning to England in 1815. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Oxenden, Ashton= (1808-1892). Born at Brome Park, Kent, England. Succeeded Francis Fulford as bishop of Montreal, 1869. Elected metropolitan the same year. Retired, 1878. Died at Biarritz. =Paardeberg.= Battle in South African War, in February, 1900. On the eighteenth, Cronje was at bay, entrenched on the banks of the Modder river, completely surrounded by a much superior British force. The Canadians were sent across the river to attack his position. Some ground was gained, but it was for the most part a long-distance rifle duel on the open veldt, under an intensely hot sun. The battle continued throughout the succeeding days with little change; the Boers were well entrenched and suffered few casualties. On the twenty-seventh, the anniversary of Majuba Day, the Canadians were selected to lead the attack. They made their way under cover of darkness to a ridge overlooking the Boer laager, entrenched, and at daylight had such command of the situation that the Boers surrendered. Cronje was captured. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_, vol. i. =Pacific Coast.= _See_ North-West Coast. =Pacific Fur Company.= Organized by John Jacob Astor, in 1810. Sometimes known as the Astor Fur Company. Astor had made a fortune in the fur trade, and formed the plan of extending his operations to the Pacific coast, and building a post at the mouth of the Columbia. He suggested to the North West Company that the project be undertaken jointly, but the Company declining the offer, he induced several of its partners and employees to join him. Some of these men sailed to the Columbia by way of Cape Horn, while another party went overland by the route followed by Lewis and Clark. Astoria was built in 1811 at the mouth of the Columbia, but the energetic competition of the North West Company, and complications arising out of the War of 1812, defeated Astor’s plans. _See also_ Astoria. =Bib.=: Cox, _The Columbia River_; Ross, _Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River_; Franchère, _Voyage to North-West Coast of America_; Irving, _Astoria_. =Pacific Scandal.= On April 2nd, 1873, Lucius Seth Huntington moved in the Dominion House of Commons that a special committee be appointed to enquire into certain charges made by himself to the effect that Sir Hugh Allan and his Canadian and American associates in the Canadian Pacific Railway project had advanced a large sum of money to aid in the election of Sir John Macdonald and his Conservative supporters. The motion was defeated on a party vote. The next day Macdonald gave notice of a similar motion for a select committee, which was carried five days later. The committee met in July, but through a technicality was unable to proceed. On Macdonald’s advice, a royal commission was issued to three judges to investigate the charges. The commission reported to Parliament, which met late in October. The charges had been proved correct. Alexander Mackenzie moved a vote of censure, which was followed by a week of fierce discussion. Recognizing that the vote would go against him, Macdonald, on November 5th, placed his resignation in the hands of the governor-general, and announced in the House that the government had resigned. In the general election that followed, overwhelming defeat fell upon Macdonald and his party. _See also_ Macdonald, Sir John A.; Macpherson, Sir David L.; Cartier, Sir Georges E.; Allan, Sir Hugh; Canadian Pacific Railway. =Bib.=: Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_. =Palliser, John= (1807-1887). Commanded an expedition sent out by the British government, 1857-1860, to explore the country between the international boundary and the North Saskatchewan and between the Red river and the Rockies. He was also to search for practicable passes through the Rockies south of Athabaska pass. The party included James Hector as geologist, Thomas Blakiston as magnetic observer, E. Bourgeau as botanist, and John W. Sullivan as secretary and assistant astronomer. Palliser river and mountain-range, Mount Hector and Hector river, Mount Bourgeau, Sullivan peak and Blakiston mountain and brook, commemorate the members of the expedition. =Bib.=: _Journals... of the Expedition_. =Palmer, Edward= (1809-1889). Represented Prince Edward Island, with John Hamilton Gray, George Coles, W. H. Pope, A. A. Macdonald, T. H. Haviland and Edward Whalen, at the Quebec Conference, 1864. He had been premier of Prince Edward Island, 1859-1863, and was attorney-general in the Gray Cabinet, 1863-1865. Chief-justice of the province, 1874-1889. =Bib.=: Warburton, _History of Prince Edward Island_. =Pambrun, Pierre Chrysologue.= Served in the Canadian Voltigeurs in the War of 1812. Entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and sent to the Qu’Appelle district. Captured there by Cuthbert Grant, of the North West Company, in 1816, and held prisoner for five days, shortly before the Seven Oaks affair. Stationed at Stuart Lake, New Caledonia, in 1824, and still in the same district in 1828 when Sir George Simpson made his overland journey to the Pacific. In 1842 in charge of Fort Halkett. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_; Morice, _History of the Northern Interior of British Columbia_. =Panet, Jean Antoine= (1751-1815). Practised as an advocate and notary in Montreal; represented Quebec in the Legislature, 1792, and presented a petition from the citizens of Quebec for the abolition of slavery. First Speaker of the Legislature of Quebec, 1792; appointed judge of the Court of Common Pleas by Lord Dorchester, 1793, but resigned almost immediately, and re-elected to the Legislature of Lower Canada where he sat until 1815. With Bédard, Blanchet and others, established _Le Canadien_ in 1806. Its criticism of the government exasperated the Governor, Craig; Panet and his associates were sent to jail; and Panet’s commission as lieutenant-colonel in the militia cancelled. Appointed a member of the Legislative Council, 1815. =Bib.=: Bibaud, _Pan. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Pangman, Peter.= Born in New England. Engaged in the fur trade west of Lake Superior about 1780. With Peter Pond, John Gregory, and A. N. McLeod, organized in 1784 a company in opposition to the North West Company, known as the Montreal Company (_q.v._). Afterwards for some years in the service of the North West Company. In 1793 retired from the fur trade, and purchased seigniory of Mascouche in Lower Canada. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Paper Currency.= _See_ Currency. =Papineau, Denis B.= Brother of Louis Joseph Papineau. Metcalfe appointed him a member of the Executive Council and commissioner of crown lands, 1844. He had been elected for Ottawa in 1842, and again in 1844. Proposed the address to the crown asking repeal of the clause in the Union Act making English the sole official language. The address was adopted, and the request granted. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Papineau, Louis Joseph= (1786-1870). Inherited the eloquence of his father, Joseph Papineau, who had been an associate of Pierre Bédard in the House of Assembly in 1792 and was counted one of the most notable orators of the two Houses, and had served on the side of the crown in the American Invasion of 1775-1776. The son was educated at Quebec seminary, studied law, and in 1812 was elected to the Assembly where his father still held a seat. His dominating personality and eloquence soon made him a leader of the popular party. Served as a captain of militia in the War of 1812-1814. In 1815 he was elected Speaker of the Assembly, and for the next five years devoted himself to the study of constitutional history and parliamentary law. In an address in 1820 he compared the advantages of the French Canadians under British rule to the arbitrary and oppressive government of the old régime, and paid an eloquent tribute to the merits of the Constitutional Act of 1791. His subsequent bitter criticisms of the constitution are explained by his biographers as based on the fact that the spirit of the Act of 1791 was never lived up to by the representatives of the crown. In 1822, when the union of the provinces was proposed, he and John Neilson were sent to London as delegates to protest against the union on behalf of the French Canadians, and persuaded the ministry to drop the bill, which had been suggested by Edward Ellice. From this time forward the conflict between the Assembly led by Papineau and the governor and his Council became more acute. Time and again the Assembly refused to grant supplies; appeals were sent to the Home government, and the colonial secretary replied: “the claims of the House of Assembly are unreasonable... that body has violated a principle of constitutional law by refusing to appropriate any portion whatever of the large revenue it controls, unless the permanent revenue of the crown be given up.” What the Assembly sought, according to Papineau, was the recognition of the principle of responsible government and the correction of abuses in the Executive departments. The dispute rapidly developed into a trial of strength between the popular leader and the governor, Lord Dalhousie. In 1828 the latter was recalled, and in 1831 Lord Goderich sent a despatch offering the Assembly absolute control of expenditures save as to casual and the Domaine revenues, in exchange for the provision of a stated civil list. Papineau, whose extreme views had now alienated some of his former supporters, succeeded in having the offer rejected by the Assembly. He was now hot for an Elective Council as the only effective remedy for the grievances of the French Canadians. In 1834 he and his associates embodied their demands in the Ninety-Two Resolutions, whose intemperate language foreshadowed the revolutionary acts that were soon to follow. Despite the conciliatory attitude of Lord Gosford, the governor sent out in 1835, matters went from bad to worse, and the unfortunate publication of his secret instructions added fuel to the flames. In the autumn of 1836 the governor dismissed the Assembly, public feeling ran high, and Papineau rode the whirlwind. In the spring of 1837 he preached revolution, and, despite the efforts of the church and the more sane leaders on his own side, Papineau led his compatriots into open rebellion. After the fight at St. Charles, he escaped to the United States, and from there went to France. He returned to Canada in 1845, and from 1847 to 1854 sat in the Legislature, where his fiery eloquence still won him a certain following, but during his absence other leaders of a more temperate frame of mind had taken his place, and Papineau became a bitter railer against all policies but his own. Finally he retired from public life, and spent the rest of his days at his home on the Ottawa. =Bib.=: DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._ =Pardoning Power.= Prior to 1878 the governors-general, while consulting their ministers in Canada in cases of application for mitigation or remission of sentences, remained at liberty to disregard their advice and exercise the royal prerogative on their own judgment and responsibility. In 1876 Edward Blake, then minister of justice in the Dominion government, made strong representations to the Imperial government, contending that the prerogative of mercy should be exercised in Canada just as it was in England, on the advice of the ministry in both capital and other cases. The instructions to Lord Lome in 1878 set forth that the governor-general should not pardon or reprieve in capital cases without first seeking the advice of the Dominion ministry. =Parent, Étienne= (1801-1874). Born at Beauport, near Quebec. Educated at the Seminary of Quebec, and at the College of Nicolet. In 1822 became editor of _Le Canadien_, but resigned, 1825, to study law. After being called to the bar and practising for a short time, abandoned the profession on his appointment as French translator to the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada. In 1831 again editor of _Le Canadien_, and held the position for eleven years. During the Rebellion of 1837-1838 strongly supported the extreme measures of Papineau, and was imprisoned in Quebec jail. Applied the name of “Chouayens” to those who would not follow Papineau, but afterwards himself withdrew from Papineau’s party. In 1841 elected to the Assembly for Saguenay. In 1842 appointed clerk of the Executive Council; and in 1847 assistant-secretary for Lower Canada. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Paris, Treaty of.= Between England and France, signed 1763. Ended Seven Years’ War. Ceded Canada to Britain, France retaining islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. Among other things, guaranteed to French Canadians the maintenance of their institutions, and the free exercise of their religion. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_. =Parke, Thomas.= Born in Ireland. Emigrated to Canada, and settled in York (Toronto) in 1820. Member for the county of Middlesex in the two last Parliaments of the province of Upper Canada. Member of the first Parliament of Canada, 1841-1844; surveyor-general in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, 1841-1845, when the office was abolished. Died, 1864. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Parker, Robert.= Attorney-general, New Brunswick; appointed to the bench, 1851; made chief-justice, 1865; died the same year. =Bib.=: Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =Parkin, Sir George Robert= (1846-1922). Born at Salisbury, New Brunswick. Educated at University of New Brunswick and Oxford. Headmaster, Bathurst Grammar School, 1868-1872; principal of Collegiate School, Fredericton, 1872-1887. He made a prolonged tour of the Empire, studying and discussing the question of Imperial federation, 1889. Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto, 1895-1902. In the latter year he became organizing representative of the Rhodes Scholarship Trust. Knighted, 1920. =Bib.=: _Reorganization of the British Empire_; _Round the Empire_; _Imperial Federation_; _The Problem of National Unity_; _Geographical Unity of the Empire_; _The Great Dominion_; _Studies of Canada_; _Edward Thring_; _Sir John A. Macdonald_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Parkman, Francis= (1823-1893). Born in Boston. Educated at Harvard, where he graduated, 1844. While still at college decided to write the history of the struggle between France and Britain for the dominion of the New World, and the remainder of his life was devoted to carrying out this great plan. Lived among the western tribes for months at a time, and on several occasions visited Canada and Europe for materials for his work. One of the most brilliant exponents of the theory that history must be based upon a painstaking study of original documents, but should be interpreted and illustrated with all the skill and imagination of a man of vision and a master of English. =Bib.=: Works: _Pioneers of France in the New World_; _Count Frontenac_; _The Jesuits in North America_; _La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West_; _The Old Régime in Canada_; _A Half-Century of Conflict_; _Montcalm and Wolfe_; _The Conspiracy of Pontiac_; _The Oregon Trail_. For biog., _see_ Farnham, _Life of Francis Parkman_. =Parliamentary Government.= The first Legislature in British North America, that of Nova Scotia, met in Halifax in 1758; of Prince Edward Island, in 1773; of New Brunswick, in 1786; of Upper Canada and of Lower Canada, in 1792. These early parliamentary institutions did not, however, mean responsible government. Government consisted of the governor, the Executive Council, the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. The governor exercised far more power than the king dreamed of exercising at the same period. He appointed the members of both the Executive and the Legislative Councils, took their advice or otherwise as he saw fit, and by his control of the bulk of the provincial revenues was practically independent of the Assembly. The latter was elected by the people, but was not much more than a debating society. As the result of a long-continued agitation in all the provinces, responsible government came at last, to the Canadas in 1841, to Nova Scotia the same year, to New Brunswick in 1848, and to Prince Edward Island in 1850. See also Responsible Government; Representative Government; Legislative Assembly. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Parliamentary Procedure and Government_; Todd, _Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies_; Kennedy, _The Constitution of Canada_. =Parr, John.= Served in the army for some years; governor of Nova Scotia, 1782-1786; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1786-1791. The last governor of the province previous to the separation of New Brunswick from the old province of Nova Scotia, and instrumental in bringing about the change. Created widespread dissatisfaction by bad management of the affairs of the Loyalists in Nova Scotia. Parrtown, afterwards St. John, was named after him. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Parry, Sir William Edward= (1790-1855). Arctic explorer. Entered the navy, 1803. Lieutenant-commander in John Ross’ first voyage, 1818. In command of expedition to Melville island, 1819-1820; to Fury and Hecla strait, 1821-1823; and to Prince Regent inlet, 1824-1825. Commanded the _Hecla_ in attempt to reach the Pole by way of Spitzbergen, 1827. Promoted rear-admiral, 1852. Lieutenant-governor of Greenwich Hospital, 1853-1855. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; _Journal of Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage... 1819-1820_; _Journal of a Second Voyage... 1821-1823_; _Journal of a Third Voyage,... 1824-1825_. =Partelow, John R.= Elected to the Assembly of New Brunswick for St. John county, 1842. Led the party opposed to responsible government. Became provincial secretary, 1848, in the first administration after the concession of responsible government; and was later elected Speaker of the Assembly. He is described as a man of moderation and good sense, well fitted to serve his province at a critical period in its constitutional history. =Bib.=: Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =Parti Catholique.= An extreme faction of the Quebec Conservatives, whose avowed policy was “to place members of Parliament under the dictates of the church in all matters political and religious.” Organized, 1872. =Bib.=: DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Parti Nationale.= A reorganization of the Liberals in Quebec in 1872, designed to get away from the discredited Radicalism of earlier days. Among the leaders of the new movement were Laurier, Pelletier, Mercier and David. Their organ was _Le National_, published in Montreal. =Bib.=: DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Parti Rouge.= Formed by Papineau after his return from exile in France, and reflected in a mild form the influence of the French revolution. Among its leaders were A. A. Dorion, J. B. E. Dorion, R. Doutre, Viger, Holton, Dessaules and Laflamme. Its organ was _L’Avenir_ of Montreal. Its initial programme included universal suffrage, abolition of property qualifications for members of the Legislature, repeal of the union of Upper and Lower Canada, abolition of tithes, a republican form of government. It opposed interference of the church in politics. Later, its policy became more moderate. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =Party Government.= Existed in the British North American colonies in a primitive form before the adoption of responsible government, the opposing parties in the Assembly being made up of those who were fighting for responsible government and those who were opposing it and supporting what may be called the vested interests of the day. With the concession of responsible government, parties became a necessity. In Nova Scotia, after a brief period of coalition government, the party system became established with little difficulty. Nor was there much confusion in New Brunswick, though party lines were not so sharply drawn there as in the sister province. In Canada, the situation was much more complicated, and it needed all the tact and astuteness of a very able governor to steer the political ship into the comparatively smooth waters of party government. A novel feature here was the principle of double majorities (_q.v._), which added another to the already numerous complexities of public life, racial, religious and social. _See also_ Representative Government; Responsible Government; Liberal Party; Conservative Party; Reform Party; Tory Party; Parti Rouge; Parti Catholique; Parti Nationale. =Bib.=: Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_; Morison, “Parties and Politics” in _Canada and its Provinces_. =Passamaquoddy Bay.= On the Bay of Fundy, where Maine and New Brunswick meet. From the native _Pes-kut-um-a-quah-dik_ “place where pollock are.” Also known at times as Grand Bay and Oyster Bay. The question of the international boundary, and the ownership of the islands in Passamaquoddy bay, dates back to the treaty of Ghent, 1814, by article 4 of which the matter was referred to a Commission, on which John Holmes represented the United States and Thomas Barclay, Great Britain. The Commission reported in 1817, awarding Moose, Dudley and Frederick islands to the United States, and Campobello, Deer and all other islands in Passamaquoddy bay, as well as Grand Manan outside the bay, to Great Britain. At the same time the boundary was determined from the mouth of the St. Croix through Passamaquoddy bay and Grand Manan channel to the Bay of Fundy. Treaties signed in 1908 and 1910 provided for the more complete definition and demarcation of the boundary in Passamaquoddy bay. =Bib.=: _Treaties and Agreements affecting Canada_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Passchendaele, battle of.= October-November, 1917. The Canadian divisions had been brought back from Lens to Flanders, into the Ypres salient with its grim but glorious memories. It was their task to win their way through a fire-swept area of mud and marsh and slime to Passchendaele ridge. The operations began early on the morning of October 26th, and after fourteen hours’ hard and bitter fighting Bellevue Spur was captured, the supposedly impregnable buttress to Passchendaele. On the morning of the thirtieth the offensive was resumed, the guns having in the meantime been dragged forward under almost incredible conditions to their new positions. Fighting went on almost continuously, and on November 6th the Canadians entered Passchendaele. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Patent Office.= Established in Canada, 1824. The first patent was granted to Noah Cushing of Quebec for a washing and fulling machine. From 1872 patents were granted to non-residents. Under the British North America Act the subject of patents was assigned to the Dominion. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Paterson, R. W.= Commanded the Fort Garry Horse in 1917, and planned the daring raid near Hargicourt when the dismounted men of his own regiment and Strathcona’s Horse captured over a thousand yards of German front line trenches to a depth of six hundred yards, and blew them up systematically. Three months later he became acting commander of the cavalry brigade, and planned and carried out a similar raid on a larger scale. As brigadier-general in command of the brigade he and his men came into their own again in the last days of the war in 1918, when they galloped eight miles through enemy territory, opening the road for the infantry, capturing big guns and machine-guns, and riding triumphantly into the streets of Le Cateau, the first British troops to enter it since 1914. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Patriotes.= Name assumed by Papineau’s followers in Lower Canada. They are associated with the Ninety-Two Resolutions and the Rebellion of 1837-1838. _See also_ Papineau; Wolfred Nelson; Thomas Storrow Brown. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Patrons of Industry.= An association of farmers organized in Ontario in 1891. Their platform called for maintenance of British connection; reservation of the public lands for the actual settler; purity of administration and absolute independence of Parliament; rigid economy in every department of the public service; simplification of the laws and a general reduction in the machinery of government; abolition of the Senate; a system of civil service reform giving each county power to elect all county officials except judges; tariff for revenue only; reciprocal free trade with the United States; legislation to protect labour from combinations and monopolies; prohibition of railway bonuses; preparation of voters’ lists by municipal officers; electoral districts to conform to county boundaries. Their newspaper organ _The Farmers’ Sun_ had the support of Goldwin Smith’s able and trenchant pen. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Sir Oliver Mowat_. =Patterson, George= (1824-1898). Historian. Born at Pictou, Nova Scotia. Educated at Dalhousie College. For twenty-seven years pastor of the Presbyterian church at Green Hill, Pictou. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. =Bib.=: _History of the County of Pictou_; _The Portuguese on the North-East Coast of America_; _The Red Indians of Newfoundland_; _The Magdalen Islands_; _Sable Island_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Patterson, James Colebrooke.= Born in Ireland, 1839. Came to Canada, 1857; entered the civil service at Ottawa; studied law and called to the Ontario bar, 1876. Represented North Essex in the Ontario Assembly, 1874-1878; and the county of Essex in the House of Commons, 1882-1891. Defeated at the general election of 1891, but elected for West Huron, 1892. Secretary of state, 1892; minister of militia, 1892-1895; lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1895-1900. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Patterson, Walter.= Born in Ireland. Entered the army; came to Prince Edward Island in 1770 as first governor of the colony. It was then known as the Island of St. John. Patterson, who was one of the largest landed proprietors in the island, had an Act passed by the Assembly in 1780 changing the name to New Ireland, but the Act was disallowed by the Imperial government. The present name was given in 1798, in honour of the Duke of Kent. Patterson was recalled in 1787. =Bib.=: Davin, _The Irishman in Canada_. =Patteson, Thomas Charles.= Born, 1836, he graduated from Merton College, Oxford, in 1858; came to Canada, studied law, and called to the bar, 1863. Assistant provincial secretary for Ontario, 1867. Became managing editor of the _Mail_, 1872; and postmaster of Toronto, 1879. A brilliant and versatile writer on public questions. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Pattison, John George.= Private, 50th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ On April 10th, 1917, at Vimy Ridge, when the advance was being held up by an enemy machine-gun, he sprang forward, with utter disregard of his own safety, and jumping from shell hole to shell hole, reached cover within thirty yards of the enemy gun. In the face of heavy fire, he fought the crew with bombs, then rushed forward and attacked the remaining five with the bayonet, capturing the gun. =Peace River.= A tributary of the Mackenzie; rises in Thutage lake, in northern British Columbia, its total length being 1,065 miles. It is first mentioned in the _Voyages_ of Alexander Mackenzie. Mackenzie ascended the river in 1792, on his way to the Pacific. He says that it took its name from a place on its banks known as Peace Point, where the Crees and Beaver Indians settled their disputes. Alexander Henry learned of the river, under the same name, in 1776, from a party of Chipewyans whom he met: at Île a la Crosse lake. Simon Fraser, David Thompson, Daniel Williams Harmon, and many other well-known explorers and fur traders, travelled up or down the Peace. Both the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company had trading posts on its banks. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Peace River pass.= The gorge cut by the Peace river through the Rocky Mountains. The summit of the pass is 2,000 feet above the sea. First traversed and described by Alexander Mackenzie, 1793. Simon Fraser followed in 1805, to build several trading posts in New Caledonia, and explore the river that bears his name. =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _Travels_. =Pearkes, George Randolph.= Major, 5th Canadian Mounted Rifles. _Victoria Cross._ For most conspicuous bravery and skilful handling of the troops under his command, near Passchendaele, on October 30th and 31st, 1917. Although wounded in the thigh, he led his men with the utmost gallantry, captured a strong point that was holding up the advance, and held it against repeated enemy counter-attacks, although both his flanks were unprotected. =Pécaudy de Contrecœur, Pierre Claude= (1706-1775). Entered the army and commissioned as second ensign, 1727; ensign, 1734; lieutenant, 1742. Commanded at Fort St. Frédéric, 1742; and at Niagara, 1744-1747. Promoted captain, 1748; and accompanied Céloron de Blainville on his expedition down the Ohio, 1749. Sent in 1754 to relieve Saint-Pierre on the Ohio. In charge of Fort Duquesne that year. He sent out Jumonville, and later Coulon de Villiers, against Washington, and received the hostages brought from Fort Necessity. In 1755 he dispatched the forces that routed Braddock, and received the English prisoners at the fort. For his success in this campaign he was given the cross of St. Louis and a pension of 400 livres. In 1756 he took part in the operations on Lake Champlain. Retired, 1759. After the cession he remained in Canada, and became a member of the Legislative Council in 1775. Died at Montreal. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Peck, Cyrus Wesley.= Lieutenant-colonel, 16th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ At Cagnicourt, on September 2nd, 1918, when his command was held up, he rushed forward and made a personal _reconnaissance_ across a stretch of ground which was swept by intense fire. Returning, he reorganized his battalion and pushed forward. He then went out again, under very heavy artillery and machine-gun fire, intercepted the tanks, gave them the necessary directions, and paved the way for the infantry to continue the advance. =Peel, Sir Robert= (1788-1850). Born in Lancaster, England. Educated at Harrow, and Christ Church, Oxford. Entered Parliament, 1809; under-secretary for war and the colonies, 1811-1812; chief secretary for Ireland, 1812-1818; and home secretary, 1822; premier in 1834, but resigned the following year; again premier, 1841-1846. Like many another statesman, he found it difficult to believe that responsible government, as understood in England, could be applied to Canada without the loss of the colony. For that reason he disapproved of Bagot’s policy, and justified Metcalfe’s action in withholding responsible government. He was anxious that the British commercial interests in Canada should be given representation in the Assembly. Supported Elgin’s action in regard to the Rebellion Losses bill. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Pelee Point.= A long narrow peninsula in Ontario, on the north side of Lake Erie. Pelee island, south of the point, is the most southerly place in Canada, and famous for its wine. The name dates back to the French régime, and is referred to as Point Pelée in a French memoir of 1718. Dollier de Casson’s expedition met with disaster there in 1670. Cuyler’s men, bringing supplies to Detroit in May, 1763, were defeated by Pontiac’s followers. A skirmish also took place there in March, 1838. In 1788 the Chippawa and Ottawa Indians gave a lease of the island to Thomas McKee for 999 years. In 1804 McKee leased the island to John Askin, a fur trader of Detroit. In 1823 the island was transferred to William McCormick. =Pelletier, Sir Charles Alphonse Pantaléon= (1837-1911). Born at Rivière Ouelle, Quebec. Educated at Laval University; studied law, and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1860. Represented Kamouraska in the House of Commons, 1869-1877. Appointed minister of agriculture in Mackenzie ministry, 1877. President of the Canadian Commission at the Paris exhibition, 1878. Called to the Senate, 1877; Speaker, 1896-1901. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1908. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Pelly River.= Rises in the Pelly mountains about lat. 62°, and flows into the Yukon after a course of 330 miles. Discovered and explored by Robert Campbell between the years 1840-1848. Campbell reached the upper waters of the Pelly, by way of the Liard, in 1840; built Fort Pelly Banks, 1842; and descended the river to the junction of the Pelly and Lewes in 1843. He built Fort Selkirk at the forks in 1848. The river was named after Sir H. Pelly, then governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Discovery and Exploration of the Youcon_; Dawson, _Report on the Yukon_ (_Geol. Survey_, 1887-1888); Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Atlas of Canada_. =Penny, Edward Goff= (1820-1881). Born in England. In 1844 came to Canada, studied law, and in 1850 called to the bar of Lower Canada. Signed the Annexation Manifesto. Became editor-in-chief of the Montreal _Herald_ and afterwards one of its proprietors. In 1869 published a pamphlet giving his views in opposition to Confederation. In 1874 appointed to the Senate. =Bib.=: _Can. Parl. Comp._ =Pentagouet.= Afterwards named Castine, after St. Castin (_q.v._). A fort on the western boundary of Acadia, or what is now New Brunswick. Chambly was stationed there in 1673, and the following year had to surrender the fort to a Flemish corsair with a Boston pilot. Captured again by one of Phipps’ officers. =Bib.=: Le Sueur, _Count Frontenac_. =Pepperell, Sir William= (1696-1759). Born at Kittery, Maine. A member of the Council of Massachusetts, 1727-1759. In 1744 he was given command of the expedition sent by the New England colonies against Louisbourg, and captured the fortress the following year. His second in command, Vaughan, son of the lieutenant-governor of New Hampshire, who is said to have planned the expedition, got none of the credit. Pepperell went to England and was created a baronet. In 1759 made a lieutenant-general, and died the same year. His grandson, who was born William Sparhawk but assumed his grandfather’s name and title, by authority of the Legislature, also became a member of the Council of Massachusetts, and was proscribed and banished in 1778 and his estates confiscated. He became president of an association of Loyalists in London, and helped to prosecute their claims for compensation for their losses during the war. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Péré, Jean.= Sent by the Intendant Talon in 1669 to search for copper mines in the Lake Superior region. He was a famous _coureur de bois_, and made explorations in the west. In 1684 he was captured by the English on Hudson Bay; made his way to France, and back to Canada. In 1687 he was a member of Denonville’s expedition against the Iroquois. Three years later is mentioned as being at La Rochelle, France. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvi. =Perley, Sir George Halsey= (1857-). Educated at Harvard University. Elected to the House of Commons from Argenteuil, 1904, 1908, 1911, and 1925. Chief whip of the Conservative party, 1910-1911. Minister without portfolio in Borden administration, 1911. High Commissioner for Canada in London, 1914. Minister of Overseas Military Forces, 1916. Signed minor peace treaties on behalf of Canada. =Bib.=: _Who’s Who and Why_. =Perley, Moses Henry= (1804-1863). Born in Maugerville, New Brunswick. Educated at St. John. In 1828 became an attorney; called to the bar of New Brunswick, 1830, but soon forsook his profession. For some years engaged in milling and lumbering, and, having mixed much with the Micmac and Melicete Indians, appointed commissioner of Indian affairs and immigration officer. In 1841 and succeeding years he spent much time visiting the Indian tribes and investigating their grievances. Also active in advertising the resources of the province, and in 1846 asked to report on the capabilities of the country. A line of railway being projected, he was sent to England in 1847 to report on the matter. Returning to New Brunswick, he pursued his investigations into the fisheries of the province. In 1849 commissioned to report on the fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence; in 1850 those of the sea and rivers of New Brunswick; and in 1851 those of the Bay of Fundy. In 1852-1853 compiled the trade statistics which were used in the negotiations for the Reciprocity treaty between Canada and the United States. In 1854 the treaty was signed, and he was appointed a commissioner to carry out the terms arranged. Died in Newfoundland. =Bib.=: _Sea and River Fisheries of New Brunswick_. For biog., _see_ Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Perrault, Joseph François= (1753-1844). Born in Quebec, the son of a rich merchant trading with New England and the West Indies. Given the appointment of prothonotary in Quebec, and held it throughout his life. Took a deep interest in educational matters; founded a number of schools on the Lancaster system; and is regarded in Quebec as the father of the provincial school system. Also did much, both by his writings and by furthering the establishment of model farms, to place agriculture upon a better and more scientific basis. =Bib.=: _Biographie de Joseph François Perrault écrite par Lui-Même, à l’Age de Quatre-Vingt Ans, sans Lunettes_; Casgrain, _Vie de Joseph François Perrault_; Bender, _Old and New Canada_. For list of his writings, _see_ Casgrain’s work mentioned above. =Perrot, François-Marie.= Sent to Canada as governor of Montreal, 1670, in succession to Maisonneuve. Engaged in illicit trading in furs, and shielded the _coureurs de bois_. “The whole course of his conduct in Canada,” says Abbé Faillon, “justifies us in thinking that when he decided to come here it was in the hope of making a great fortune through the influence of M. de Talon, whose niece he had married.” Obtained a grant of Isle Perrot in 1672. Used his office to further his own interests; quarrelled violently with Frontenac, who had him arrested and sent to France. Imprisoned for a short time in the Bastile, released, and restored to his governorship, which he held until 1684. Governor of Acadia, 1684-1686. Dismissed, but remained in the country as a trader, notwithstanding the king’s orders to return to France. He is known to have been in Acadia as late as February, 1688, but no trace is found of him after that time. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_; Le Sueur, _Count Frontenac_; La Chesnaye-Desbois, _Dictionnaire_, vol. xv, 720. =Perrot, Nicolas= (1620-1697). Born in France. Came to Canada, and entered the service of the government at Quebec. Went on several exploring expeditions, living among the Indian tribes, and mastering the Algonquian languages. In 1665 returned to Quebec; and accompanied as interpreter Daumont de St. Lusson to Sault Ste. Marie. Visited Green Bay, Lake Michigan, 1668. In 1684 he induced a number of the western tribes to join Lefèbvre de la Barre in his campaign against the Iroquois. In 1687 his influence with the Indians proved of great service to the Marquis de Denonville, and later to Vaudreuil. In 1690 Frontenac sent him with de Louvigny to strengthen the French position with the western tribes. Among his other notable achievements was the discovery of the lead mines on the Des Moines river, Iowa. Left manuscripts describing his sojourn among the different Indian tribes, and their manners and customs. =Bib.=: _Mémoire sur les Mœurs, Coutumes et Religion des Sauvages de l’Amerique Septentrionale_. Trans. in Blair, _Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi_. Extracts in _Wis. Hist. Coll._ xvi, 10 etc. For biog., _see_ Stickney, _Nicolas Perrot_; Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Perry, Oliver Hazard= (1786-1819). United States naval officer. Commanded a squadron of nine vessels on Lake Erie in 1813. Fought and defeated the British squadron of six vessels under Barclay (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _Life of Perry_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Perry, Peter.= Born at Ernestown, Upper Canada. Followed his father’s occupation as farmer; entered public life, 1824, as member for Lennox and Addington in the Upper Canada Assembly, and became a leader of the Reform party; defeated, 1836; again elected in 1849, for the east riding of York, succeeding William Hume Blake. One of the leaders of the Clear Grits. Described by Bourinot as the founder of the Liberal party in Upper Canada before the Union. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Peterborough.= City of Ontario. In the county of the same name, north of Lake Ontario. Previous to 1825 it was known as Indian Plain or Scott’s Landing. Incorporated as a town in 1850; as a city in 1905. Named after Colonel Peter Robinson, brother of Sir John Beverley Robinson, who brought two thousand emigrants from the north of Ireland and settled them in the neighbouring townships. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Peterson, Sir William= (1856-1921). Born at Edinburgh. Educated at the University of Edinburgh, the University of Göttingen, and Oxford, he became assistant professor of humanity at Edinburgh 1879-82; principal of University College, Dundee, 1882-95; principal of McGill University, 1895-1919. Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, 1914. For some time Chairman of the Carnegie Foundation for the advancement of Teaching. =Bib.=: _Who’s Who_. =Petitot, Émile Fortuné Stanislas Joseph.= Roman Catholic missionary in the north-west, particularly in the Mackenzie river district. Author of several works on the languages, manners, and customs of the native tribes. =Bib.=: _Traditions Indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest_; _En route pour la Mer Glaciale_; _Quinze ans sous le Cercle polaire_; _Autour du Grand Lac des Esclaves_; _Explorations de la région du Grand Lac des Ours_; _On the Athabaska District of the Canadian North-West_ in _Canadian Record of Science, 1884_; _Essai sur une Légende Américaine_ (Société Philologique, _Actes_, Alençon, 1883). =Philipps, Richard= (1661-1751). Early entered the army. Served at the battle of the Boyne; lieutenant-colonel, 1712; appointed governor of Nova Scotia, 1717. Arrived in Nova Scotia, 1720, and remained until 1722. Again visited Nova Scotia for a short time, returning to England, 1731. Arranged for a lieutenant-governor to act during his absence. Did not return to Nova Scotia, but continued to draw full pay as governor until 1749. =Bib.=: Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Phillips, William= (1731-1781). Born in England. Entered the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich as a cadet, 1746; promoted captain, 1756; commanded three companies of British artillery attached to the Duke of Brunswick’s army, at Minden, 1759; served also at Warberg, 1760. In 1772 became colonel, and in 1776 sent to Canada on the staff of General Burgoyne; in command of the artillery at the battles of Skenesborough, near Ticonderoga, and Mount Independence, at both of which he distinguished himself; afterwards promoted major-general; in 1777 took a leading part in the two battles which led to the capitulation at Saratoga. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Phipps, Sir William= (1651-1695). Born in Maine. In 1669, employed as a ship carpenter, and later became captain of a merchantman sailing from Boston. In 1687 succeeded in raising a Spanish treasure-ship which had been sunk near the Bahamas, recovering £300,000, of which his share was £16,000. Knighted the same year, and given the office of provost-marshal of New England. In 1690 commanded an expedition against Acadia, and captured Port Royal. His expedition the same year against Quebec met with failure. In 1692 appointed governor of Massachusetts, with a special commission to take aggressive measures against the French in Canada, but accomplished little. Summoned to England in 1694 to account for his administration, but died before the inquiry was held. _See also_ Quebec, Siege of, 1690; Port Royal. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Parkman, _Frontenac_; Myrand, _Sir William Phipps devant Québec_. =Pichon, Thomas.= A native of France; in early life a medical student. Secretary to the governor of Louisbourg, 1751-1753. Sent to Fort Beauséjour as commissary of stores. Furnished information to the British, which was of great assistance in the capture of the place. Acted as a spy for the British while confined with the French prisoners held at Halifax. Went to London, 1758; resided there until his death, 1781. =Bib.=: Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Pickering, Timothy= (1745-1829). Joined the revolutionary army; appointed adjutant-general, 1776, and took part in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown. In 1790 sent on a commission to the Seneca Indians, and arranged a treaty. Entertained by Simcoe at Navy Hall, Niagara. In 1795 secretary of war, an office which also included Indian affairs; later secretary of state in the administration of John Adams. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Picoté de Belestre, François Marie.= Born 1719, and ten years later accompanied his father to Detroit. Entered the army, became ensign 1742 and lieutenant 1758. Held commands in Acadia 1745-46; at Fort St. Josephs, and later at Detroit, 1750-1760. He was the last French commandant of Detroit. After the capitulation he returned to France, 1762, but came out again to Quebec and became a member of the first Legislative Council of Quebec under the British régime. Took part in the defence of the province during the American invasion of 1775-1776. In 1778 held the office of grand voyer or overseer of roads, which had been established during the French period, and was continued in the period of British rule. Replaced in 1783 by St. George Dupré as he was in poor health. Died some time after January, 1784. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Pictou.= Name derived, according to Dr. Rand, from the Micmac word _Pictook_. A town in Nova Scotia, founded in 1789 and incorporated in 1873. Its earliest beginnings go back to 1773, when the _Hector_ landed thirty families from the Scotch Highlands. In 1784 a number of disbanded troopers settled there. More Highlanders followed, and in 1789 the corner-stone was laid of the first house in Pictou. In the days of the sailing ship it was an important seaport. Pictou Academy was established there about 1815, and counted among its graduates such distinguished men as Sir William Dawson and Principal Grant. =Bib.=: Brown, _Nova Scotia Place Names_. =Pierron, John.= Jesuit missionary. Born at Dun-sur-Meuse, 1631. Came to Canada in 1667, and set out for the Mohawk country with Frémin and Bruyas. Having some facility with the pencil, and little knowledge of the Indian tongue, he invented a game of pictures which he used to instruct the Indians in the principles of Christianity. Some years later he was summoned to Quebec to give an account of the country to Governor Courcelle and Intendant Talon. He was sent to Acadia, and later made a tour of New England in disguise. He returned to the Iroquois country, laboured among the Senecas and Cayugas in 1676-77, and returned to France in 1678, where he died some time afterward. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Pigeon River.= Empties into the north-west side of Lake Superior, at the place where the international boundary leaves the lake. Grand Portage stood near its mouth, and the old fur trade route to the interior joined the river above the falls and followed it for some distance. To-day an automobile road crosses the old trail and the river, on its way from Duluth to Fort William. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Pike, Warburton= (1861-1916). An English traveller, who explored parts of the barren grounds of northern Canada in 1889, and embodied the story of his experiences and discoveries in a book _The Barren Grounds of Northern Canada_, which President Roosevelt described as a splendid classic of adventure literature. On his return journey he followed the Peace river through the Rockies and up the Parsnip, his objective being McLeod’s lake; but managed to turn up the wrong stream and got lost. Before he finally made his way back to Rocky Mountain portage he was reduced to eating his moccasins, and had to travel the last few miles on his hands and knees. In 1898 he made a difficult journey over a proposed route from Edmonton north-west to the Yukon for a railway, and spent several years mining in the Berry Creek country. Later he went to Vienna for the British Columbia government with big game trophies. He was a close friend of Sir Clive Phillips Woolley (_q.v._). =Pilot.= Newspaper published in Montreal. Established in 1844 by Hincks, and edited by him. Offices wrecked by a mob in 1849 in connection with the Rebellion Losses Bill. =Bib.=: Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_. =Piquet, Abbé François.= Born in Burgundy in 1708. Joined Sulpician order at Paris, and was sent to Canada, 1734. Spent five years in Montreal and ten more at the mission of the Lake of Two Mountains on the Ottawa. A missionary among the Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas. He built the mission post of La Présentation, at the junction of the Oswegatchie and the St. Lawrence, 1749. Parkman describes him as “an enthusiastic schemer, with great executive talents, ardent, energetic, vain, self-confident and boastful.” In 1752 he put before the government at Quebec a scheme for raising a huge war party of friendly Indians, and with their aid driving the English out of the Ohio country, and then attacking the Cherokees and the Virginians. Nothing came of the project. He is heard of on various occasions during the next seven years, or up to the end of the period of French rule in Canada, always full of energy and plans for the undoing of the English. In 1760 he returned to France rather than accept British allegiance. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._ xvii. =Pitt, William= (1759-1806). Entered Parliament, 1781, becoming prime minister in 1783. In consequence of French aggressions, formed in 1793 a great coalition with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Prussia, and Austria. In 1798 formed a second coalition against France, including Russia, Austria, and other countries. Introduced Constitutional Act (Canada) 1791. He believed that the division of Canada into two provinces “would remove the differences of opinion which had arisen between the old and new inhabitants, since each province would have the right of enacting laws desired in its own House of Assembly.” Resigned office, 1801. Again premier in 1804; and in 1805 formed a third coalition with Russia, Austria, and Sweden. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Pitt Island.= On the coast of British Columbia, between 53° and 54°. It was named by Vancouver in 1793 after the great prime minister of England, son of the Earl of Chatham. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =Place-Names in Canada.= The origin of the nomenclature of Canada offers an interesting field of study. Through it one might trace the influence of the early navigators, French, Spanish, Portuguese, British, Scandinavian, on the three coasts of the Dominion, Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic; almost follow the footsteps of the great pathfinders of the interior, Champlain, Brûlé, La Salle, Marquette, Radisson, Nicolet, DuLhut, La Vérendrye, Henry, Pond, Mackenzie, Thompson, Fraser, Campbell, and the rest. One might even learn something of the character, preferences and prejudices of many of the early governors, French and English, from the names they gave to lakes, rivers, mountains, towns, counties, etc., in Canada. And one can sense a certain nostalgia in the iteration and reiteration of Old World names, sometimes curiously inappropriate in their New World setting. From ocean to ocean, also, there remain evidence of the aborigines, tribes whose languages were sometimes guttural and unpronounceable but oftener musical, and whose original place-names were in many cases extraordinarily apt and effective, in marked contrast to the dull, lifeless, monotonous names that too often have been allowed to supplant them. =Bib.=: Geographic Board of Canada, _Reports_; Gannett, _Dictionary of Geographic Positions in the United States_; Brown, _Place Names of Nova Scotia_; Ganong, _Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick_, (R. S. C., 1896, 1906); Douglas, _Place Names of Prince Edward Island_; White, _Place Names in Quebec_; Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_ (Ontario); White, _Place Names in Georgian Bay_; Roy, _Noms geographique de Québec_; White, _Place Names in the Thousand Islands_; Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_; White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_; White, _Place Names in the Rocky Mountains_, (R. S. C., 1916); Anderson, _Place Names on Anticosti_; Douglas, _Meaning of Canadian City Names_; Douglas, _Place Names on Magdalen Islands_; Douglas, _Place Names of Manitoba_. =Placentia.= Settlement on the east coast of Placentia Bay, Newfoundland; dates back to 1655 when De Kéréon was named first governor. Three years later Sieur Nicolas Gargot, captain of the fleet which sailed each year from France to Canada, was made governor of the fort. In 1662 Du Mont landed at Placentia, proclaimed it French territory, fortified it, and left a garrison of thirty soldiers and a priest. Thalon du Perron of Nantes became the second governor that year. The following year Gargot was ordered to take out certain colonists and stores from La Rochelle to Placentia. Bellot _alias_ Lafontaine was third governor, 1664-1667, and in the latter year sixty families were brought from La Rochelle to Placentia as well as 150 soldiers and guns. De la Palme succeeded as fourth governor, 1667-1670; De la Poëpe as fifth governor, 1670-1685; Antoine Parat, 1685-1690; Jacques François de Brouillan, 1690-1702; Daniel Auger de Subercase, 1702-1706; Philippe Pastour de Costebelle, 1706. In course of time three settlements grew up on the Bay, Great Placentia, Little Placentia and Point Verte. From time to time British fleets and privateers attacked and plundered Placentia, and Iberville and others retaliated by attacking St. John’s. Under the Treaty of Utrecht, Placentia and its sub-colonies were finally transferred to England, and the settlements were placed under the control of an English governor. =Bib.=: Rogers, _Newfoundland: Historical and Geographical_. =Plains of Abraham.= Above the city of Quebec. Named after Abraham Martin, a Quebec pilot famous in his day, who owned a portion of these lands in the early days of the colony. A monument to his memory was erected in 1923 on the docks at Quebec. The Plains have now been set apart by the Dominion government as a national park. They were the scene of the Tercentenary celebrations in 1908. For particulars of the siege of 1759 and the Battle of the Plains, _see_ Quebec, Siege of, 1759. _See also_ Martin, Abraham. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Bradley, _The Fight with France_. =Plamondon, Marc Aurèle.= Born in Quebec, 1823. Educated at the Quebec Seminary. In 1846 called to the bar, and practised for many years in Quebec, achieving success in the criminal courts. In his early years closely connected with newspapers published in the Liberal interests, among others the _Artisan_; also established _Le Menestrel_ and the _Courrier Commercial_. One of the leaders of the Quebec Liberals. In 1855 founded _Le National_, for several years one of the leading organs of the Reform party in Lower Canada. In 1874 appointed a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of Quebec. In 1896 the members of the profession in Quebec celebrated the 50th anniversary of his call to the bar. Retired from the bench, November, 1897. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Plessis, Joseph-Octave= (1763-1825). Born in Montreal. Elected coadjutor, 1797. Bishop of Canatha and coadjutor to Bishop Denaut, 1803. Bishop of Quebec, 1806 to 1825. Named archbishop of Quebec in 1819, but never assumed the title. He was a staunch friend of British rule in Canada. Supported Papineau until his language and actions became revolutionary. =Bib.=: DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_; Têtu, _Evêques de Québec_. =Poncet de la Rivière, Joseph Antoine.= Born in Paris, he entered the Society of Jesus, and in 1639 sailed for Canada with Chaumonot, Mme. de la Peltrie, and Marie de l’Incarnation. Founded an Algonquin mission in 1645. Taken prisoner by the Iroquois in 1653, not far from Quebec, he was tortured but afterwards released and sent down to the Dutch at Fort Orange, where he met Radisson. He made his way back to Quebec, returned to France, and in 1665 was sent to Martinique, where he died in 1675. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Pond, Peter= (1740-1807). Born in Milford, Connecticut. At the age of sixteen, charmed as he says in his journal by the sound of the drums, he ran away and enlisted with the army, was at Fort George that year, returned home in 1757, joined the army again in 1758, describes the death of Howe and the battle of Ticonderoga, as well as the capture of Niagara the following year. In 1760 he was given a commission and accompanied Amherst on his expedition down the St. Lawrence to Montreal. In 1761 he went on a voyage to the West Indies, and spent the next three years at Milford. He then entered the western fur trade with Detroit as his headquarters. Six years later he made a second voyage to the West Indies; and again entered the fur trade, taking a quantity of goods to Michilimackinac. He spent the years 1773-75 in what is now Wisconsin, and from 1775 to 1788 was engaged in trading and exploring in the Saskatchewan and Athabaska regions, in association with the Frobishers, Alexander Henry and others. He prepared several maps of the western country. Was for some years a member of the North West Company. His latter years were spent at Milford, where he died. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. His Journal is published in _Connecticut Magazine_, x, and also in _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Pontbriand, Henri-Marie Du Breuil de= (1709-1760). Born in Vannes, France. In 1741 consecrated bishop of Quebec, and left Paris for Canada. Soon after his arrival in Quebec engaged in a lawsuit with the nuns of the general hospital as to the ownership of the episcopal palace, which they claimed Bishop Saint-Vallier had bequeathed to them. The king, however, confirmed him in its possession. Another royal decree prohibited religious congregations from holding lands in mortmain, but the bishop refused to enforce it. In 1760, after the fall of Quebec, he appointed a vicar-general, admonished the clergy to observe strictly the terms of capitulation, and went to Montreal, where he died after a short illness. =Bib.=: Têtu, _Evêques de Quebec_. =Pont-Gravé=, (=François Gravé, Sieur du Pont=). Generally known as Pont-Gravé or Pontgravé. A merchant of St. Malo. Sailed for Tadoussac, on the St. Lawrence, in 1600. He had already made, it is believed, several voyages to the St. Lawrence. Accompanied Champlain in the voyage of 1603. Two years later arrived at Ste. Croix, on the Bay of Fundy. Left in command of Port Royal, 1605-06. Returned to France, and sailed again in 1608 in the _Lévrier_. His vessel was captured by Captain Darache, a Basque, at Tadoussac. Returned to France, and sailed again for Canada in 1609. In command of the colony during Champlain’s absence. They both returned to France in 1609. The next year he once more sailed for Canada, on a fur trading expedition. He made several later voyages to Canada, and in 1629 signed with Champlain the capitulation of Quebec to the Kirkes. It is recorded that he arrived in the St. Lawrence in 1645 with a fleet of five ships, bearing with him the documents containing the terms of a treaty between the Company of New France and the colonists conceding to the latter a share of the fur trade. _See also_ Champlain. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Dionne, _Champlain_. =Pontiac= (1720-1769). Renowned Indian leader. Born on the Ottawa river. An ally of the French during their struggles with the British colonists. In 1746 he and his Indians assisted the French at Detroit in repelling an attack by northern tribes, and in 1755 he led the Ottawas when General Braddock was defeated. In 1763 began a campaign against the British; destroyed several forts from Lake Michigan to Niagara, and massacred their garrisons. Detroit was then attacked and besieged for nearly a year, until relieved by Colonel Bradstreet; Pittsburg was saved only by the timely arrival of Colonel Bouquet. Eight out of twelve fortified forts were destroyed by Pontiac and his Indians. They were finally subdued by Sir William Johnson, who in 1766 concluded a treaty of peace. In 1769 Pontiac was assassinated by a Kaskaskia Indian. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_; Marquis, _War Chief of the Ottawas_; Smith, _Historical Account of Bouquet’s Expedition_. =Poole, Samuel Sheldon= (1748-1835). United Empire Loyalist. Went to Nova Scotia after the Revolution, and became a member of the Provincial Assembly. He sat there for fifty years and was long known as the “Father of the House.” Died at Yarmouth. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Pope, James Colledge= (1826-1885). Born in Bedeque, Prince Edward Island. Educated at home and in England. Engaged in mercantile pursuits. Sat in the Prince Edward Island Assembly, 1857-1867; premier, 1865-1867. A strong opponent of Confederation and succeeded in preventing the entrance of Prince Edward Island into the Dominion. Defeated, 1868; two years later elected and again became premier. His government defeated, 1872, but returned to power, 1873. Carried through resolutions under which Prince Edward Island became a province of Canada. Elected to the House of Commons for Prince County, 1873; did not offer for re-election. Again elected to the House of Commons, 1878; entered the government of Sir John A. Macdonald as minister of marine and fisheries. Held office until his retirement from public life, 1882. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Rose, _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Pope, John Henry= (1824-1889). Born in the Eastern Townships, Quebec. Elected for Compton to the Canada Assembly, 1857; and in 1867 to the Dominion Parliament. Called to the Cabinet, 1871, as minister of agriculture, and again in 1878 on the return of the Conservatives to power; in 1880 accompanied Sir John Macdonald and Sir Charles Tupper to England in connection with the negotiations as to the Canadian Pacific Railway contract; minister of railways and canals, 1885. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Pope, Sir Joseph= (1854-). Eldest son of William Henry Pope (_q.v._). Private secretary to Sir John A. Macdonald, 1882-1891; under-secretary of state, 1896-1908; under-secretary for external affairs, 1908-1925. =Bib.=: _Memoir of Sir John A. Macdonald_; _Correspondence of Sir John A. Macdonald_; _The Day of Sir John Macdonald_. =Pope, William Henry= (1825-1879). Born in Prince Edward Island. Elected to the Legislature and became provincial secretary in the Gray ministry, 1863; represented Prince Edward Island at the Charlottetown Conference, 1864, and the Quebec Conference, 1864; judge of the County Court of Prince County, Prince Edward Island, 1873-1879. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Prince Edward Island_. =Poplar Grove.= Battle in the South African War, March 7th, 1900. The Boers occupied a strong defensive position on a series of hills near the Modder river. The Canadians as well as the other infantry played an important but not conspicuous part in the engagement, which was mainly an artillery duel. The Boers realizing that they were in danger of being surrounded, withdrew their entire force, keeping the British at a respectable distance with their long-range guns. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_, v. 1. =Population.= _See_ Census. =Porcupine River.= A tributary of the Yukon. Discovered by John Bell, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1842, and explored to its junction with the Yukon, by Bell, in 1844. In 1847 Alexander Hunter Murray, of the same company, descended the Porcupine to its mouth, and built Fort Yukon, about three miles above the mouth of the Porcupine on the east bank of the Yukon. In 1869 on the abandonment of Fort Yukon, the Hudson’s Bay Company built Rampart House, on the Porcupine River, close to the international boundary. As subsequent surveys proved it to be on American territory, the fort was moved some miles to the east. =Bib.=: Murray, _Journal of the Yukon_ (Canadian Archives, 1910); McConnell, _Report on the Yukon and Mackenzie Basins_ (Geol. Survey, 1889). =Port Arthur.= City of Ontario, on Thunder bay, Lake Superior. Founded 1866, and then known as Prince Arthur’s Landing. Here, three years later, Wolseley gathered his expeditionary force, and led them through the extremely difficult country that lay beyond to Fort Garry. Incorporated as a town in 1884, and as a city in 1906. =Port Hayes.= At mouth of Hayes river, west coast of Hudson Bay. _See_ York Factory. =Port Nelson.= Fort built by the Hudson’s Bay Company, at mouth of Hayes river, west coast of Hudson Bay, 1669. Afterwards known as York Factory (_q.v._). It was captured by the French under Iberville in 1694, and again in 1697. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Pathfinders of the West_ and _Conquest of the Great North-West_. _See also_ Iberville. =Port Royal.= On Annapolis basin, Bay of Fundy. Founded by De Monts in 1605. The basin had been discovered the previous year, and the land granted to Poutrincourt, who named it Port Royal. The early settlement is described in Lescarbot’s _History of New France_. Captured by Sedgwick, under orders of Cromwell, in 1654; restored in 1668. Again captured by Phipps, 1690, and once more restored to France by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697. Nicholson finally captured the place in 1710, and renamed it Annapolis Royal (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Champlain, _Voyages_; Lescarbot, _History of New France_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Portage la Prairie.= Town on the Assiniboine river, in Manitoba, at the point where in the days of the fur trade a portage path led north to Lake Manitoba. Founded in 1853 and incorporated as a town in 1907. It occupies the site of Fort La Reine, built by La Vérendrye in 1738. =Portages.= Played a very important part in the history of exploration and the western fur trade. Practicable portages existed and were used, from the headwaters of rivers flowing into the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes to those flowing into Hudson and James Bays, from southern tributaries of the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario to the upper waters of the Hudson, from Lake Erie to the Ohio, Lake Michigan to the Illinois and Mississippi, Green Bay by the Fox and Wisconsin rivers to the Mississippi, Lake Superior to the upper Mississippi. Three distinct portage routes led from Lake Superior to Rainy lake and the Lake of the Woods, the Kaministikwia, Grand Portage and Fond du Lac routes. There was also a fourth, from Lake Nipigon to the Winnipeg river. From Lake Winnipeg, going south, a portage led from the Red river to the Mississippi; going north-east, the Hayes route led by a series of portages to Hudson Bay; west, portages led to the Saskatchewan around Grand Rapids, thence to the Churchill by Frog portage, and by Methye portage to the Clearwater and Athabaska. West of the mountains, Giscome portage connected the upper waters of the Peace with the Fraser. To all intents and purposes, the mountain passes, Athabaska, Howse, etc, were long portages from the upper waters of the Athabaska and North and South Saskatchewan rivers to the Fraser and the Columbia. _See_ Grand Portage, Methye Portage, Frog Portage, Giscome Portage, Rocky Mountain Portage. Descriptions of portaging methods, canoes, etc, will be found in Harmon’s _Journals_, Coues’ edition of Henry’s _Journal_, Johnston’s “Lake Superior” in Masson’s _Bourgeois_, Ross’ _Fur Hunters_, and Cox’ _Adventures on the Columbia_. =Portland Canal.= Named by Vancouver, in 1793, after the Duke of Portland. Declared in 1903 by the Alaska Boundary Commission to be the boundary between Canada and Alaska. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =Post Office.= On postal arrangements in New France, see Smith’s _History_ mentioned below. In early Colonial days the postal system in all the British North American colonies was subordinate to the general post office in London. After the Revolution, the postal systems in the thirteen colonies were taken over by the federal government of the United States. In what is to-day Canada, the transfer from the Imperial authorities to those of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, took place in 1851. In each of the three colonies a Postmaster-General was appointed, who in the case of Canada and New Brunswick became a member of the government, in Nova Scotia he remained a subordinate official. The postal service in Prince Edward Island was also formally transferred in 1851, but in practice the colony had been administering its own little system since 1827. In colonial days the postal arrangements in British Columbia and Red River Colony were managed locally. After Confederation, the post office was taken over by the Dominion. _See also_ Transportation. =Bib.=: Smith, _History of the Post Office in British North America_. =Pottawotomi Indians.= An Algonquian tribe, allied to the Chippewas. They ranged over portions of what is now the state of Michigan, and in 1760, when Detroit fell into the hands of the British, occupied a village below the fort. One hundred and fifty of the tribe fought under Pontiac in 1763. In the War of 1812, they took the British side. =Bib.=: Pilling, _Bibliography of Algonquian Languages_; Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Parkman, _Conspiracy of Pontiac_. =Pouchot= (1712-1769). Born at Grenoble, France. Entered the Engineers’ corps of the French army in 1733, and served in Flanders, Corsica, and Germany. Accompanied Montcalm to Canada and took part in the defence of Fort Niagara and Fort de Lévis. Served in the campaigns against the British and Indians, until the fall of Quebec in 1759. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _Fight with France_. =Poundmaker.= A powerful Cree chief, who sided with Riel in the Rebellion of 1885. Otter attacked him at Cut Knife Hill, but after several hours’ fighting was compelled to retreat, only just succeeding in extricating himself from the enveloping movement that Poundmaker was carrying out. Poundmaker had planned to join forces with Big Bear, but did not succeed. He finally surrendered to General Middleton at Battleford, and was sent prisoner to Regina. After some months’ imprisonment, he was released on the intercession of Archbishop Taché and Père Lacombe. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1885. =Poutrincourt.= _See_ Biencourt de Poutrincourt. =Powell, Henry Watson= (1733-1814). Born in England. Entered the army; in 1756 became captain; and in 1759 served in the West Indies; in 1768 and subsequent years stationed in different parts of North America, and in 1771 promoted lieutenant-colonel. Took part in General Burgoyne’s expedition in 1777, with the rank of brigadier-general; in July, 1777, in command of Fort Ticonderoga, and held it successfully against the besieging forces of New Hampshire and Connecticut. Returned to England at the end of the American Revolution, and in 1801 promoted general. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Powell, Colonel Walker.= Born in Waterford, Ontario, in 1828. Educated at the county Grammar School, and at Victoria College, Cobourg. Engaged for some years in mercantile pursuits. Appointed warden of Norfolk County, 1856. Member of the Legislative Assembly for Norfolk County, 1857-1861. Appointed deputy adjutant-general for the Dominion of Canada, 1862. Served during the Fenian Raid, 1866, and in the Rebellions of 1869-1870 and 1885. Adjutant-general of the Dominion, 1875-1896. Largely responsible for the present militia system of Canada, and aided in the establishment of the Royal Military College at Kingston. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Powell, William Dummer= (1755-1834). Born at Boston. Educated at the Boston Grammar School, and at a school at Tunbridge, Kent. Sent to Holland to acquire French and Dutch. Returned to Boston in 1772, and in 1773-4 visited Canada. Studied law under the then attorney-general of Massachusetts. In 1775 joined the British garrison at Boston as a volunteer. In 1776 went to England, with his young wife and his father. Continued his law studies, and in 1779 sailed for Canada, and started practice in Montreal, his first client being Pierre Du Calvet (_q.v._). In 1784 he went to England with several others to urge the repeal of the Quebec Act, the establishment of a Legislative Assembly, trial by jury and other reforms, but failed to interest the ministry. From there he sailed to Boston, in an effort to save something from his father’s estate, and in 1786 returned to Montreal. Three years later he was elevated to the bench for the district of Hesse, with headquarters at Detroit. In 1795 he was made a puisne judge of the Court of Kings Bench for Upper Canada; in 1807 became a member of the Executive Council; in 1812 he drew up Brock’s proclamation in answer to that of General Hull; in 1814 called to the Legislative Council, of which he was made speaker; in 1816 succeeded Scott as Chief-Justice, presiding among many other important cases at the trials of Robert Gourlay and Lord Selkirk. Resigned, 1825, both from the bench and the council. Died in Toronto. =Bib.=: Riddell, _Life of William Dummer Powell_. =Power, Michael= (1804-1848). Born in Waterford, Ireland. Emigrated to Canada. Ordained a priest, and became curé of La Prairie, which position he held until 1841, when he went to Europe with Bishop Bourget. On his return to Canada appointed bishop of the western part of Kingston, when that diocese was divided. Consecrated, May 8, 1842, and adopted the title of bishop of Toronto, from the city in which he resided. During his administration the missions which the Jesuits had formerly held in Upper Canada were restored, and others established by his aid. He was for many years chairman of the Council of Public Instruction of Ontario. =Prairie du Chien.= A French settlement, just above the mouth of the Wisconsin river. The town of Prairie de Chien, Wisconsin, to-day occupies the site. The name was taken from that of a Fox chief called by the French Le Chien. A French post, built in the seventeenth century stood near the settlement. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Preferential Trade.= Existed between Canada and England, to a limited extent, in the early part of the nineteenth century. Under the Corn Laws Canadian wheat had a preference over foreign wheat in the British market. When these laws were repealed in 1846, the preference disappeared. Complaints were made in Canada that the trade of the colony would be ruined, and Lord Stanley said in the House of Lords: “Destroy this principle of protection and you destroy the whole basis upon which your colonial system rests.” The actual results did not prove to be quite so alarming. In 1897 the Laurier government offered a preferential tariff to the Mother Country and the offer was accepted; subsequently the preference was increased. =Premiers of Canada.= Sir John A. Macdonald, 1867-1873; Alexander Mackenzie, 1873-78; Sir John A. Macdonald, 1878-91; Sir John J. C. Abbott, 1891-92; Sir John S. D. Thompson, 1892-94; Sir Mackenzie Bowell, 1894-96; Sir Charles Tupper, 1896; Sir Wilfrid Laurier, 1896-1911; Sir Robert L. Borden, 1911-20; Arthur Meighen, 1920-21; W. L. Mackenzie King, 1921-1926; Arthur Meighen, 1926-1926. =Premiers of Ontario.= John Sandfield Macdonald, 1867-1871; Edward Blake, 1871-72; Oliver Mowat, 1872-96; Arthur Sturgis Hardy, 1896-99; George W. Ross, 1899-95; James P. Whitney, 1905-14; William H. Hearst, 1914-19; Ernest Charles Drury, 1919-23; George H. Ferguson, 1923-1930. =Premiers of Quebec.= Pierre Joseph Olivier Chaveau, 1867-1873; Gédéon Ouimet, 1873-74; Charles Eugène Boucher de Boucherville, 1874-78; Henri Gustave Joly, 1878-79; Joseph Adolphe Chapleau, 1879-82; Joseph Alfred Mousseau, 1882-84; John Jones Ross, 1884-87; Louis Olivier Taillon, 1887; Honoré Mercier, 1887-91; Charles Eugène Boucher de Boucherville, 1891-92; Louis Olivier Taillon, 1892-96; Edmund James Flynn, 1896-97; Félix Gabriel Marchand, 1897-1900; Siméon Napoléon Parent, 1900-1905; Lomer Gouin, 1905-20; Louis Alexandre Taschereau, 1920-1936. =Premiers of Nova Scotia.= Hiram Blanchard, 1867; William Annand, 1867-75; Philip Carteret Hill, 1875-78; Simon Hugh Holmes, 1878-82; John S. D. Thompson, 1882; William Thomas Pipes, 1882-84; William S. Fielding, 1884-96; George Henry Murray, 1896-1923; Ernest Howard Armstrong, 1923-25; Edgar Rhodes, 1925. =Premiers of New Brunswick.= Andrew Rainsford Wetmore, 1867-70; George Edwin King, 1870-71; George L. Hatheway, 1871-72; George Edwin King, 1872-78; John James Fraser, 1878-82; Daniel L. Hanington, 1882-83; Andrew George Blair, 1883-96; James Mitchell, 1896-97; Henry R. Emmerson, 1897-1900; Lemuel J. Tweedie, 1900-1907; William Pugsley, 1907; Clifford William Robinson, 1907-1908; J. Douglas Hazen, 1908-11; James K. Fleming, 1911-1914; George J. Clarke, 1914-17; James A Murray, 1917; Walter E. Foster, 1917-23; Peter J. Veniot, 1923-25; John Babington Macauley Baxter, 1925-1931. =Premiers of Prince Edward Island.= George Coles, 1851-1854; John Hall, 1854-55; George Coles, 1855-59; Edward Palmer, 1859-63; John H. Gray, 1863-65; James C. Pope, 1865-67; George Coles, 1867-69; Joseph Hensley, 1869-70; Robert P. Haythorne, 1870; James C. Pope, 1873; Lemuel C. Owen, 1873-76; Louis H. Davies, 1876-79; W. W. Sullivan, 1879-89; Neil McLeod, 1889-91; Frederick Peters, 1891-97; Alexander B. Warburton, 1897-98; Donald Farquharson, 1898-1901; Arthur Peters, 1901-1908; F. L. Haszard, 1908-1911; J. A. Mathieson, 1911-17; Aubin E. Arsenault, 1917-19; J. H. Bell, 1919-23; James D. Stewart, 1923-1927. =Premiers of Manitoba.= Alfred Boyd, 1870-1871; Marc Amable Girard, 1871-72; Henry James Clarke, 1872-74; Marc Amable Girard, 1874; Robert Atkinson Davis, 1874-78; John Norquay, 1878-1887; David H. Harrison, 1887-88; Thomas Greenway, 1888-1900; Hugh John Macdonald, 1900; Rodmond Roblin, 1900-1915; Tobias Crawford Norris, 1915-22; John Bracken, 1922-1943. =Premiers of British Columbia.= John F. McCreight, 1871-1872; Amor de Cosmos, 1872-74; George Anthony Walkem, 1874-76; Andrew Charles Elliott, 1876-78; George Anthony Walkem, 1878-1882; Robert Beaven, 1882-83; William Smithe, 1883-87; Alexander E. B. Davie, 1887-89; John Robson, 1889-92; Theodore Davie, 1892-95; John Herbert Turner, 1895-98; Charles Augustus Semlin, 1898-1900; Joseph Martin, 1900; James Dunsmuir, 1900-1902; Edward G. Prior, 1902-1903; Richard McBride, 1903-1915; William J. Bowser, 1915-16; Harlan C. Brewster, 1916-18; John Oliver, 1918-1927. =Premiers of Alberta.= Alexander C. Rutherford, 1905-1910; Arthur L. Sifton, 1910-1917; Charles Stewart, 1917-1921; Herbert Greenfield, 1921-1925. =Premier of the North-West Territories.= Frederick William Haultain, 1897-1905. =Premiers of Saskatchewan.= Walter Scott, 1905-1916; W. M. Martin, 1916-1922; C. A. Dunning, 1922-1926. =Presbyterian Church in Canada.= Had its beginnings about the middle of the eighteenth century in Nova Scotia. In 1776 the Presbytery of Truro, Nova Scotia, was organized; that of Montreal in 1793; and in 1818 the Presbytery of the Canadas was formed in Montreal. In 1831 the united Presbytery became the Synod of Upper Canada; and in 1840 joined the Church of Scotland Synod. In 1844, on the disruption of the Church of Scotland, the (Free) Presbyterian Synod of Canada was organized. Training colleges were established at Toronto, Halifax, Montreal, and other centres. In 1861 the Free and United Presbyterian synods united as the Synod of Canada Presbyterian Church; and in 1875 all Presbyterian bodies became one in the Presbyterian Church in Canada. In 1925 a considerable proportion of the members of the Presbyterian Church voted to join the United Church of Canada. By the census of 1921 the total number of members of the Presbyterian Church in Canada was 1,409,407. =Bib.=: Torrance, _Origin of the Canadian Presbyterian Church in Canada: An Ency._, vol. iv; Gregg, _History of the Presbyterian Church in Canada_. =Prescott, Richard= (1725-1788). Born in England. Entered the army and promoted major, 1756; lieutenant-colonel, 1762, and served in Europe during the Seven Years’ War. In 1773 sent as colonel of the 7th Foot to Canada, and during the next two years rendered good service. In 1775, during the investment of Montreal by the Americans he was surrounded while on the way to Quebec with troops and stores, and captured. In September, 1776, exchanged; and in December, third in command of the British army, until again made prisoner, July 10, 1777. Released, and the same year became major-general, and in 1782 lieutenant-general. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Prescott, Sir Robert= (1725-1816). Born in Lancashire, England. Educated for the army. Promoted captain of the 15th Foot, 1755; served in the expeditions against Rochefort, 1757, and Louisbourg, 1758. Aide-de-camp to Amherst, 1759; afterwards served under Wolfe in Canada. Promoted major, 1761; lieutenant-colonel, 1762. During the American Revolution, 1775, took part in the battle of Long Island, and at the attack on Fort Washington; engaged in the expedition against Philadelphia, 1777; promoted brevet-colonel, and took part in the battle of Brandywine; promoted colonel, 1780; major-general, 1781; lieutenant-general, 1793. Sent in 1794 to Martinique, which he reduced. On April 10, 1796, appointed governor of Canada in succession to Lord Dorchester, who was recalled. In that year the fortifications at Quebec were greatly strengthened under his direction. In 1797 also appointed governor of Nova Scotia and of New Brunswick. Held all three positions until his recall to England, 1799. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_; Lucas, _History of Canada_. =Prevost, Augustin= (1725?-1786). Father of Sir George Prevost. Entered the army; served under Wolfe at Quebec, 1759; became lieutenant-colonel, 1761, colonel, 1777; major-general, 1779; defeated General Ashe at Brier Creek, 1779, and defended Savannah against the Americans the same year. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Prevost, Sir George= (1767-1816). Born in New York. Entered the army; took part in the battles of St. Vincent, Dominica, and St. Lucia. In 1803 created a baronet and promoted major-general. The same year appointed governor of Nova Scotia; and in 1812, governor of Canada and commander of the forces in British North America. His unfortunate armistice proposals gave the Americans a distinct advantage in the early stages of the war. He was hampered in his conduct of the war by the cautious instructions of the Home authorities, who were preoccupied with affairs in Europe. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. _See also_ War of 1812. =Price, James Hervey= (1797-1882). Born in England. Came to Canada and settled at Toronto, 1828. Studied law and called to the bar, 1833. Took a leading part in the agitation preceding the Rebellion of 1837, but not concerned in the Rebellion itself. Elected to the Canadian Assembly as member for the First Riding of York, 1841; during the succeeding years one of the most influential members of the Assembly; held office as commissioner of crown lands in the LaFontaine-Baldwin government, 1848-1851; defeated at the election of 1851 and retired from public life. Returned to England and settled at Shirley, near Southampton. Died in Shirley. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_ and _Last Forty Years_. =Prideaux, John= (1718-1759). Born in Devonshire, England. Entered the army in 1739 as an ensign. In 1743 took part in the battle of Dettingen; in 1745 promoted captain; in 1748 became lieutenant-colonel; in 1758 colonel; and in 1759 brigadier-general. In 1759 appointed by Pitt, commander of a division of the army in Canada, under the supreme command of General Amherst. Ordered by Amherst to attack Fort Niagara, then one of the strongest of the French forts. On July 7th, 1759, made the first assault on the fort, and on July 11th repulsed an attack by the French. On the same day, while directing the artillery fire, killed by the bursting of one of his own guns. Succeeded by Sir William Johnson, who carried out his plan of operations, the fort capitulating on July 24th, 1759. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Bradley, _The Fight with France_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Primogeniture.= The right of the eldest son to inherit real estate to the exclusion of his brothers and sisters. It was recognized in Upper Canada before 1850, but abolished by the LaFontaine-Baldwin government. =Bib.=: Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine_. =Prince Albert.= A city of Saskatchewan, on the Saskatchewan river; founded in 1866, incorporated as a town in 1885 and as a city in 1904. The town grew out of a mission to the Cree Indians organized by Rev. James Nisbet, a Presbyterian missionary. He named his mission after the Prince Consort. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Prince Edward Island.= Under the name of Isle St. John, it appears in Champlain’s narrative and on his map. The name is found on earlier maps, and both the discovery and naming of the island have been attributed to Cabot, and again to Cartier, but without sufficient proof. It bore that name until the year 1798, when the present form was adopted, in honour of the Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria. During the French régime, it was largely settled by Acadian families but these were expelled after the island came under British rule. Some of them drifted back later. In 1767 the island was granted to a number of proprietors, and settlement was very slow. It formed part of Nova Scotia until 1769, when it was made a separate province. Responsible government was granted in 1851; and in 1873 the province entered Confederation. Area, 2,184 square miles; population by the census of 1921, 88,615. _See_ Land Question; Charlottetown. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Prince Edward Island_; Warburton, _History of Prince Edward Island_; Harvey, _French Régime in Prince Edward Island_. =Prince of Wales College.= In Charlottetown. The centre of higher education in Prince Edward Island. Founded, 1860, and amalgamated with the Provincial Normal School, 1879. Although it does not rank as a university, and has not power to confer degrees, it has helped to turn out a number of men who have become eminent in various walks of life, notably Jacob Gould Schurman, for many years president of Cornell University; Silas Marcus MacVane, who became head of the department of ancient and modern history at Harvard; Sir Louis Davies, late chief-justice of Canada; and Sir Joseph Pope, author of the _Memoirs of Sir John Macdonald_, _Life of Cartier_, _Confederation Documents_, _etc._ =Prince of Wales Fort.= At the mouth of the Churchill river, Hudson Bay. Built by the Hudson’s Bay Company, between the years 1733 and 1771. It was of massive masonry, 37 to 42 feet thick; 310 feet long on the north and south sides, and 317 on the east and west; and is said to have been designed by English military engineers. The walls are still standing, though parts have fallen in. The parapet mounted forty guns, some of which are still on the walls. _See_ Tyrrell’s Introduction to Hearne’s _Journey_ (Champlain Society ed., 1910). Hearne was governor of the fort in 1782, when it was captured by the French under Admiral La Perouse. The fort was built on Eskimo Point, just west of the mouth of the river. The present Hudson’s Bay Company post stands on the site of a much earlier fort, built by the Company in 1688. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Prince of Wales Island.= On the north-west coast of North America. Recognized as Russian territory by the Convention of 1825; and subsequently transferred by Russia to the United States as part of the Alaska purchase. =Prince Patrick Island.= In the Arctic archipelago, north-west of Melville island. Named after the Duke of Connaught, one of whose names was Patrick. Discovered by McClintock in 1853. =Bib.=: White, _Place Names in Northern Canada_. =Prince Rupert.= A town on the northern coast of British Columbia. Founded in 1906 and incorporated as a town in 1910. Western terminus of the main line of the Canadian National Railways. Named after the first governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =Princess Patricia Canadian Light Infantry.= The first corps to be recruited in Canada for service in the War of 1914-1918. Raised and equipped by Andrew Hamilton Gault of Montreal. Enlistment completed seven days after the declaration of war. First commanding officer Lieutenant-Colonel F. D. Farquhar. The regiment did notable service throughout the war from 1914 to 1918. =Bib.=: Hodder Williams, _The Princess Patricia Canadian Light Infantry_. =Princess Royal Island.= On the coast of British Columbia, below Gardner canal. Named by Captain Charles Duncan, in 1788, after his sloop _Princess Royal_, which was seized by the Spaniards at Nootka in 1789, and used by Quimper in his exploration of the Strait of Juan de Fuca in 1790. She was released the following year at the Sandwich Islands. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =Printing.= The first printing press in British North America was set up in Halifax by Bartholomew Green, in 1751. On it the Halifax _Gazette_ (_q.v._) was printed the following year. The first printing press in Quebec was set up in 1764. Mesplet (_q.v._) brought the first press to Montreal in 1776, printed _Le Cantique de Marseilles_, a book, on it the same year, and the Montreal _Gazette_ in 1778. First printing press in Prince Edward Island, 1788. =Bib.=: McLachlan, _Fleury Mesplet_ (R. S. C., 1906). =Privy Council.= Dates from the early part of the fifteenth century in England, and grew out of the older Royal Council. How it gradually absorbed the powers of the crown may be learned from Stubb’s _Constitutional History_, or Dicey’s _Essay on the Privy Council_. In Canada, the term was first applied to the advisers of the governor-general after the creation of the Dominion, the corresponding body before Confederation being styled the Executive Council. The latter name is still given to the provincial Cabinets. In practice the Privy Council as such does not govern, as it embraces men of different political parties. The actual government is in the hands of a Cabinet Council, technically a Committee of the Privy Council, but in reality the ministerial representatives of the party in power. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Constitution of Canada_. =Proclamation of 1764.= Following the treaty of Paris, it established civil government in Canada and introduced the civil law of England. _See also_ Treaty of Paris. =Procter, Henry A.= (1787-1859). Born in Wales. Served in the army, and became colonel of his regiment. In 1812, being stationed in Canada, ordered by General Brock to prevent the landing of the American troops under General Hull at Amherstburg. This he successfully accomplished, and later defeated the enemy at Brownstown. In 1813 inflicted a severe defeat on the Americans, under General James Winchester, at Frenchtown on the river Raisin. For these services promoted brigadier-general. In August, 1813, forced to retire from Fort Stephenson by Major Croghan. On October 5th, he was defeated by General W. H. Harrison at the Battle of the Thames, or Moraviantown. For this disaster he was tried by court-martial and sentenced to be suspended for six months from rank and pay. Afterwards reinstated; served during the later stages of the war, and promoted lieutenant-general. _See also_ Thames, Battle of the; War of 1812. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Programme Catholique.= Issued by the _Parti Catholique_ in 1872. Its purpose was to place members of Parliament under the dictates of the Roman Catholic church in all matters political and religious. The people of Quebec were urged to vote for those candidates only who would subscribe “entire and full acceptance of the Catholic and Roman doctrines in religion, politics and social economy.” The _Programme_ was promptly condemned by the head of the church in Canada, Archbishop Taschereau. =Bib.=: DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Progressive Party.= Known officially as the National Progressive Party. Came into existence at a conference called by the Canadian Council of Agriculture and held at Winnipeg, January 6th, 1920. Henry Wise Wood presided, and some time later T. A. Crerar became the acknowledged leader of the party. He resigned in 1922 and was succeeded by Robert Forke. The movement grew out of the unexpected success of the United Farmers organization in Ontario, and the development of similar organizations in the other provinces. The very elaborate programme of the Party will be found in the _Canadian Annual Review_, 1919, pp. 365-8. _See also_ United Farmers of Ontario. =Prohibition.= As here understood refers to the use of intoxicating liquors. The sale of brandy to the Indians was a fruitful source of controversy between church and state in New France, and notably between Laval and Frontenac, the bishop urging that it meant the degradation and final destruction of the Indians, and the governor arguing that he dare not abandon this potent argument with the Indians because without it he would lose to the English and Dutch both trade and support. A very complete statement of the so-called Temperance Movement, and Temperance Legislation, in Canada will be found under those titles in Johnson’s _Alphabet of First Things in Canada_. During the War of 1914-1918 prohibitory legislation was adopted in Canada. Since then most of the provinces have adopted the system of sale through government agencies with various restrictions. =Protection.= The tariff policy of the Conservative or Liberal-Conservative party in Canada, since the adoption of the National Policy in 1879. _See also_ National Policy. =Protestant Protective Association.= The outcome of an agitation in Ontario for disallowance of the Jesuits’ Estates Act of Quebec. For some time it carried on an anti-Catholic campaign, but secured only a very limited support because the policy it advocated did not commend itself to the common sense of the majority of the Protestants in Canada. =Puget Sound.= Southern extension of Admiralty Inlet, in the state of Washington. Named by Vancouver, in 1792, after Peter Puget, second lieutenant of the _Discovery_, who examined the inlet in that year. Puget ultimately became rear-admiral of the blue. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =Puget Sound Agricultural Company.= Organized by Dr. John McLoughlin, in 1840, as a subsidiary of the Hudson’s Bay Company on the Pacific coast. Farms were developed in the rich farming country between Puget Sound and the headwaters of the Cowlitz, and the Company raised cattle, sheep and horses. Farms were also opened on the Willamette, a tributary of the Columbia. The Company was first administered by McLoughlin and later by James Douglas. After a chequered career, it was finally closed out in 1864, when its claims against the United States were settled for $200,000. _See also_ Hudson’s Bay Company; McLoughlin. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Bancroft, _North-West Coast_. =Punshon, William Morley= (1824-1881). Born in England. Engaged for a time in the timber business with his father; joined the Methodists, 1838, and ordained a Wesleyan minister, 1845. Worked in London, 1858-1868, and in Canada, 1868-1873, when he returned to England. A warm personal friend of Egerton Ryerson. =Bib.=: _Lectures and Sermons_; Dent, _Can. Por._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Putnam, James= (1725-1789). United Empire Loyalist. Born in Danvers, Massachusetts. Graduated at Harvard, 1746, studied law, and practiced at Worcester. Served as a major under Lord Loudoun in 1757. Embarked with the army for Halifax in 1776. In 1784 appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, and a member of the Council. Died at St. John. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Quadra, Juan Francisco de la Bodega y= (1744-1794). Born in Lima, Peru. Knight of the Order of Santiago. Made voyages of exploration to the north-west coast of America in 1775 and 1779. Searched for the Strait of Anian, and missed the mouth of the Columbia. Governor of Nootka, and met Vancouver there in 1792 for the purpose of arranging the restoration of Nootka to the British crown. _See also_ Vancouver. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of the North-West Coast_; Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Quakers or Society of Friends.= A number of them emigrated from Pennsylvania to Upper Canada about the end of the eighteenth century. By the census of 1921 there were 3,149 in Canada. =Quebec Act, 1774.= The treaty of Paris, 1763, was followed by a year of purely military rule in Canada. The proclamation of 1764 created an Executive Council, established civil government, and introduced the civil law of England. The Quebec Act, after ten years of confusion and dissatisfaction, restored the old French civil law, the _Coutume de Paris_, while retaining the English criminal law. It confirmed the freedom of worship already extended to the French Canadians, and legalized the collection of tithes by the Roman Catholic church. A Legislative Council was added to the Executive Council, but a representative Assembly was still withheld. The boundaries of Canada were extended north to the territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company, south to the borders of New England, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, and west to the Mississippi. The Act was obnoxious to the people in the other colonies, who thought that too great concessions had been made to a conquered race, and who also objected to the western boundaries. It was equally obnoxious to most of the English settlers in Canada, whose friends in England opposed its passage and later agitated for its repeal. It was fairly satisfactory to most of the French as a partial measure of justice. It was finally replaced in 1791 by the Constitutional Act of that year. _See also_ Dorchester; Haldimand; Masères; Hey. =Bib.=: Coupland, _The Quebec Act_; Kennedy, _Constitution of Canada_; Shortt and Doughty, _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_; Bourinot, _Constitutional History of Canada_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Bradley, _The Making of Canada_; Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Quebec Bridge.= Built across the St. Lawrence, a few miles above the city of Quebec, as a link in the Canadian National Railway system. Through some miscalculation the bridge collapsed during construction in 1907. The bridge was opened for traffic in 1917, though not entirely completed until the following year. Officially opened by the Prince of Wales in August, 1919. The main span is the longest in the world, 1,800 feet centre to centre of piers, or 100 feet longer than the Forth Bridge in Scotland. Its total cost was $22,640,228. It is of the cantilever type and carries a double track railway and accommodation for foot traffic. =Quebec City.= Founded by Champlain (_q.v._) in 1608. Seventy-three years earlier, Jacques Cartier had sailed up the great river, and landed near the same spot, wintering by a creek not far from the native town of Stadacona. Champlain, in 1608, built a rude fort, the _Abitation de Québec_, and a warehouse. There he and his men spent the winter, but before succour arrived in the spring most of them died of scurvy. Had a man of less courage and resourcefulness been in command, the infant settlement of Quebec might have died a natural death. Champlain kept it alive, and, though harassed by enemies, and neglected by the motherland, the town grew steadily from the year of its birth. Quebec has passed through five sieges, that of Kirke in 1629, that of Phipps, 1690, the great siege of 1759, Lévis’s siege of 1760, and that of Montgomery and Arnold, 1775-1776. The population in 1629 was eighty-five, made up as follows: inhabitants, 23; interpreters, 11; clerks, 14; missionaries, 10; domestics, 7; arrivals from the Huron country, 20. In 1666 it was 555. By the first Dominion census, 1871, it was 56,699. In 1921, it was 95,193. It was the seat of government throughout the entire period of French rule, and for many years of the British period. The capital moved to Kingston and Montreal, and then for sixteen years Quebec shared the distinction with Toronto. Finally Ottawa was selected, and in 1867 Quebec once more became the seat of government, but only of the province. Quebec as a walled town is unique on this continent. Its fortifications go back to the days of Champlain, being strengthened by Frontenac and other governors. They were very much enlarged and improved under the British governors. To-day they are interesting as historical relics, and help to bring thousands of tourists to the old town, but from a military point of view are entirely obsolete. The Centenary Volume of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, 1924, contains an interesting report by the Duke of Wellington, dated March 1st, 1819, on the defences of Quebec. It was incorporated as a city in 1832. Among the many famous visitors to Quebec who have embodied their impressions or recollections in books are Peter Kalm, Dickens, Anthony Trollope, Sir Charles Dilke, William D. Howells, Thoreau, George Augustus Sala, Audubon, Parkman, the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Rameau, Susanna Moodie and Marmier. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Cradle of New France_; Le Moine, _Historical Notes on Quebec_; MacPherson, _Reminiscences of Old Quebec_; Hawkins, _Picture of Quebec_; Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Le Moyne, _Quebec Past and Present_; Parker, _Old Quebec_; Cockburn, _Reminiscences of Quebec_; Legendre, _Echos de Québec_; Wood, _Unique Quebec_; Burpee, _Quebec in Books_ (R. S. C., 1924). =Quebec Conference.= Met at Quebec, October 10th, 1864, to discuss the proposed terms of Confederation. Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island were represented, as follows: Canada: Sir Etienne P. Taché, John A. Macdonald, Georges E. Cartier, George Brown, Alexander T. Galt, Alexander Campbell, William McDougall, Thomas D’Arcy McGee, Hector Langevin, J. Cockburn, Oliver Mowat, J. C. Chapais. Nova Scotia: Charles Tupper, W. A. Henry, R. B. Dickey, Adams G. Archibald, Jonathan McCully. New Brunswick: Samuel L. Tilley, John M. Johnson, Edward B. Chandler, John Hamilton Gray, Peter Mitchell, Charles Fisher, William H. Steeves. Newfoundland: F. B. T. Carter, Ambrose Shea. Prince Edward Island: John Hamilton Gray, Edward Palmer, W. H. Pope, George Coles, A. A. Macdonald, T. H. Haviland, Edward Whelan. Sir Etienne Taché was chosen president of the Conference, and Major Hewitt Bernard, secretary. The meetings were held behind closed doors. John A. Macdonald, who submitted the resolutions that were the basis of discussion, preferred a federal union, but Quebec and the Maritime Provinces were opposed, fearing that their own peculiar interests might be sacrificed. The decision was therefore for a legislative union. The general lines of the proposed confederation followed those of the United States, but with this important difference that in the United States constitution the balance of power is at least theoretically in the individual states, while in Canada it went definitely to the Dominion. It is a noticeable fact, in this connection, that in cases between one of the provinces and the Dominion, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has shown a tendency to lean to the provinces, possibly on the theory that as the Dominion has the _residuum_ of power it is the duty of the Judicial Committee to safeguard the interests of the provinces. So far as the actual form of government was concerned, the Conference followed the British rather than the American precedent, with an appointed instead of an elected Senate, a Cabinet responsible to Parliament instead of to the head of the state, and so forth. A point that was only settled after prolonged and sometimes heated discussion was the subsidies to be paid by the Dominion to the provinces for legislative purposes, the difficulty being accentuated by the fact that the provinces had different municipal systems; roads, schools, and other local needs being met by local taxation in Upper Canada and by the province in the Maritimes. The latter were wedded to their own system, and could only carry on with a fairly generous subsidy, having lost their customs and other indirect revenues. The question of representation was solved by a very ingenious expedient, Lower Canada or Quebec being made the pivot with a fixed representation in the federal House of sixty-five members, and the representation of the other provinces to bear always the same relation to their respective population as sixty-five bore to the population of Quebec. Finally all differences were overcome, and the conclusions of the Conference were embodied in a series of seventy-two resolutions, which became known as the Quebec Scheme, and formed the basis of Confederation. _See also_ Charlottetown Conference; Westminster Conference; Confederation; British North America Act. =Bib.=: Pope, _Confederation Documents_; Kennedy, _Constitution of Canada_; Cauchon, _Union of the Provinces_; Pope, _Sir John Macdonald_; Saunders, _Sir Charles Tupper_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_; Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_; Whelan, _Union of the British Provinces_; _Confederation Debates_. =Quebec, Hôtel Dieu.= Founded in 1639 by a group of nuns sent out from France by the Duchess d’Aiguillon. In 1692 they took over the management of the general hospital. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Cradle of New France_. =Quebec Library.= Founded at Quebec in 1779. The first public library in what is now Canada. On January 7th of that year, the following advertisement appeared in the Quebec _Gazette_: “A subscription has been commenced for establishing a publick library for the city and district of Quebec. It has met with the approbation of His Excellency the Governor and of the Bishop, and it is hoped that the institution, so particularly useful in this country, will be generally encouraged.” The idea of the library originated with Governor Haldimand, and the first lot of books was purchased in England, under his instructions, by Richard Cumberland, the dramatist. An Act of incorporation was obtained in 1840. Five years later, the library was absorbed by the Quebec Library Association, founded in 1843; and in 1866 the Association dissolved and sold its books to the Quebec Literary and Historical Society (_q.v._). =Bib.=: A detailed account of the Quebec Library, and the Quebec Library Association, will be found in Würtele’s paper, in Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. _Trans._, 1887-1889. =Quebec Literary and Historical Society.= Founded at Quebec in 1824, largely through the influence and liberality of the Earl of Dalhousie, then governor-general. Its purposes were “to discover and rescue from the unsparing hand of time the records which yet remain of the earliest history of Canada. To preserve while in our power, such documents as may be found amid the dust of yet unexplored depositories, and which may prove important to general history and to the particular history of this province.” In 1829, another similar organization was absorbed; and in 1831 the society was incorporated by Act of Parliament. The library had been started the previous year, as well as the museum. Both have grown steadily, despite serious losses from fires. =Bib.=: The publications consist of _Transactions_ and _Historical Documents_. The first volume of the former appeared in 1829, and the first part of the latter in 1838. The _Transactions_ for 1887-1889 contain an account of the society, its publications and its library, by F. C. Würtele, who also published, in 1891, an Index to the series of publications. _See also Centenary Volume of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, 1824-1924._ =Quebec, Province of.= Area, 706,834 square miles. Formed the principal part of Canada, as ceded to Britain in 1763. Under the Quebec Act, 1774, its boundaries extended west to the Ohio and Mississippi. In 1791, the province was divided into Upper and Lower Canada, with the Ottawa river as the boundary; in 1841 the two provinces were again united; and in 1867 Quebec became a province of the Dominion, whose boundaries were subsequently extended north to Hudson straits. The period of military rule extended from the conquest to 1764, when civil government was established. In 1775 the first Legislative Council met at Quebec. Constitutional government was established in 1791; and responsible government in 1841. Population by the census of 1921 was 2,361,199, of whom 1,889,277 were of French origin. Total in Canada of French origin (1921) 2,452,751. _See also_ Quebec Act; Constitutional Act; Seigniorial Tenure; Ninety-Two Resolutions; Responsible Government; Rebellion of 1837 in Lower Canada; New France; Montreal; Quebec City. =Bib.=: See under these titles, and Willson, _Quebec, the Laurentian Province_; Bracq, _Evolution of French Canada_; Hopkins, _French Canada and the St. Lawrence_; David, _Histoire du Canada depuis la Conféderation_; Sulte, _Histoire des Canadiens-Français_. =Quebec Seminary.= _See_ Laval University. =Quebec, Siege of, 1629.= The previous year David Kirke had sailed up the river, and sent a demand for the surrender of the fort, which Champlain peremptorily refused. Kirke thereupon returned to the gulf to meet the French fleet under De Roquemont, which he captured after a battle which lasted fifteen hours, and carried his prizes and prisoners back to England. The following year he returned with a fleet of three sails, and Champlain surrendered the fort, the more readily as the little garrison was at the point of starvation. _See also_ Quebec City; Kirke. =Bib.=: Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Quebec, Siege of, 1690.= Sir William Phipps, having captured Port Royal in May of this year, appeared before Quebec in October, with thirty-two ships and a force of over two thousand men. He immediately summoned Frontenac to surrender, and got a contemptuous refusal. Quebec was well defended both in men and guns, and after a fruitless attack on the town from the Beauport flats, and a subsequent bombardment in which he did much less damage to the town than his ships suffered from Frontenac’s batteries, Phipps abandoned the siege. A little church then building in the Lower Town was named _Notre Dame de la Victoire_, to commemorate the victory. _See also_ Quebec City; Phipps. =Bib.=: Myrand, _Sir William Phipps dévant Québec_; Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Quebec, Siege of, 1759.= Following the capture of Louisbourg, Duquesne, and Fort Frontenac, in the campaign of 1758, two expeditions were sent the following year against Quebec, one by land under Amherst, the second by water under Wolfe and Saunders. The French forces were commanded by Montcalm, whose plans were hampered at every stage by the interference of the governor, Vaudreuil. Wolfe commanded the attacking army, and Saunders the fleet. The former had as brigadiers Townshend, Monckton, and Murray. Montcalm had a force of over fourteen thousand men, partly regulars and partly militia. Wolfe’s army numbered less than nine thousand men, but all were regulars. After bombarding the city from the Lévis shore, Wolfe, on July 31st, made an unsuccessful attack at Montmorency. Several ineffective efforts followed, and it was not until early in September that Wolfe matured the plans which led to ultimate success. Landing his men at a cove, then known as Le Foulon, now Wolfe’s Cove, two miles above the city, on the night of the twelfth, he had three thousand men upon the Heights of Abraham before daybreak. Montcalm hastily assembled his troops and led them to the attack, but was completely defeated. During the battle, both Wolfe and Montcalm were mortally wounded, and five of the French brigadiers fell upon the field. The French were pursued to the gates of the city, and Townshend, who had succeeded to the command, had difficulty in re-forming his troops to repel an attack from the rear by Bougainville. The latter, however, after a brief engagement, was forced to retire, and the British remained masters of the field. Five days later, the city capitulated to Saunders and Townshend. _See also_ Quebec City; Wolfe; Montcalm; Plains of Abraham. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Woods, _Logs of the Conquest of Canada_ and _Fight for Canada_; Bradley, _The Fight with France_; Knox, _Historical Journal_; Waddington, _La Guerre de Sept Ans_; Wrong, _The Fall of Canada_. =Quebec, Siege of, 1760.= After the battle of Ste. Foy, April 20th, 1760, Murray retreated within the walls of Quebec, and Lévis laid siege to the town. The defences were in a feeble state, but Murray strengthened them by forming a wall of ice. In May a British fleet appeared, and Lévis, seeing that the cause was lost, hastily raised the siege. _See also_ Lévis; Murray; Ste. Foy. =Bib.=: Bradley, _The Fight with France_; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_ and _Cradle of New France_; Waddington, _La Guerre de Sept Ans_. =Quebec, Siege of, 1775-1776.= _See_ American Invasion; Montgomery; Arnold; Dorchester. =Bib.=: Anderson, _Siege and Blockade of Quebec_ (Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. _Trans._, 1872); Strange, _Historical Notes on the Defence of Quebec_ (Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. _Trans._, 1875). =Queen Anne’s War.= The American part of the War of the Spanish Succession. Broke out on the accession of Queen Anne in 1702, and was brought to an end by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. One of the principal events of the war was the capture of Port Royal by Nicholson in 1710. _See also_ Utrecht, treaty of; Nicholson; Port Royal. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Half-Century of Conflict_. =Queen Charlotte Islands.= A group in the Pacific ocean, off the coast of British Columbia. Discovered by Captain Cook in 1778. Captain George Dixon examined both the eastern and western shores of the islands in 1787, and named them after his ship, the _Queen Charlotte_. Gray in 1789 named them Washington, and they so appear on Ingraham’s chart of 1791-1792, but the earlier name survived. They had been visited by Juan Perez in 1774, who named the north point of the islands Cabo de Santa Margarita. Bodega and Maurelle were there the following year, and La Perouse in 1786. The natives are known as Haidas (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Poole, _Queen Charlotte Islands_; Chittenden, _Report of Exploration of Queen Charlotte Islands_; Dawson, _Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands_ (Geol. Survey, 1878-1879); Osgood, _Natural History of the Queen Charlotte Islands_. =Queen’s Rangers.= Raised in Connecticut and the neighbourhood of New York by Colonel Robert Rogers, and commanded by him. Simcoe succeeded to the command in 1777 with the rank of major, led them at the battles of Brandywine and Chadd’s Ford, and brought them up to a high state of efficiency. The regiment saw service later in Virginia and elsewhere, and in October, 1781, were included in Cornwallis’ surrender. In 1782 it was placed on the roster of the British army. At the end of the Revolutionary War it was disbanded and many of the men settled in Nova Scotia. In 1791 the reorganized corps arrived at Quebec, was taken to Upper Canada, and occupied the barracks at Newark. In 1793-1794 some of the Rangers were engaged in building Dundas Street (_q.v._), and, in 1794-1796, Yonge Street (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Simcoe, _Journal of the Operations of the Queen’s Rangers_; Hannay, _History of the Queen’s Rangers_. =Queen’s University.= Established at Kingston, Ontario. Founded in 1839, and incorporated by royal charter in 1841. The first principal was the Rev. Thomas Liddell; he was succeeded by Dr. John Machar, Dr. John Cook, Dr. Leitch, Dr. Snodgrass. In 1877 Dr. George Monro Grant became principal, and it was due mainly to his enthusiasm and splendid organizing ability that the university reached its high state of efficiency. On the death of Dr. Grant, in 1902, he was succeeded by Dr. D. M. Gordon; and the latter by Dr. Bruce Taylor. It was proposed at one time to make it part of a provincial university, but the terms were unacceptable. Sir Sandford Fleming was for many years chancellor of Queen’s. =Bib.=: Machar, _Sketch of Queen’s University_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. iv. =Queenston.= Village on Canadian side of Niagara river. Dates back to the end of the eighteenth century. It is described as an important village in 1803. _See_ following title. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_. =Queenston Heights, Battle of.= In War of 1812. Brock commanded the British forces, consisting of regulars and militia, between 1,500 and 2,000 men, scattered along the Niagara river from Fort Erie to Fort George. The opposing American forces numbered about 6,000 men, similarly distributed on the south bank of the river, under Stephen Van Rensselaer. In the first skirmish, a few hundred men only were engaged on either side, and the Americans finally gained the heights, brought up reinforcements, and remained in possession for several hours. The British losses included Brock and Macdonell. Sheaffe, on whom the command had devolved, gathered together the scattered detachments of British troops, 1,000 strong, and marching them through the woods, attacked the Americans from the inland side, and completely defeated them. Many were driven over the banks into the river, and between 900 and 1,000 surrendered, including Major-General Wadsworth and Lieutenant-Colonel Winfield Scott. _See also_ War of 1812. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Currie, _Battle of Queenston Heights_. =Quen, Jean de= (1603-1659). Jesuit missionary. Born at Amiens. Came to Canada, 1635. Laboured for many years among the Montagnais. In 1647, explored the upper Saguenay and Lake St. John. Five years later returned and established a permanent mission on the shores of the lake. Superior of the Canadian missions, 1655-1656. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites; Charlevoix, _History of New France_. =Quesnel, Jules Maurice.= A member of the North West Company. Accompanied Simon Fraser on expedition down the Fraser river in 1808. Quesnel river, a branch of the Fraser, named after him. =Bib.=: Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_. =Queylus, Abbé de.= A Sulpician. The bishop of Rouen sent him out to Canada in 1641, with Maisonneuve, as vicar-general for the colony. He came into conflict with the Jesuits, and then with the new bishop, Laval, who persuaded the governor to send him back to France. Armed with authority from Rome to establish an independent parish at Montreal, de Queylus returned to Canada, but was again sent home by the governor. In 1668 he once more appeared at Quebec, this time as superior of the Sulpicians. Laval this time made him vicar-general of Montreal. He remained in Canada for three years, and then returned finally to France. =Bib.=: DeBrumath, _Laval_; Scott, _Bishop Laval_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_; Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Quimper, Manuel.= Accompanied Eliza on his voyage to the north-west coast of America in 1790, and under his orders explored the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and named various points on both sides of the strait. Returned to Monterey, Mexico, in September, 1790. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Quinte, Bay of.= An inlet of Lake Ontario, on the north shore. The name is of Iroquois origin. A number of Cayugas settled there about the middle of the seventeenth century; and in 1668 two Sulpicians, Trouvé and Fénelon, were sent from Montreal to open a mission among these “Iroquois of the North.” About 1783, permanent settlements on the shores of the bay were made by United Empire Loyalists and disbanded officers and men of regiments serving in Canada. About the same time a number of Mohawks settled in the township of Tyendenaga—named after Joseph Brant. =Bib.=: Conant, _Life in Canada_ and _Upper Canada Sketches_. =Radcliffe, Thomas= (1794-1841). Entered the army in 1811. Served under Wellington in Peninsular campaigns. Settled in Upper Canada, 1832. Served on the loyal side in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Became a member of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Radisson, Pierre Esprit= (1635-1710). Born in Paris. Came to Canada in 1651, and settled at Three Rivers. In 1652 captured by the Iroquois and carried off to their country, where by great good fortune he escaped the following year. Between 1654 and 1656 he seems to have made his first expedition to the west, but no narrative survives. In 1657 he had the hardihood to make a voluntary visit to the Onondagas; in 1658-1660 explored the country south-west of Lake Superior, discovered the Mississippi, and possibly went beyond. His narratives are sometimes very obscure, and a recent ingenious explanation of certain difficulties in that of 1658-1660 is that it combines both the journey of those years and also the earlier journey of 1654-1656. In 1661 he made another journey to the west, accompanied as on the previous journey by his brother-in-law, Médard Chouart; wintered among the Sioux, and the following year explored the country north of Lake Superior, and apparently penetrated to James Bay. In 1665 he went to England and offered his services to lead a trading expedition to Hudson Bay. The result of this trading venture was the establishment of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1674, he returned to the service of France, led an expedition to Hudson Bay in 1682, and captured an English ship. In 1684 once more changed his allegiance, and from that year to the time of his death remained in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: _Voyages of Peter Esprit Radisson_ (Prince Society, Boston, 1885); _Relation du Voiage du Sieur Pierre Esprit Radisson_ (Canadian Archives _Report_, 1895); Sulte, _Radisson in the North-West_ (R. S. C., 1904); _Découverte du Mississippi_ (R. S. C., 1903); Prud’homme, _Notes Historiques sur la Vie de Radisson_; Dionne, _Chouart et Radisson_ (R. S. C., 1893, 1894); Bryce, _Further History of Pierre Esprit Radisson_ (R. S. C., 1898); and _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Pathfinders of the West_ and _The Conquest of the Great North-West_; Adams, _New Interpretation of the Voyages of Radisson_ (_Minnesota History_, Dec., 1925); Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Rae, John= (1813-1893). Served as a surgeon in the Hudson’s Bay Company. Made a chief factor in 1850. In 1846-1847 made an exploring expedition from Fort Churchill to the Gulf of Boothia, on the Arctic coast of America. Accompanied Richardson in his expedition in search of Sir John Franklin, 1848-1849; and in 1851 commanded another expedition which examined Wollaston Land. During an expedition in 1853-1854, he obtained positive intelligence of Franklin’s death from the Eskimo on the west coast of Boothia, for which he received the reward of £10,000 offered by the British government. =Bib.=: _Narrative of an Expedition to the Shores of the Arctic Sea in 1846-1847_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Rae, W. G.= Of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Accompanied Douglas to Fort Stikine in 1840, and remained in charge of the post. Sent the following year to take charge of a new post on San Francisco Bay. Committed suicide in 1845. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Raffeix, Peter= (1633-1724). Born in Auvergne. Came to Canada with Laval in 1663. Accompanied Courcelle in his ill-conceived expedition against the Iroquois in 1666, as chaplain; and went with Tracy in the same capacity in the autumn of the same year. Raffeix has left an account of the expedition and of the Iroquois towns burned by Tracy. In 1669 he was sent to replace Carheil in the Cayuga mission. He was known as a cartographer of some distinction. Two maps prepared by him are in the Paris Archives, one, dated 1676, entitled “Map of the westernmost parts of Canada,” and the other, dated 1688, of “Lake Ontario, with the adjacent regions, and especially the five Iroquois nations.” A third is said to be in the Marine Archives at Paris, “New France from the ocean to Lake Erie, and on the south to New England.” On his return to Canada, Raffeix suggested a mission for converted Iroquois at La Prairie. He had charge of this mission, known afterwards as Caughnawaga, for a year or two. Later, he became procurator at Quebec, where he died. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Ragueneau, Paul= (1608-1680). Born in Paris, France. Joined the Society of Jesus in 1626, and in 1636 came to Canada as a missionary to the Indians. For a few years he worked among the Hurons, and in 1640 was sent to the Iroquois. In 1650 he was appointed superior of the missions. In 1657 he went on a mission to the Onondagas, and, after finding that they had murdered several Hurons, barely escaped with his life. He spent the next nine years in labouring among the Hurons and other tribes, and in 1666 returned to France, where he acted as agent for the Canadian missions until his death in Paris. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Railways.= The first railway in British North America was built in 1837 from St. Johns on the Richelieu river to La Prairie on the St. Lawrence near Montreal, sixteen miles. The only railway in Upper Canada for many years was a horse tramway, opened in 1839, between Chippewa and Queenston. In 1845 the St. Lawrence and Atlantic—afterwards part of the Grand Trunk Railway—obtained a charter for a line to connect with an American railway running to Portland, Maine. “It was,” says Bourinot, “mainly, if not entirely, through the influence of Hincks, finance minister in the government, that a vigorous impulse was given to railway construction in the province” (Canada). At the same time Howe and others in the Maritime Provinces were advocating railway communication between Halifax and Quebec. From these movements grew the Grand Trunk Railway and the Intercolonial Railway. Many years later the expansion of the Dominion from sea to sea made necessary the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway and what now constitute the major part of the Canadian National Railways. In 1923 the total mileage of steam railways in Canada was 40,094, and the capital, $3,264,674,038. _See also_ Champlain and St. Lawrence Railway; Canadian National Railways; Canadian Northern Railway; Canadian Pacific Railway; European and North American Railway; Grand Trunk Railway; Grand Trunk Pacific Railway; Intercolonial Railway; Northern Railway; Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway. =Bib.=: Skelton, _The Railway Builders_; McLean, _National Highways Overland_ (_Canada and its Provinces_); Trout, _The Railways of Canada_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Rainy Lake.= On the international boundary, between Lake Superior and the Lake of the Woods. Known during the French period as _Lac la Pluie_; and to the Indians as _Tekamamouien_. Probably first discovered by Noyon in 1688, by way of the Kaministikwia route. La Noüe followed by the same route in 1717, and built a fort at the outlet of the lake. La Jemeraye built Fort St. Pierre for La Vérendrye near the same spot in 1731. Rainy lake was for many years on the water thoroughfare of the fur traders to the west. Wolseley came this way in 1869 with his expedition to suppress the Riel Rebellion, and many later travellers followed the same route, either by way of the Kaministikwia or Grand Portage or Fond du Lac and St. Louis route. The Canadian National Railway follows the north shore of the lake for some miles. =Rainy River.= Discharges the waters of Rainy lake into the Lake of the Woods. About 100 miles long. Known to the Indians as _Ouchichig_. Probably first discovered by Noyon in 1688, in which year he is believed to have descended it to the Lake of the Woods. La France, who came the same way in 1740, mentions buffalo on the banks of the Rainy. For many years the North West Company maintained a trading post near the head of the river, and after them the Hudson’s Bay Company built Fort Frances, where the town of the same name stands to day. Sir George Simpson, in his _Narrative of a Journey round the World_, spoke in terms of enthusiasm of the richness of the soil along the banks of the river; and was reminded of the fact when, some years later, he tried to convince a parliamentary committee that Rupert’s Land was useless for purposes of settlement. =Ramezay, Claude de.= A French officer, of Scottish descent, who came to Canada about 1685. A man of military ability, he was rapidly promoted, and in 1699 commanded the royal troops in Canada. Governor of Montreal from 1703 to his death in 1724. He had been governor of Three Rivers from 1690 to 1699. _See_ sketch of his life in the _Revue de Montréal_, 1878. Of the same family was Jean-Baptiste Nicholas Roch de Ramezay, major of Quebec in 1749, who surrendered the fortress to Townshend. _See_ Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_, and Wood, _Fight for Canada_. =Rand, Theodore Harding= (1835-1900). Born at Cornwallis, Nova Scotia. Educated at Horton Academy and at Acadia College. Taught for a time in the provincial Normal School, Truro. Subsequently superintendent of education in both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Occupied various professorships in educational institutions; chancellor of McMaster University, Toronto, 1892-1895. =Bib.=: Works: _At Minas Basin, and other Poems_; _Song Waves and other Poems_; _Treasury of Canadian Verse_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =Rasle, Sebastian= (1657-1724). Jesuit missionary. Born at Portalier, he sailed for Canada in 1689. Sent to the Illinois mission, where he spent two years. He returned east, and was assigned to the Abnaki mission in what is now the state of Maine, where he spent the remainder of his life. Involved in the local Indian phase of the war between New France and New England, in which he kept the Abnaki loyal to the French. He was killed in a raid from New England on one of the native villages. He was a famous linguist, and his Abnaki dictionary is preserved in Harvard library. It was published in 1833. =Bib.=: Francis, _Life of Father Rasle_; Campbell, _Pioneer Priests_. =Rattray, William Jordan= (1835-1883). Born in London, England, Emigrated to Canada, 1848. In 1858 graduated from Toronto University, and later entered the journalistic profession. Published a number of books on religious and general subjects; for several years on the editorial staff of the Toronto _Mail_. Contributed to Canadian and American periodicals. =Bib.=: _The Scot in British North America_. For biog., _see_ Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Raudot, Antoine-Denis= (1679-1739?). Son of Jacques Raudot. Filled the office of inspector-general of the navy at Dunkirk, before coming to Canada with his father in 1705. Acted as assistant to the intendant; recalled to France in 1710, and appointed intendant-general of seamen; also made a director of the Company of the Indies. Succeeded his father as councillor of marine. =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903). =Raudot, Jacques= (1647-1728). Councillor to the Parliament of Metz in 1674; and to the Cour des Aides at Paris, 1678. Came to Canada as intendant, 1705, and devoted himself with rare disinterestedness to the welfare of the colony. Returned to France in 1711. =Bib.=: Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903). =Rayfield, Walter Leigh.= Private, 7th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During the operations east of Arras, September 2nd to 4th, 1918, he rushed a trench occupied by a large party of the enemy, taking ten prisoners; engaged with great skill an enemy sniper who was causing many casualties, then rushed the section of trench from which the sniper had been operating, and so demoralized the enemy by his coolness and daring that thirty others surrendered to him. He also, under heavy machine-gun fire, carried in a badly wounded comrade. =Raymond, Charles de.= Born in France, 1706. Commandant at Niagara, 1748. Sent to Miami, 1749. Commanded colonial troops in Dieskau’s expedition, 1755, and in Montcalm’s expedition against Abercromby, 1758. His cousin Count Jean-Louis de Raymond was governor of Louisbourg, 1751-1753. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Read, David Breakenridge.= Born in Augusta, Ontario, 1823. Educated at Upper Canada College; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1845; practised his profession in Toronto; appointed Q. C., 1858; mayor of Toronto, 1858. =Bib.=: Works: _The Lives of the Judges of Upper Canada_; _The Life and Times of General John Graves Simcoe_; _The Life and Times of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock_; _The Rebellion of 1837_; _The Lives of the Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada and Ontario_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Rebellion Losses Bill.= Before the Union both the Special Council of Lower Canada and the Legislature of Upper Canada had approved of the principle of indemnifying those loyal inhabitants in the respective provinces who had incurred losses by reason of the destruction of property during the Rebellion of 1837-1838, but no steps had been taken to actually compensate the sufferers. In the first session of the Legislature of the united provinces, an Act was passed providing compensation for losses in Upper Canada. Nothing was done in connection with losses in Lower Canada until 1845, when commissioners were appointed to make an investigation. They reported the following year, but the matter dragged along until 1849, when a bill was introduced providing compensation for losses in Lower Canada resulting from unnecessary or wanton destruction of property during the Rebellion. Compensation was not to be granted to those who had been convicted of treason. Unfortunately, the bill was used as a pretext to arouse a storm of passion against the government. Lord Elgin was appealed to, to reserve the bill for consideration of the Imperial government. There being no constitutional ground for such a course, the governor gave the royal assent to the bill. Its opponents, furious at the governor’s action, insulted him as he drove back from Parliament House; LaFontaine’s house was attacked and his library destroyed; and the Parliament House was burnt to the ground. One result of the incident was the preparation and signing of what is known as the Montreal Manifesto (_see_ Annexation). Another was the removal of the capital from Montreal. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Wrong, _Earl of Elgin_; Kennedy, _Lord Elgin_. =Rebellion of 1837 in Lower Canada.= The culmination of a long agitation, on the part of the French Canadians, for a larger measure of popular government. The older and more experienced of their leaders, with the active support of the church, refused to overstep the bounds of constitutional agitation; but Papineau, Wolfred Nelson, and a few more hot-headed enthusiasts determined to resort to armed rebellion. A series of violent speeches and demonstrations, in the summer and autumn of 1837, in which Papineau was the central figure, led to incipient riots in Montreal and elsewhere, and the decision of the authorities to arrest Papineau blew the smouldering embers into a fierce blaze. Nelson and Thomas Storrow Brown gathered their followers together at St. Denis and St. Charles on the Richelieu, and Colonel Gore and Colonel Wetherall were sent to disperse them. Shortly after, Amury Girod raised the flag of revolt at St. Eustache, and Sir John Colborne led a force against him. In every case the rebels were dispersed. Papineau, Nelson, Brown, and the other leaders fled. Papineau and Brown escaped over the border. The others were captured and exiled to Bermuda. The next year Robert Nelson and Dr. Côté made a final attempt at Napierville. Nelson managed to escape, but his misguided followers were captured, twelve executed, and eighty-seven transported to Australia. A curious by-product of the Rebellion in Lower Canada is the growth of the Paul Bunyan Legend, for which _see_ James Stevens, _Paul Bunyan_. A mighty-muscled, bearded giant of the name is said to have fought in the insurrection and afterwards became the hero of lumber camps. _See also_ Ninety-Two Resolutions; Papineau; Nelson; Durham; Elgin; Rebellion Losses Bill. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Carrier, _Les Evénéments de 1837-1838_; David, _Les Patriotes de 1837_; Globensky, _La Rebellion de 1837_; Theller, _Canada in 1837-1838_; De Celles, _The Patriotes of ’37_. =Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada.= Almost the exact counterpart of the revolt in the lower province. The leaders here were William Lyon Mackenzie, Samuel Lount, Van Egmond, and Rolph. The plan was to march upon Toronto, seize the city, and proclaim a republic. This was early in December. On the night of the 5th, the insurgents marched on the city, were met on the outskirts by a small body of Loyalists, and ignominiously fled. The following day, having gained reinforcements they made a stand at Montgomery’s tavern, and were completely routed by the militia under MacNab. Mackenzie, Lount, and Rolph made their escape. Lount was afterwards captured, tried, and hanged. Spasmodic efforts were made in this and the following years, with the aid of American sympathizers, to keep the Rebellion alive, but the movement had no serious support in Canada, and in every case ended in disaster to the rebels. The causes of the rebellions in both provinces were very similar, with the exception that in Lower Canada racial antagonism added another element of bitterness to the situation. The people of both provinces, feeling that they were entitled as British subjects to the same measure of political freedom as was enjoyed in the Mother Country, grew more and more restive. They found they were governed “not by men responsible to the Legislature and the people, but by governors and officials who controlled both the Executive and Legislative Councils.” Finally, the more inflammable element lost all patience and broke forth in insurrection. It must be emphasized, however, that in both provinces only a very small minority took part in the Rebellion. As Bourinot says: “The majority of leading men, outside of the minority led by Papineau, Nelson and Mackenzie, had a conviction that England was animated by a desire to act considerately with the provinces and that little good would come from precipitating a conflict which could only add to the public misfortunes, and that the true remedy was to be found in constitutional methods of redress for the political grievances which undoubtedly existed throughout British North America.” _See also_ W. L. Mackenzie; Head; Van Egmont; Caroline; Rolph; Lount; Grievances. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Head, _Narrative_; King, _Other Side of the Story_; Ryerson, _Affairs of the Canadas_; Glenelg, _Despatches to Sir F. B. Head_; Read, _Rebellion of 1837_; Lizars, _Humours of ’37_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_. =Reciprocity.= Efforts were made from time to time by Canada, between the years 1847 and 1854, to secure the free admission of goods between Canada and the United States, but without success until the latter year, when Lord Elgin negotiated a treaty which exempted from duty certain articles which were the growth and produce of Canada and the United States. The treaty came into force in 1855, and was abrogated in 1866 at the instance of the United States. The renewal of the treaty was advocated by Canada in 1866, 1869, 1871, 1874, 1879, 1887, 1892 and 1896, but in every instance the United States failed to respond. George Brown had urged in 1863 the importance of making representations to Washington looking toward a renewal of the treaty during the administration of Lincoln, who was believed to be favourable, but nothing was done. In 1866 and 1869 the negotiations fell down because the Americans were unwilling to enter into any arrangement for an extended free list. Sir John Macdonald in 1871 proposed that the reciprocity treaty should be renewed, but the offer was declined. George Brown in 1874 succeeded in negotiating a treaty, but the United States Senate refused to ratify it. Under the National Policy in 1879 a measure of reciprocity was proposed, but without any response. Sir Charles Tupper brought the matter up again in 1887, in connection with the fisheries, but the Americans refused to discuss tariff arrangements. Similar suggestions in 1892 brought the same result. In 1896 Sir Richard Cartwright went to Washington to discuss reciprocity, but nothing came of the visit. _See also_ Unrestricted Reciprocity; Commercial Union; Zollverein. =Bib.=: Derby, _Report upon the Treaty of Reciprocity_; Griffin, _The Provinces and the States_; Howe, _The Reciprocity Treaty_; Haliburton, _American Protection and Canadian Reciprocity_; Allin and Jones, _Annexation, Preferential Trade and Reciprocity_; Cartwright, _Reminiscences_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Pope, _Sir John Macdonald_. =Récollets.= A branch of the Franciscan order. First came to Canada in 1615, at the request of Champlain and under the authority of Pope Paul V. The same year they built a convent at Quebec. Of the four members of the order who came out in 1615, Le Caron was assigned to the Huron mission, Dolbeau to the Montagnais, and Jamay and Du Plessis remained at Quebec. Among later members of the order, Sagard and Le Clerc became famous as the historians of their missions in New France. =Bib.=: Le Clerc, _First Establishment of the Faith in New France_, trans. by Shea; Sagard, _Histoire du Canada_; Parkman, _Pioneers of France, Old Régime_, and _Frontenac_. =Red Lake.= In the extreme west of Ontario and about eighty miles north of the Canadian National Railway. Gold was discovered here in 1925; a number of strong companies were formed, and mining began on a considerable scale in 1926. This camp illustrates old and new methods of transportation, miners travelling in by dog-sled in winter and canoe in summer, while a combined service of flying boats and motor boats was put in operation in 1926. Plans are being made for extending the railway that now runs from Winnipeg to Winnipeg river to Red lake. =Red River.= Sometimes called Red River of the North, to distinguish it from the Red River of Texas. The name is supposed to have been derived from the colour of its waters, heavily impregnated with clay. It was discovered by La Vérendrye in 1733, and explored as far as the mouth of the Assiniboine in that year. The river rises in North Dakota, and enters Lake Winnipeg after a course of 545 miles. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_; Hind, _Canadian Red River_ and _Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Expedition_; _Atlas of Canada_; Burpee, _By Canadian Streams_. =Red River Colony.= Also known as the Red River Settlement; Selkirk Colony; Assiniboia, etc. Founded by the Earl of Selkirk (_q.v._) in 1811. The first party of colonists from Scotland reached York Factory that year, under the leadership of Miles Macdonell, and arrived at the Red River in 1812. A second party was sent out in 1812, reaching Red River in 1813. In that same year a third party sailed from the Orkneys, reaching their destination in 1814; and in 1815 a still larger party, in charge of Robert Semple, sailed for Hudson Bay and reached Red River the same year. The colonists suffered great privations for the first few years, and were constantly harassed by the fur traders of the North West Company. The petty warfare culminated in the Seven Oaks affair, in which Governor Semple lost his life. After the union of the two fur Companies, in 1821, the colony entered upon a period of comparative peace and prosperity; and eventually became, in 1870, part of the province of Manitoba. _See also_ Selkirk; Assiniboia. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Romantic History of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; Begg, _Creation of Manitoba_; Hargrave, _Red River_; Ross, _Red River Settlement_; Bell, _The Selkirk Settlement_; MacBeth, _The Selkirk Settlers in Real Life_; Selkirk, _Statement Respecting the Settlement upon the Red River_; _Narrative of Occurrences in the Indian Countries_; Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_; Wood, _Red River Colony_. =Red River Rebellion.= _See_ Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870. =Redistribution Bill.= In 1882 Sir John Macdonald introduced a bill to adjust the representation in the Canadian House of Commons. The bill was bitterly criticised by Edward Blake and the Toronto _Globe_. The boundaries of constituencies were manipulated in such a way as to “hive the Grits,” to use Macdonald’s own phrase. The process, popularly known as the “gerrymander,” was not entirely new, either in Canada or elsewhere, but it perhaps had not before been attempted on so audacious a scale. =Bib.=: Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_. =Redpath, Peter= (1821-1894). Born in Montreal. Educated at St. Paul’s School there; engaged in business in his native town. Took a deep interest in the improvement of Montreal and of its public institutions, and particularly McGill University, of whose governing board he was a member from 1864 to his death. Besides many minor donations to the University, he gave $20,000 in 1871 to found a chair of mathematics, $140,000 for a museum in 1881, and $135,000 for a library building, besides an endowment of $100,000 for the library fund, and $30,000 for the museum fund. Removed to England in 1880, where he made his home in the old manor house of Chislehurst. Mrs. Redpath made further donations of $85,000 to the library. =Bib.=: Dawson, _Peter Redpath, Governor and Benefactor of McGill University_. =Reform Alliance.= A short-lived organization, established in 1856 by George Brown, Alexander Mackenzie, and other Liberal leaders, with the object of uniting and consolidating all sections of the Reform party throughout Upper Canada. William Lyon Mackenzie criticized it in _Mackenzie’s Message_, and the other Mackenzie sent him a characteristically frank reproof for his factious opposition. =Bib.=: Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Reform Association.= Founded in Toronto in 1844, with branches throughout what was then Canada. It was headed by Robert Baldwin and was part of the movement against Metcalfe. The object of the Association was stated by Baldwin to be the practical application of the principles of the constitution of the Mother Country to the administration of Canadian affairs. “Not one hair’s breadth farther do we go, or desire to go: but not with one hair’s breadth short of that will we ever be satisfied.” As a by-product of the movement a series of “tracts for the people” was published, in which the arguments of the Reformers were iterated and reiterated and mingled with a good deal of personal abuse. =Bib.=: Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_. =Reform Party.= In Upper Canada, associated with the names of Robert Baldwin, George Brown, Malcolm Cameron, Sir Francis Hincks, William Lyon Mackenzie, Alexander Mackenzie, Edward Blake and John Sandfield Macdonald; in Lower Canada, with Louis H. LaFontaine, L. T. Drummond, A. A. Dorion, Luther Holton, A. N. Morin and R. E. Caron; in the Maritime Provinces, with Joseph Howe, William Annand, J. B. Uniacke, L. A. Wilmot and Charles Fisher. In the earlier history of all the provinces, its main purpose was the fight for responsible government. Later, its policies became more diverse, and the party sometimes included more or less antagonistic elements. Finally, it was merged in the Liberal party (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =Regina.= Capital of the province of Saskatchewan, and formerly of the North-West Territories. Founded in 1882, and named, by the Marquis of Lome (Duke of Argyll), after Queen Victoria. It was for many years the headquarters of the Royal North-West Mounted Police. Incorporated as a city, 1903. =Bib.=: Powers, _History of Regina: Its Foundation and Growth_. =Reid, James.= Studied law, and called to the bar, 1794. In 1807 raised to the bench. Chief-justice of King’s Bench, Montreal, 1825-1838, and of Lower Canada, 1825-1830. Offered but declined knighthood. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Reindeer Lake.= Discharges by Reindeer river into the Churchill river. Both Peter Fidler and David Thompson explored, about the same time, the route from the Churchill to Reindeer lake, and thence to Lake Athabaska. Reindeer lake is shown on both Fidler’s and Thompson’s maps. Thompson’s journey was made in 1796. The exact date of Fidler’s is uncertain. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Representation by Population.= When Upper and Lower Canada were united in 1841 the population of the latter exceeded that of the former in the proportion of three to two. It was proposed to give an equal number of members to each province, although Lord Durham had strongly advised against such a plan. The plan was carried out in spite of the protest of the French Canadians. In course of time the population of the upper province overtook and passed that of Lower Canada, and George Brown began to press for representation by population. Cartier and other French leaders, with the support of Hincks, argued that the union was a compact, and as equal representation had been made its basis, it could not be upset without repeal of the union. The ultimate solution of the problem was found at Confederation by making Quebec the pivot on which the representation of all the provinces would turn, the representation of Quebec being fixed, and that of the other provinces bearing the same relation to their respective populations as Quebec’s sixty-five bears to its population. =Bib.=: Lewis, _George Brown_; Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_. =Responsible Government.= The period of responsible government in Canada dates from the union of 1841; in Nova Scotia, from 1848; in New Brunswick, the same year; in Prince Edward Island, 1851. The agitation for responsible government, from its very nature, cannot be limited to an exact period. It was a gradual growth, whose roots ran back almost to the beginning of the period of British rule in Canada. The Quebec Act of 1774, the Constitutional Act of 1791, the Ninety-Two Resolutions of 1834, the Rebellions of 1837, and Durham’s Report, were mile-stones on the road to responsible government. So much has been said as to the agitation in the various colonies for responsible government, that it is well to remember, as Dr. Parkin points out, that “it was not in Canada or by Canadians alone that the principles were being thought out,” and that “clear guidance came from Downing Street itself to support those working for true responsible government.” He quotes (_Sir John A. Macdonald_, pp. 47-50) the admirable despatch sent by Lord Grey to Sir John Harvey in 1846, in which he sets forth in unmistakable terms the principles by which Harvey must be governed. The government is to be carried on through the Executive Council as long as the Council enjoys the support of the Legislature. When it is clear that it no longer enjoys that support, the governor is to apply to the opposite party in the Legislature and with its assistance form a new Council. Upon the advice of the new Council, it would then be proper to dissolve the Assembly. He is to “make it apparent that any transfer which may take place of political power from the hands of one party in the province to those of another, is the result, not of any act of yours, but of the wishes of the people themselves.” Finally, “it cannot be too distinctly acknowledged that it is neither possible nor desirable to carry on the government of any of the British provinces in North America in opposition to the opinion of the inhabitants.” _See also_ Brown, George; Mackenzie, W. L.; Howe, Joseph; Baldwin, Robert; Hincks, Sir Francis; LaFontaine, Sir L. H.; Elgin; Head, Sir F. B.; Sydenham; Metcalfe; Bagot; Durham; Derby; Papineau; Cartier; Ninety-Two Resolutions; Twelve Resolutions; Representative Government; Constitutional Act, 1791; Union of 1841; British North American Act, 1867. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Constitutional History of Canada_; Kennedy, _Constitution of Canada_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Development_; Shortt and Doughty, and Doughty and McArthur, _Constitutional Documents of Canada_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Durham, _Report_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Keith, _Responsible Government_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_; Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_; Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_; MacMechan, _Winning of Popular Government_. =Revelstoke.= City of British Columbia, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway, Named after Lord Revelstoke, whose firm, Baring Brothers, helped to finance the Canadian Pacific Railway, Post office opened, 1886. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Revenue.= The “casual and territorial revenues” were derived, says Lindsey, from the sale of timber on the Crown lands and from other sources, and, for a long time, were held and appropriated by the lieutenant-governor and his officials instead of by the House of Assembly, which should have controlled these and all other public moneys. This was in Upper Canada. Goldwin Smith points out that the Assembly could not effectually control the policy of the governor by withholding supplies, because the Crown, with very limited needs, had revenues, territorial and casual, of its own. Lord Durham also emphasizes this inherent defect in the form of government in his day in the British North American colonies. In both Upper and Lower Canada the control of these revenues was a fruitful source of dispute between the governors and the assemblies. A similar situation arose in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. =Bib.=: Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_; Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada.= Annual. Established, 1897. Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton, and published in Toronto in connection with the University of Toronto, 1897-1919. Succeeded by _Canadian Historical Review_ (_q.v._). =Revolutionary War.= For the independence of the United States. Ended by the treaty of Versailles, 1783. Canada was both directly and indirectly affected. The revolting colonies were attacked from the north by imperial and colonial regiments in Canada. The United States retaliated by invading Canada in 1775. Canada drew from the former, as a result of the war, a flood of United Empire Loyalists, who became the backbone of the northern provinces, and whose influence did, perhaps, more than anything else to build up the lasting tradition of loyalty to the Mother Country. Economically and intellectually, the loss to the United States was Canada’s gain. It is also probably true that the War of 1812-1814 is partly traceable to resentment growing out of the Revolutionary War and its aftermath. _See also_ American Invasion; United Empire Loyalists; Loyal American Regiment; Queen’s Rangers; King’s Royal Regiment of New York; Royal Highland Emigrants; Butler’s Rangers; Simcoe; Brant; Burgoyne; Cornwallis; Haldimand; Dorchester; Johnson; Rogers; Washington; Franklin; Montgomery; Arnold. =Bib.=: _See Literature of American History_. =Revue Canadienne.= Established in Montreal in 1863. Ceased publication, January, 1923. This important French-Canadian magazine contains an immense amount of valuable material bearing on the history and literature of Quebec. Its contributors embraced most of the ablest writers of the province during the past half century. =Riall, Sir Phineas.= Entered the army, 1794; lieutenant-colonel, 1806; saw service in the West Indies. In 1813 attained the rank of major-general and ordered to Canada. Took part in the contest on the Niagara frontier; in command of the British troops at the battle of Chippawa. Appointed governor of Grenada, 1816; lieutenant-general, 1825; knighted, 1833; general, 1841. Died at Paris, 1851. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Richards, Sir William Buell= (1815-1889). Born in Brockville, Ontario. Studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1837. Elected a member of the Upper Canada Assembly, 1848; appointed to the Executive Council, 1851; attorney-general in Hincks-Morin ministry; Q.C., 1850; puisne judge of the Court of Common Pleas, 1853; chief-justice of that Court, 1863; chief-justice of Ontario, 1868; arbitrator for Ontario on the commission to delimit the north-western boundary of the province, 1874; first chief-justice of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1875; knighted, 1878; awarded the confederation medal, 1885. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Richardson, A. H. L.= Sergeant, Strathcona Horse. _Victoria Cross._ During the South African War, on July 5th, 1900, at Wolve Spruit, near Standerton, when thirty-eight of his regiment were engaged with eighty of the enemy, after the order to retire had been given, he rode back under heavy fire to pick up a wounded trooper who had been hit in two places and his horse shot under him, and carried him to safety. On his return to Canada he was presented by his fellow-countrymen with a gift of $15,000. =Richardson, George.= _Victoria Cross._ Born in Canada, he served through the Indian Mutiny, where he won the highest decoration for conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty. Afterwards served through the Fenian Raids in Canada. Died, February, 1922. =Richardson, James= (1791-1875). Joined the provincial marine, 1809, and served through the War of 1812. Entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1824. Became editor of the _Christian Guardian_, 1832, and secretary of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1837. Consecrated bishop, 1858. =Bib.=: Webster, _Life of Rev. James Richardson_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Richardson, James.= Private and Piper, 16th Battalion, C.E.F. _Victoria Cross._ At Regina Trench, October 8th, 1916, when his company was held up by strong wire, he strode up and down, under intense fire, playing his pipes with the greatest coolness. Inspired by his example, the company rushed the wire with such fury and determination that the obstacle was overcome and the position captured. Having taken back a wounded comrade, he returned to recover his pipes and was never seen again. =Richardson, John= (1755-1831). Born in Scotland. Came to Canada at the age of twenty. Entered the fur trade as a clerk with Robert Ellice & Company of Montreal. In 1778 he was supercargo of the privateer _Vengeance_. Became a partner in Ellice & Company, and afterwards with Forsyth established the firm of Forsyth, Richardson & Company. A partner of the North West Company. Author of a number of memorials on the western fur trade, now in the Public Archives of Canada. Responsible for the building of the _Nancy_ (_q.v._). Represented Montreal in the first Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada. During the session of 1795-1796 he promoted the passage of an Act authorizing construction of Lachine Canal. Turned first sod, 1821. Member of Legislative Council, 1808. As a magistrate of Montreal he was concerned in the arrest of David McLane charged with high treason. Acted as intermediary between Sir James Craig and John Henry (_q.v._). Director of first savings bank in Montreal. Reputed author of _Letters of Veritas_. =Bib.=: Cruikshank, _Letters from John Richardson on Public Affairs in 1801_ (R. S. C., 1926). =Richardson, John= (1796-1852). Historian and writer of historical novels. Born near Niagara Falls, Ontario. In 1812 served during the war in the Canadian militia; at the battle of the Thames taken prisoner; released; and afterwards entered the British army. =Bib.=: Works: _War of 1812_, 1842; new ed., edited by Casselman, 1902; _Wacousta_; _Ecarté_; _The Canadian Brothers_. For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._ _See also_ introduction to _War of 1812_, ed. by Casselman. =Richardson, Sir John= (1787-1865). Born in Dumfries, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh University. In 1807 entered the navy as assistant surgeon, and took part in the attack on Copenhagen. In 1816 obtained the degree of M.D. from Edinburgh; and in 1819 appointed surgeon and naturalist in Franklin’s Arctic expedition, spending the winter of that year in the Saskatchewan district. In 1821 the party reached Fort Providence, and in October, 1822, returned to England. In 1825 accompanied Franklin on his second expedition to the north. In 1838 appointed physician to the Royal Hospital at Haslar; in 1840 inspector of hospitals; and in 1846 knighted. Placed in command of an expedition sent to search for Franklin in 1848, but returned to England without finding any trace of the explorer. =Bib.=: Works: _Arctic Searching Expedition_; _Fauna Boreali Americana_. For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Duc de= (1585-1642). Born in Paris, France. In 1607 bishop of Luçon; entered politics, and in 1616 secretary of state for war and foreign affairs. In 1622 created cardinal; in 1624 councillor of state, and from that time till his death practically dictator of France. Was made duke and peer of France in 1631. The founder of the French Academy. He introduced a modified form of the feudal system in Canada. Created the Company of New France (_q.v._), and took a lively interest in its welfare, and its relations to the colony. Made provision for the maintenance of Jesuit missionaries in Canada. =Bib.=: _Correspondence and State Papers_, 1853-1877. Anselme, _Hist, geneal. et chronol. des pairs de France_, vol. iv. _See_ lives or political biographies by Hanotaux, Dussieux, Fagniez, Lodge. =Richelieu River.= Rises in Bennington County, Vermont, and flows through Quebec into the St. Lawrence after a course of 210 miles. Discovered by Champlain in 1609, who in that year ascended the river to Lake Champlain. It was first known as the Rivière des Iroquois, and has at different times borne the names of Chambly, St. Louis and Sorel. It was for many generations the highway between the Iroquois country and the St. Lawrence, and between New England and New France. It figured in the Indian wars, the Seven Years War, the American Invasion and the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Forts Chambly, Sorel and Lennox stood on its banks. The first railway in Canada ran from the Richelieu to the St. Lawrence opposite Montreal. The Chambly Canal was originally built between 1831 and 1843 and enlarged in 1858. The St. Ours lock and dam, also on the Richelieu, were built between 1844 and 1849. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_; Burpee, _By Canadian Streams_; White, _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Richey, Matthew Henry= (1828-1911). Born Windsor, Nova Scotia. Studied law; called to the bar, 1850; Q.C., 1873. Represented Halifax in the House of Commons, 1878-1883. Lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1883-1888. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Richmond, Charles Lennox, fourth Duke of= (1764-1819). Entered parliament, 1790; privy councillor, 1807; Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1807-1813; governor-general of British North America, 1818-1819. His wife gave the famous ball on the eve of the battle of Waterloo. During his governorship Dalhousie College, Halifax, was founded; also the Bank of Quebec. The Convention regulating the North American Fisheries was arranged. Sir John Franklin began his overland expedition to the Arctic. Died near Richmond, Upper Canada. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Kingsford, _History of Canada_. =Rideau Canal.= Connects the Ottawa River at Ottawa with Lake Ontario at Kingston. Built in 1826-1832, by Colonel John By, with several companies of Royal Engineers. It has forty-seven locks, and the total length of the canal including natural water courses is 126 miles. A branch extends up to the town of Perth. The first boat went through the canal in May, 1832, from Bytown (Ottawa) to Kingston. The project arose out of the War of 1812, and was mainly a military work, designed to afford a secure route for gunboats and military supplies between Montreal and the Great Lakes. This, with the other canals then built, remained under the control of the Imperial government until 1857. It was then handed over to the government of Upper Canada. In 1867 it came under the control of the Dominion government. _See_ By, John. =Bib.=: Billings, _The Rideau Canal_ (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa _Trans._, vol. 2); MacTaggart, _Three Years in Canada_; Hill, _Construction of the Rideau Canal, 1826-1832_ (Ont. Hist. Soc. _Papers_, 1925). =Ridout, Thomas.= Born at Sherbourne, Dorsetshire, England, 1754. Went to Maryland in 1774. Was taken prisoner by the Shawanese Indians of the Ohio in 1787, and brought to Detroit, where he was liberated. Became registrar of York; surveyor-general of Upper Canada; clerk of the peace for the Home District; a member of the Legislative Council; and member of the Board of Education. Dr. Scadding describes him as “a perfect picture of a cheerful, benevolent-minded Englishman.” =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Edgar, _Ten Years of Upper Canada_; Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Ridout, Thomas Gibbs= (1792-1861). Born near Sorel. Removed with his family to Niagara, and later to York. At the age of nineteen appointed deputy assistant commissary-general. Served in the War of 1812-1814. Resigning his office, became cashier of the Bank of Upper Canada, which position he held until his death. =Bib.=: Edgar, _Ten Years of Upper Canada_. =Riedesel, Frederica Charlotte Louisa= (1746-1808). Wife of Baron Friedrich Adolph Riedesel; born in Bradenburg, Germany. Educated in Berlin. In 1777 accompanied her husband to Canada and was with him through the Burgoyne campaign, acting as nurse during the war. =Bib.=: McIlwraith, _Haldimand_. =Riedesel, Friedrich Adolph, Baron= (1738-1800). Born in Rhine-Hesse. Educated at Marburg. Served on the staff of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven Years’ War, and took part in the battle of Minden. In 1776 attached to the British forces in North America, and while in Quebec organized his troops to meet colonial methods of fighting. Took part in the capture of Ticonderoga, and in the defeat of the Americans at Hubbardton. In 1777 taken prisoner at Saratoga, and exchanged in 1779. Returned to Germany, 1783 and promoted lieutenant-general, 1787. Commandant of the city of Brunswick, 1794. _See also_ Haldimand. =Bib.=: Bradley, _The Making of Canada_; _History of Canada_; McIlwraith, _Haldimand_. =Riel, Louis= (1844-1885). Born in St. Boniface, Manitoba. Educated at the Jesuit College, Montreal. Leader of the Rebellion of 1869-1870; organized a provisional government at Fort Garry, but fled to the United States on the arrival of the punitive force under Wolseley. Returned to Canada in 1884, took command of the rebel forces in Saskatchewan, captured at Batoche, tried, convicted of treason, and hanged. _See_ succeeding titles. _See also_ Riel Rebellion. =Bib.=: _Poésier religieuses et politiques_; _Les Métis_; _The Queen_ vs. _Louis Riel_; _Louis Riel, Martyr du Nord-Ouest_; Begg, _History of the North-West_; Morice, _Dict._ =Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870.= The territorial rights of the Hudson’s Bay Company having been transferred to Canada, a surveying party under Colonel Dennis was sent out to Red River in 1869, and the same year William McDougall was appointed lieutenant-governor of Rupert’s Land, and instructed to proceed to Fort Garry and assume control. The French half-breeds, alarmed at these proceedings, which they thought menaced the rights to their lands, turned back the surveying parties, and prevented McDougall from crossing the boundary. They formed themselves into a provisional government, of which Louis Riel was secretary, and later was elected president. Riel published a “Bill of Rights,” and seized Fort Garry. An ill-judged attempt on the part of some of the loyal settlers to compel the release of certain prisoners failed, and the leader, Major Boulton, with Thomas Scott and others, was captured. Boulton was released, but Riel caused Scott to be shot. Intense indignation throughout Canada was aroused by this act, and the government at once organized an expeditionary force, under Colonel Wolseley. The force proceeded by way of the lakes, and the Dawson route from Fort William to Lake Winnipeg. Wolseley reached Fort Garry on August 24th, 1870, to find that Riel, with his lieutenants Lepine and O’Donoghue, had fled across the border. Riel was subsequently outlawed. _See also_ Riel. =Bib.=: Huyshe, _Red River Expedition_; Boulton, _Reminiscences of the North-West Rebellions_; Bryce, _Manitoba_; McArthur, _Causes of the Rising in Red River Settlement_ (Man. Hist. and Sc. Soc., 1882); Denison, _Reminiscences of the Rebellion of 1869_ and _Soldiering in Canada_. =Riel Rebellion, 1885.= The land question, which had given rise to the Red River Rebellion of 1869-1870, was also responsible for the Saskatchewan Rebellion of 1885. The government had neglected to issue patents to the half-breeds on the Saskatchewan, and they became convinced that their lands would be taken from them. Riel was sent for and an agitation worked up, at first along peaceful lines, but rapidly moving towards violence. Riel finally threw discretion to the winds, and deliberately inflamed not only the half-breeds, but also the western tribes. A small detachment of Mounted Police and volunteers was attacked at Duck Lake, and the government at Ottawa, hitherto indifferent, awoke to the seriousness of the situation. A force was organized, and sent west under General Middleton. Middleton divided his force into three columns; one under General Strange, to operate against Big Bear in the neighbourhood of Edmonton; the second under Colonel Otter, to relieve Battleford, which was threatened by Poundmaker; and the third, of which he himself took command, to relieve Prince Albert. Middleton met the rebels at Fish Creek, and experienced a stubborn resistance, but drove them back to Batoche. Here Riel and his men held the troops at bay for three days, but were finally routed and scattered. Meanwhile Otter had encountered Poundmaker at Cut Knife Hill, and after a desperate fight had been forced to retreat. In the far west, Strange had a similar experience with Big Bear, but finally drove him to the north. Big Bear gave himself up; Poundmaker and Riel were captured, and the latter paid the penalty of his crimes on the scaffold. _See also_ Riel; Batoche; Cut Knife Hill; Fish Creek; Duck Lake; Battleford. =Bib.=: Boulton, _Reminiscences of the North-West Rebellions_; _Report upon the Suppression of the Rebellion in the North-West_; Denison, _Soldiering in Canada_; Black, _History of Saskatchewan_; Kennedy, _Book of the West_; Gowanlock and Delaney, _Two Months in the Camp of Big Bear_. =Rigaud, François, Marquis de= (1703-1779). Brother of the Marquis de Vaudreuil, Governor of Canada. Famous partisan leader. Lieutenant, 1724. Awarded the Cross of St. Louis, 1738. Led expeditions against the English colonies in 1744-1748. King’s lieutenant at Quebec, 1748. Governor of Three Rivers, 1748. In 1755 captured by the English at sea. The following year with Montcalm at the capture of Oswego. Colonel of troops and governor of Montreal, 1757. After the capitulation he returned to France. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii; D’Hozier, _Armorial Général de France_, Vol. vi. =Ripon, Frederick John Robinson, Earl of= (1782-1859). Born in London. Educated at Harrow and Cambridge. In 1806 entered parliament; in 1809 appointed under-secretary for the colonies; in 1810 lord of the Admiralty; in 1812 a member of the Privy Council; and paymaster-general of the forces, 1813-1817. Appointed chancellor of the exchequer, 1823, and introduced various fiscal reforms. In 1827 created Viscount Goderich; and became leader of the House of Lords and prime minister on the death of Canning. Subsequently filled the portfolios of war, the privy seal, the Board of Trade, and Indian affairs. In 1836 created Earl of Ripon. While colonial secretary he corresponded with William Lyon Mackenzie and other Canadian reformers, and made efforts to remove some of their grievances. Offered Papineau and his associates in Lower Canada control of the provincial revenue in exchange for a civil list. He wrote Sir Archibald Campbell, lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick: “The preservation to the crown of the territorial revenue is an object of the first importance, and it would only be resigned on its being clearly proved that the right of the crown could not be maintained without producing still greater inconvenience.” =Bib.=: Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =Ritchie, J. W. E.= A member of the Legislative Council of Nova Scotia and solicitor-general in 1866. One of the representatives of Nova Scotia at the London Conference on Confederation. Appointed to the Senate at Confederation. In 1870 became a member of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia. Died, 1890. =Ritchie, Sir William Johnstone= (1813-1892). Born in Annapolis, Nova Scotia. Educated at Pictou Academy, Nova Scotia. In 1838 called to the bar of New Brunswick; in 1846-1851 member for St. John in the Legislative Assembly, and in 1854-1855 appointed to the Executive Council. In 1855 became puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick; in 1865 chief-justice of New Brunswick; and in 1875 puisne judge of the Supreme Court of Canada. Appointed chief-justice of Canada, 1879; knighted, 1881. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ =Roads.= In the early days of what is now Canada, they were auxiliary to the waterways as means of transportation. The first highways generally followed the rivers, or served as portage routes from one waterway to another. During the French régime the most important and almost the only, road, followed the north shore of the St. Lawrence from Quebec to Three Rivers and Montreal. In Upper Canada the earliest highways were Yonge Street and Dundas Street. Montreal was connected to Kingston by road in 1816, and the following year it was extended to Toronto. “Thereafter, other highways from points served by water routes to inland settlements began to increase in number, as it became apparent that they were essential to the commercial life of the country as a means of transporting supplies to the settlers and of bringing their products to the central markets of the colony. The system of posts which had been established about the beginning of the nineteenth century necessitated passable routes between the various offices, and by 1827 a through route was available between Halifax and Amherstburg, comprising for the most part the old Kempt road, the York road, Dundas Street and the Baldoon road. From this trunk line of communication, branch roads extended north and south to the more important centres of population in the two Canadas.” In more recent years, and particularly since the advent of the automobile, the movement for good roads has spread throughout the Dominion, and has had substantial assistance both from the provincial governments and the Dominion. In 1919 the Dominion parliament authorized the expenditure of $20,000,000 toward the construction and improvement of Canadian roads. In 1924 there were 385,472 miles of roads in Canada, ranging from earth roads to macadam and concrete. See also Yonge Street; Dundas Street; Talbot Road; Baldoon Street. =Bib.=: _Canada Year Book_; Smith, _History of the Post Office in British North America_. =Roberts, Charles.= A captain in the War of 1812-1814. In charge at St. Joseph, with a small company of the 10th Royal Veteran Battalion. Brock sent him orders in 1812 to capture Michilimackinac from the Americans. About the same time he received a despatch from Prevost instructing him to act only on the defensive. Knowing the situation, and the importance of securing Michilimackinac, he diplomatically forgot the governor’s orders and decided to follow those of the general. Setting out in July with a flotilla of boats and canoes filled with Veterans, Canadian _voyageurs_, and Indians, convoyed by the North West Company’s brig _Caledonia_, he surprised the American garrison and captured the fort with a large quantity of military stores and seven hundred packs of furs. =Bib.=: Edgar, _General Brock_. =Robertson, Colin.= He had served under John McDonald of Garth in the North West Company. Having quarreled with the North West Company, he went over to the Hudson’s Bay Company, and became associated with Lord Selkirk in his enterprise to found a settlement on the Red River. He spent the winter of 1814 in Montreal conferring with Selkirk, and organizing an expedition to capture the Athabaska trade from the North West Company. Starting west in the spring, he found the Selkirk settlers at Jack river, north of Lake Winnipeg, where they had been driven by the North West Company. He brought them back to Red river. In 1816 he took the offensive, arrested Duncan Cameron of the North West Company, and seized the brigade. He took Cameron down to York Factory. Arrested in 1818, tried and acquitted, on a charge of riot at Red river. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson_; Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_. =Robertson, James= (1839-1902). Born in Scotland. Removed to Canada and educated at the University of Toronto, Union Theological Seminary, New York, and Princeton University. Ordained to the ministry of the Presbyterian Church, 1869; settled at Winnipeg as pastor of Knox Church, 1874. Appointed superintendent of western missions of the Presbyterian Church, 1881. =Bib.=: Morgan. _Can. Men_; Gordon, _Life of James Robertson_. =Robertson, James Peter.= Private, 27th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ In an attack at Passchendaele, November 6th, 1917, when his platoon was held up by uncut wire and a machine-gun, he dashed to an opening on the flank, rushed the gun and, after a desperate struggle with the crew, captured it and turned it on the crew who were running toward their own lines. Carrying the captured machine-gun, he led his platoon to the final objective, and demoralized the enemy by the fire brought to bear on them. Later he went out under very severe fire and brought in a wounded comrade. Returning with a second man, he was killed just as he reached the trench. =Roberval, Jean Francois de la Rocque, Seigneur de.= A gentleman of the South of France, born about the year 1500. By a commission dated January 15th, 1541, Francis I gave him the command of the expedition planned by Jacques Cartier, and made him his viceroy and lieutenant-general in the new lands discovered by Cartier. The commission granted to the latter in 1540 was revoked, and Cartier sailed as Roberval’s lieutenant. Cartier left St. Malo in May, 1541, and Roberval did not follow until April, 1542. His ships entered the harbour of St. John’s, Newfoundland, June 8th, and there he met Cartier on his way home. Sailing on into the gulf, and up the St. Lawrence, he reached Charlesbourg Royal, where Cartier had wintered, and set his men to work erecting forts and other buildings. Here he wintered; explored the river in the spring; and sailed back to France with his colonists in the autumn of 1543. Despite the failure of his colonizing venture, commissioned by the king in 1544 to rebuild the fortifications of Senlis; and in 1548 made controller of all mines in France. Lost sight of about the year 1560. One story has it that he was murdered in the streets of Paris; and another that he died at sea; but both lack confirmation. There is reason to believe that he died in 1560, or early in 1561. =Bib.=: Hakluyt, _Principall Navigations_; Harrisse, _Notes sur la Nouvelle France_; Dawson, _The St. Lawrence Basin_; Dionne, _Jean-François de la Rocque, Seigneur de Roberval_ (R. S. C., 1899); Morel, _Jean François de la Rocque, Seigneur de Roberval_. =Robie, Samuel Bradstreet= (1771-1858). Son of Thomas Robie, a United Empire Loyalist, Settled in Halifax and became solicitor-general of Nova Scotia, 1815. Speaker of the House of Assembly in 1817, 1819 and 1820. Member of the council, 1824. Master of the Rolls, 1825. Died in Halifax. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Robineau de Portneuf, Pierre.= Son of René. He was second ensign in 1733; full ensign, 1741; lieutenant, 1748; captain, 1757. Went to Louisiana in the campaign of 1739-1740. Engaged in the Chickasaw expedition in the latter year. In 1753 led a detachment from the Illinois to reinforce Marin, but turned back at the Scioto by the hostility of the Shawnee. With Dieskau’s expedition, 1755. =Robineau de Portneuf, René= (1659-1726). Captain, 1701. In command at Chambly, 1725. An officer of distinction on the French side in the war between New France and New England, 1689-1697. He was second in command in the attack on Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, in 1690. Died, 1726. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii. =Robinson, Beverley= (1723-1792). United Empire Loyalist. Son of John Robinson, president of Virginia. Lived in New York for several years, where he entertained Washington, for whom he felt a warm friendship. Prince William Henry (William IV) was also his guest there. Entered the army; took part as a major, under Wolfe, in the attack on Quebec, 1759. Opposed the measures that led to the separation of the American colonies from the motherland, but joined the Loyalists when independence was declared; raised the Loyal American Regiment, of which he was colonel, and on several occasions conducted matters on behalf of the Loyalists. At the end of the war came to New Brunswick, and was a member of the first Council of that colony. Carried on negotiations with Ethan Allen of Vermont. Spent the latter part of his life in England. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Robinson, Beverley.= Son of the senior Beverley Robinson. United Empire Loyalist. Lieutenant-colonel of the Loyal American Regiment. Graduate of Columbia College, New York. At the evacuation of New York at the end of the war he led the party of Loyalists that founded the town of Shelburne, Nova Scotia. From there he went to New Brunswick, where he became a member of the Council. Commanded a regiment raised in New Brunswick at the time of the French Revolution. Died in 1816 during a visit to New York. One son, Frederick Phillips, became auditor-general of New Brunswick; and another, William Henry, a member of the Legislative Council. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Robinson, Christopher.= United Empire Loyalist. Entered William and Mary College. When the Revolution broke out he escaped to New York and obtained a commission in the Loyal American Regiment. Served in the south and was wounded. At the conclusion of the war he went to Nova Scotia and received a grant of land at Wilmot. Moved to Upper Canada, and was made by Simcoe deputy surveyor-general of crown lands. Died in Canada. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Robinson, Frederick John.= _See_ Ripon. =Robinson, Sir John Beverley= (1791-1863). Son of Christopher Robinson (_q.v._). Educated at Dr. Strachan’s school, Kingston; studied law and became acting attorney-general in 1812, before he had been called to the bar. Played a distinguished part as a volunteer during the War of 1812. One of the leading members of the so-called Family Compact; represented York in the Assembly, 1821, and for several years thereafter; appointed chief-justice of Upper Canada, 1829, and the following year nominated Speaker of the Executive Council; upon the union of the provinces in 1841, retired from political life, but retained his office as chief-justice; in 1850 created a baronet of the United Kingdom. =Bib.=: _Canada and the Canada Bill_. For biog., _see_ Robinson, _Life of Sir John Beverley Robinson, Bart._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_; Edgar, _Ten Years of Upper Canada_. =Robinson, John Beverley= (1820-1896). Second son of Sir John Beverley Robinson; born in Toronto. Educated at Upper Canada College; appointed aide-de-camp to Sir Francis Bond Head; saw active service during the Rebellion of 1837. Studied law, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1844. Served as alderman in Toronto for six years; elected mayor, 1857. Elected to the Assembly for one of the divisions of Toronto, 1858; president of the Council in the Macdonald-Cartier administration, 1862. Elected to the House of Commons for Algoma, 1872, and for Toronto West, 1878. Lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1880-1887. =Bib.=: Read, _The Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Robinson, Peter.= Brother of Sir John Beverley Robinson. Founded the town of Peterborough, which was named after him. Brought a large party of emigrants from Ireland, many of whom became pioneers in the infant town. He served under Sheaffe in the War of 1812-1814. Commissioner of crown lands in 1827. Entertained Sir John Franklin and Sir John Ross when they were on their way overland to the Arctic. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Roblin, Sir Rodmond Palen.= Born in Sophiasburg, Ontario, in 1853. Educated at Albert College, Belleville. Removed to Manitoba and settled at Carman, 1880. Elected to the Manitoba Assembly for Dufferin, 1888; premier, 1900-1915; also held offices of minister of agriculture and railway commissioner. =Bib.=: _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Robson, Mount.= In British Columbia, immediately west of the interprovincial boundary, and a few miles north of Yellowhead Pass. The highest peak in the Canadian Rockies, 12,972 feet. According to H. J. Moberly, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, the peak was named after a North West Company man named Robson in the early days of the nineteenth century. It was first described by Milton and Cheadle in the _North West Passage by Land_. First climbed by Rev. G. B. Kinney and Donald Phillips in 1909, and the actual summit first reached by A. H. McCarthy, W. W. Foster and Conrad Kain in 1913. =Bib.=: Thorington, _Glittering Mountains of Canada_. =Robutel de la Noüe, Zachary= (1665-1732). Born in Montreal. He took part in the expedition of De Troyes to James Bay in 1686. The Intendant Begon having recommended to the French Court the building of three posts on the water communication west of Lake Superior, and the plan having been approved, the Marquis de Vaudreuil sent La Noüe in 1717 to put it into effect. He built Fort Kaministikwia that year, and ascending the river of the same name and following the water route to Rainy lake, he built Fort Tekamamiouen at its outlet. Remained in charge of Kaministikwia until 1721. Promoted to rank of captain. Sent an officer named Pachot to Chequamegon to make peace with the Sioux. =Bib.=: Prud’homme, _Pierre Gaultier de Varennes_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvi, 440, xvii, 16. =Rocheblave, Philippe François de Rastel, Sieur de.= Born in France, 1727, served in the army, came to Canada about 1750 and was admitted to the colonial troops as a cadet. He is said to have served against Braddock in 1755. The following year he was on the Fort Duquesne frontier, and in 1759 was employed guarding the boats of the Illinois detachment near Fort Niagara. He escaped capture, and retreated to Detroit and the Illinois. In 1763 he retired from the army. Was married at Kaskaskia to Michel Marie Dufresne. In 1765 he retired to the Spanish side of the Mississippi, entered the Spanish service, and was made commandant at Ste. Geneviève. In 1770 he had an altercation with the British commandant of the Illinois. Three years later he returned to British Illinois, and in 1776 was in command there as a British officer. Captured there in 1778 by George Rogers Clark, and sent prisoner to Virginia. He escaped and joined the British in New York, 1780. Next year he was in Quebec. Visited Detroit, 1782-1783, and at the close of the war retired to Varennes near Montreal. Became a member of the Legislature of Lower Canada. Died, 1802. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xviii. =Rocheblave, Pierre de Rastel, Sieur de.= Son of Philippe. Entered the Canadian fur trade toward the end of the eighteenth century. In 1801 he was a partner of the X Y Company. In 1803 he wintered in the Athabaska region. In 1804 signed the agreement for the union of the X Y and the North West Companies. In 1805 had charge of the Assiniboine district. In the War of 1812-1814 he commanded a company of _voyageurs_ raised to protect the property of the North West Company. In 1816 he became one of the agents of the Company at Montreal. He took an active part in the opposition to Lord Selkirk, and in 1817 secured his arrest. Retired on the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies, and became a member of the Legislative Assembly and the Council of Lower Canada. Died at Montreal, 1840. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xix. =Rochemonteix, Camille de Chalvet de.= Born in France. Historian. A member of the Society of Jesus. =Bib.=: _Les Jésuites et le Nouvelle France au XVII^e Siecle_. =Rockingham, Charles Watson-Wentworth, Marquis of= (1730-1782). Born in Yorkshire, England. Educated at Westminster School and St. John’s College, Cambridge. In 1746 served as a volunteer against the Jacobites. In 1765 premier of a coalition ministry opposed to royal grants and general warrants; from 1768 to 1781 leader of the opposition in the House of Lords, during which time supported the proposals to grant independence to the American colonies. In 1782 again became prime minister. Throughout his political career upheld the contentions of the American colonists and opposed royal encroachments. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Rocky Mountain Fur Company.= Founded at St. Louis, in 1822, by William H. Ashley. The field of its operations was the Upper Missouri country. After an adventurous career of twelve years, in which Ashley, Andrew Henry, M. G. Sublette, and other well-known western American traders took a leading part, the company was disbanded at the annual rendezvous in Green River Valley, in the summer of 1834. =Bib.=: Chittenden, _History of the American Fur Trade_. =Rocky Mountain House.= An important trading post of the North West Company. On the upper waters of the North Saskatchewan, near the mouth of the Clearwater. Established by McDonald in 1802. =Rocky Mountain Portage.= Leads across an elbow of the Peace river, in the mountains, about long. 122°, to avoid a series of dangerous rapids. First used by Alexander Mackenzie in 1793, on his expedition to the Pacific. The North West Company had a trading post here for many years; and one was afterwards maintained by the Hudson’s Bay Company, but has long since been abandoned. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_. =Rocky Mountains.= Commence in New Mexico and extend north to the Arctic coast west of the Mackenzie river. The highest known peaks in the Canadian Rockies are Robson (12,972 ft.), Columbia (12,500), Forbes (12,100), Lyell (11,950), Athabaska (11,900), Assiniboine (11,860), Bryce (11,750), Goodsir (11,671), Alexandra (11,650), The Dome (11,650), Temple (11,637), Diadem (11,500), Victoria (11,400), Hungabee (11,305), Murchison (11,300), Lefroy (11,290), Hector (11,205), Consolation (11,200), Wilson (11,000). The general altitude of the range varies from 10,000 to 12,000 feet. The Canadian Rockies were first crossed by Alexander Mackenzie, through the Peace river pass, in 1793. He was followed by Simon Fraser, David Thompson, Daniel Williams Harmon, and many other fur traders, explorers and travellers. The interior of the Rockies and Selkirks has been explored mainly by Canadian government surveyors and mountain-climbers. A minute survey of the backbone of the continent, the summit of the Rockies, from the international boundary north to about lat. 54°, has been carried out by the Alberta-British Columbia Boundary Commission. _See also_ Mountain Passes, Selkirk Mountains, Alexander Mackenzie; David Thompson; Southesk; De Smet; Milton and Cheadle; Sir George Simpson. =Bib.=: _Report of the Commission appointed to Delimit the Boundary between Alberta and British Columbia_; Palliser, _Papers Relative to the Exploration_; Outram, _In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies_; Coleman, _The Canadian Rockies_; Stutfield and Collie, _Climbs and Explorations in the Canadian Rockies_; Hornaday, _Camp-fires in the Canadian Rockies_; Wilcox, _The Rockies of Canada;_ Thorington, _The Glittering Mountains of Canada_; Wheeler, _The Selkirk Range_; Palmer, _Mountaineering and Exploration in the Selkirks_; Green, _Among the Selkirk Glaciers_; Burpee, _The Canadian Alps_; Schaffer, _Old Indian Trails_. =Roebuck, John Arthur= (1801-1879). Born in Madras, India. Brought to Canada at an early age, and educated here. Went to England in 1824 to study law, and was called to the bar in 1831. In 1832-1837 member of Parliament for the city of Bath, and in 1835 agent in England for the House of Assembly of Lower Canada. Again member for Bath, 1841-1847, and in 1849-1868 member for Sheffield. In 1874 re-elected member for Sheffield, which he represented until his death. He carried on a correspondence with both William Lyon Mackenzie and Papineau, and took a deep interest in the progress of the movement for responsible government. Spoke in the British parliament on this question as well as on the Rebellion Losses Bill and other Canadian problems. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Rogers, James.= Brother of Robert Rogers. Served under Wolfe and Amherst at Louisbourg, Quebec and Montreal. During the Revolutionary War commanded the King’s Rangers. Afterwards settled with his disbanded soldiers on the Bay of Quinte in Upper Canada. Died, 1792. =Bib.=: Rogers, _Rogers, Ranger and Loyalist_ (R. S. C., 1900). =Rogers, Robert= (1727-1784). Born at Dunbarton, New Hampshire. In the War of 1775-1760 with the French, commanded Roger’s Rangers and distinguished himself in several engagements. Sent by Amherst in 1759 to destroy the Indian village of St. Francis near the St. Lawrence river. In 1760 took possession of Detroit and other western posts ceded by the French after the fall of Quebec. In 1766 appointed governor of Mackinaw. Subsequently accused of intriguing with the Spaniards, and tried by court-martial in Montreal, but released. Became colonel in the British army in North America, and commanded the Queen’s Rangers in the Revolutionary War. In 1777 went to England. Proscribed by the provincial Congress of New Hampshire, 1778. Died in England. =Bib.=: Works: _Concise Account of North America_, 1765; _Journals during the Late War_, 1765. For biog., _see_ _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Rogers, _Rogers, Ranger and Loyalist_ (R. S. C., 1900); Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Rolph, John= (1792-1870). Born in Thornbury, England. Emigrated to Canada. Practised as a physician in Toronto, and in 1837 took part in the Rebellion. Connected with Mackenzie in the attempt to capture Toronto. After the collapse of the movement fled to the United States, where he practised for some years. Pardoned and returned to Canada, 1843; settled in Toronto. Joined with Lesslie, Perry, and others in forming the Clear Grit party; founded a medical school in Toronto; commissioner of crown lands in the Hincks-Morin ministry, 1851; resigned from the government, 1854, and joined the opposition; retired from public life, 1857. _See also_ Rebellion of 1837, Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_ and _Last Forty Years_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Roman Catholic Church.= The first authentic landmark in the history of the Roman Catholic Church in Canada is the arrival of several Jesuit missionaries in Acadia in 1611. The Récollets first came to Quebec in 1615, and the Jesuits in 1625. In 1657, the Sulpicians arrived in Montreal, and the following year Canada was made a Vicariate Apostolic. The Jesuit missionaries explored distant parts of the continent, in labouring among the Indians, and in many cases suffered martyrdom for their faith. Laval, the first vicar-apostolic of New France, arrived in Quebec in 1659. In 1674 Quebec was made a diocese, and Laval became the first bishop. After 1818 Canada was divided into the dioceses of Nova Scotia, Upper Canada, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton, and the North-West. In 1841 the chapter of Montreal was established, and in 1874 the diocese of Quebec was subdivided into eight dioceses. The first Canadian cardinal was Archbishop Taschereau. For list of bishops _see_ Audet, _Canadian Historical Dates and Events_. By the census of 1921 there were 3,389,639 Roman Catholics in Canada. =Bib.=: O’Leary, _Roman Catholic Church in Quebec_; Harris, _Roman Catholic Church in Ontario_; Cameron, _Catholic Church in Maritime Provinces in Canada_; _An Ency._, vol. 2. =Rose, Sir John= (1820-1888). Born in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Educated there. In 1836 emigrated to Canada, and served during the Rebellion of 1837. Studied law; called to the bar, 1842, and practised in Montreal for several years. A member of the Legislative Assembly, 1857-1861; solicitor-general for Lower Canada, 1857-1858, and commissioner of public works, 1859-1861. Appointed a commissioner for the settlement of claims under the Oregon Treaty, 1864. Went to England with Cartier and Gait in connection with the Confederation negotiations. Minister of finance in first Dominion government. In 1870 sent by the British government on a mission to the United States, which led to the treaty of Washington. Made K. C. M. G., 1870; created a baronet, 1872; privy councillor, 1886; G. C. M. G., 1878. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Ross, Alexander.= Joined Astor’s Pacific Fur Company in 1810, having been previously engaged as a clerk in the service of the North West Company. Sailed in the _Tonquin_ to the mouth of the Columbia, where Astoria was built in 1811. Left Pacific Fur Company and joined North West Company, 1814; stationed at Fort George (Astoria) and Fort Okanagan, 1811-1816; transferred to Kamloops, 1816. Wrote two valuable narratives of the fur trade on the Columbia. Joined Hudson’s Bay Company, on the union of the Hudson’s Bay and North West Companies in 1821. Returned east, and settled in Red River Colony; sheriff and member of the Council of Assiniboia, 1835. =Bib.=: _Red River Settlement_; _Adventures on the Columbia_; _Fur Hunters of the Far West_. =Ross, Sir George William= (1841-1914). Born Middlesex county, Ontario. Educated Albert College. Studied law and called to the bar, 1887. Taught school; became inspector of public schools; and inspector of model schools. Took a deep interest in educational matters and prepared a syllabus of lectures. Elected to the House of Commons for Middlesex, 1872-1883. Minister of Education in the Ontario government, 1883-1899. Succeeded Hardy as premier of Ontario, 1899-1905. Called to the Senate, 1907. Knighted, 1910. =Bib.=: _Life and Times of Alexander Mackenzie_; _History of the School System of Ontario_; For biog, _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Ross, James= (1811-1886). Born in West River, Nova Scotia. For a time headmaster of Westmoreland Grammar School, New Brunswick. Editor of the _Presbyterian Banner_, 1842. Principal Dalhousie College, 1863. =Ross, Sir James Clark= (1800-1861). Entered navy in 1812. Midshipman in the _Isabella_ in John Ross’ first voyage, 1818; in the _Hecla_ in Parry’s first voyage, 1819-1820; and in the _Fury_, 1821-1823; 2nd lieutenant in the _Fury_ in Parry’s third voyage, 1824-1825. Commanded the _Victory_ in John Ross’ second voyage, 1829-1833. Discovered the north magnetic pole, 1831. Captain, 1834. Went to Davis Strait in the _Cove_, 1836. Commanded expedition to the Antarctic in the _Erebus_ and _Terror_, 1839-1843. In the _Enterprise_ commanded an expedition to the north and west shores of Somerset island, Barrow strait and Prince Regent inlet, 1848-1849. Knighted, 1844. Rear-admiral, 1856. Ross bay, Melville peninsula, named after him by Parry in 1821; Ross point, King William Island, by Back in 1834; Ross point, Victoria island, by Rae, in 1851; and Ross point, Melville island, by Parry in 1819. =Bib.=: White, _Place-Names in Northern Canada_. =Ross, John= (1818-1871). Born in county Antrim, Ireland. Emigrated to Canada; educated at the district school, Brockville. In 1839 called to the bar, and built up a successful practice. Appointed to the Legislative Council, 1848; and in 1851 solicitor-general. In 1852, as a director of the Grand Trunk Railway, superintended the completion of the contracts in England, and was president of the Company for ten years. Appointed attorney-general in 1852; Speaker of the Legislative Council, 1854-1856; receiver-general, 1858; and the same year president of the Executive Council in the Cartier administration. Called to the Dominion Senate, 1867; speaker of that body, 1869. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Ross, Sir John= (1777-1856). Entered navy, 1786; commander, 1812. Commanded expedition to Baffin bay, 1818; and to the west coast of Prince Regent inlet, Boothia and north coast of King William island, 1829-1833. Knighted, 1834. Rear-admiral, 1851. Commanded expedition in the _Felix_ in search of Franklin, 1850-1851. Ross peninsula, Boothia gulf, and Ross point, King William island, Arctic archipelago, named after him. =Bib.=: White, _Place-Names in Northern Canada_. =Rottenburg, Baron de.= Entered the army, and in 1795 promoted major of Hussars; in 1797 lieutenant-colonel of the 60th Foot; and colonel in 1805. Served during the Rebellion in Ireland in 1798; present at the capture of Surinam in 1799; promoted brigadier-general, 1808; took part in the Walcheren expedition, 1809; in 1810 ordered to Canada, and commanded the garrison at Quebec; promoted major-general. In command of the Montreal district during the War of 1812; and in 1813 commander-in-chief of the forces in Upper Canada. Promoted lieutenant-general in 1819, after his return to England. Died in 1832. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Rouer de Villeray, Louis= (1629-1700). Born in Amboise, France. Came to Canada in 1651. Through Laval’s influence, appointed to the Sovereign Council in 1663, and retained his position in the reorganization of the Council in 1675. Always a strong supporter of Laval and the Jesuits; and reputed to be the wealthiest man of his day in the colony. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_ and _Old Régime_. =Rouges.= _See_ Parti Rouge. =Rous, John.= In command of a Boston privateer, did much damage to French commerce. Made a successful raid on the French posts on the coast of Newfoundland, 1744. Took part in the capture of Louisbourg, 1745; sent to England with the news; rewarded with the rank of captain in the navy. Engaged in coast defence of Nova Scotia, 1749; in command of the squadron sent against Beauséjour, 1755; took part in the expedition against Cape Breton under Lord Loudoun, 1756. Commanded the _Sutherland_ at the capture of Louisbourg, 1758, and in 1759 was with Admiral Saunders at the siege of Quebec. Settled at Halifax; a member of the Council of Nova Scotia; died in 1760. =Bib.=: Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Routhier, Sir Adolphe Basile= (1839-1920). Born at St. Placide, P. Q. Educated at Laval university. Studied law; advocate, 1861; Q.C. 1873. Appointed puisne judge of the Supreme Court of Quebec, 1873; chief-justice, 1904. Retired, 1906. Declined the lieutenant-governorship of the North-West Territories, 1897. President of the Royal Society of Canada, 1914-1915. Author of a number of volumes of historical and other essays, and of verse including the national song _O Canada_. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Rouyn.= This mining district lies in the extreme western part of the Province of Quebec, in the corner south of the Canadian National Railway and east of the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway. Gold was discovered there in 1923, and in the next two years a number of mining companies had begun development work. Not only gold but silver, copper and zinc have been discovered in large quantities. Railways are being built into the district from both the Canadian National and the T. and N. O. Railways. =Rowan, Sir William.= Born in Ireland, 1789. Entered the army as ensign, 1783; saw service in various parts of the world, including Spain, France, and North America; secretary to Lord Seaton in Canada, 1832-1839; major-general, 1846; commander-in-chief of the forces in British North America, 1849-1855; administrator of the government for a short time during the absence of Lord Elgin. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Rowell, Newton Wesley= (1867-). Born Middlesex county, Ontario. Studied law, and called to the bar, 1891. Elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario for North Oxford, 1911. Leader of the Ontario opposition, 1911-1917. Entered the Dominion government, 1917, as President of the Council and Vice-chairman of War Committee of the Cabinet. Elected to House of Commons for Durham county, 1917. Member of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, 1918. Represented the Canadian government at first International Labour Conference held under the League of Nations at Washington in 1919. Represented Canada at first assembly of the League of Nations at Geneva in 1920. Resigned from Dominion cabinet, 1920, and from House of Commons, 1921. =Bib.=: _Can. Parl. Guide_. =Roy, Louis.= First printer in Upper Canada. Set up his press at Newark near Niagara during the winter of 1792-1793. Published the Upper Canada Gazette, April 13, 1793. Founded the “_Gazette de Montreal_,” August, 1796. Appointed King’s Printer. Died in New York. =Bib.=: Scott, _John Graves Simcoe_. =Roy, Pierre-Georges= (1870-). Born at Lévis, P.Q. Educated Laval university. Engaged in journalism. Founded in 1895 and has since edited the _Bulletin des Recherches Historiques_. Appointed archivist of the province of Quebec. A fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Author of many books and pamphlets relating to the history of the province of Quebec. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Royal, Joseph.= Born at Repentigny, Quebec, 1837. Educated at St. Mary’s College, Montreal. Entered into newspaper work; established _L’Ordre_ and _Le Nouveau Monde_, and assisted in founding _La Revue Canadienne_. Called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1864. Removed to Manitoba, 1870; founded there _Le Métis_. Elected to the first Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, 1870; held many offices in successive administrations until 1879. Member of the House of Commons, 1879-1888; lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, 1888-1893. Member of the Royal Society of Canada, 1893; editor of _La Minerve_, Montreal, 1894. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of the North-West_; Morgan, _Can. Men_; Prud’homme, _Joseph Royal, sa vie et ses œuvres_ (R. S. C., 1904). =Royal American Regiment.= First formed in 1756, as the result of a proposal made by a Protestant refugee named Prevost to raise four battalions of Swiss and Provincials in America, with a British officer in command but with a fair number of foreigners holding other commissions. “Quite probably,” says Fortesque, “this step was quickened, if not suggested, by the news that the French contemplated the enlistment of recruits among the foreign population of British America.” The regiment was recruited largely in Pennsylvania, and Lord Loudoun became colonel in July, 1756. Amherst succeeded him in the command; and Haldimand was lieutenant-colonel. The regiment was on the left, under Townsend, in the Battle of the Plains. One battalion guarded communication with the landing-place. Afterwards became the 60th Foot. =Bib.=: Fortesque, _History of the British Army_; McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_. =Royal Bank of Canada.= Founded 1869. Capital $20,400,000, and reserves the same amount. Six hundred and eighty-five branches in Canada and other countries. Absorbed Union Bank of Halifax (1910), Traders Bank (1912), Quebec Bank (1917), and Northern Crown Bank (1918). =Bib.=: Hopkins, _Historical Sketch of Royal Bank of Canada_. =Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.= Founded by the Marquis of Lome (afterwards Duke of Argyll), the first exhibition being held in Ottawa the same year. The first president was L. R. O’Brien. In furtherance of its objects the Academy established a national gallery in Ottawa, to which it has contributed a number of paintings, and which has also received some assistance from the Dominion government, though its support is very inadequate. The Academy has held a number of exhibitions in the different Canadian cities; and supports classes for drawing from the living model. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First things in Canada_; MacTavish, _Fine Arts in Canada_. =Royal Canadian Mounted Police.= Organized in 1873 by the Dominion government, for the preservation of law in the new settlements west of Lake Superior. The force at first numbered only 190 men, subsequently increased to nearly 1000. The police patrol the frontier, and preserve the peace throughout the whole vast region from the international boundary to the Arctic. They have posts on the shores of Hudson Bay, in the Yukon, and on Herschell Island, off the mouth of the Mackenzie, as well as on some of the remote Arctic islands. =Bib.=: Haydon, _The Riders of the Plains_; Macbeth, _Policing the Plains_; Deane, _Mounted Police Life in Canada_; Steele; _Forty Years in Canada_. =Royal Highland Emigrants.= Regiment raised in Canada in 1775 by Lieutenant-Colonel Allan MacLean. Defeated Benedict Arnold in his attack at Quebec. MacLean had served as a subaltern with the Scotch Brigade in Holland, and had been specially mentioned for bravery at Bergen-op-Zoom in 1774. Afterwards became brigadier-general. The regiment, also known as the 84th, was disbanded after the war, and the officers and men took up land in the neighbourhood of Kingston and elsewhere. =Bib.=: McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_. =Royal Military College.= Established by Act of Parliament in 1874. Opened, 1876, at Kingston, Ontario. Lieutenant-General E. O. Hewitt, of the Royal Engineers, was first commandant. Grants commissions in both the Imperial army and in the Canadian Permanent Militia. Cadets have served in the Riel Rebellion, the South African War, the Nile Expedition, the Soudan Campaign, and most of the smaller military operations in which British troops have been engaged. Many of them distinguished themselves in the battles of the War of 1914-1918. The fiftieth anniversary of the opening of the College was celebrated in 1926, when four of the original class were present. =Bib.=: Mayne, _Royal Military College_ in _Canada: An Ency._; Wurtele, _Royal Military College_, in _Canada in the Great World War_. =Royal Naval College.= Established at Halifax, 1911; largely due to the initiative and enthusiasm of Rear-Admiral Sir Charles Kingsmill (1855-). Removed after the explosion in 1917 to Kingston and later to Esquimalt. Trained a number of young Canadians for service in the Imperial navy and the Canadian naval service. Discontinued, 1922. =Royal North-West Mounted Police.= _See_ Royal Canadian Mounted Police. =Royal Regiment of New York.= _See_ King’s Royal Regiment of New York. =Royal Society of Canada.= Founded by the Marquis of Lorne (afterward Duke of Argyll) in 1881, during his governorship in Canada. The first meeting was held in Ottawa, in May, 1882. The society is divided into five sections (originally four): French literature, history, etc.; English literature, history, etc.; mathematical, chemical, and physical sciences; geological sciences; and biological sciences. Each section is limited to a certain number of members. The original members were nominated by the Marquis of Lorne. Subsequent vacancies filled by election on the nomination of three members. The first president was (Sir) J. W. Dawson, and the vice-president Pierre J. O. Chauveau. The president of section one was (Sir) James M. Le Moine; of section two (Sir) Daniel Wilson; of section three T. Sterry Hunt; and of section four A. R. C. Selwyn. (Sir) J. G. Bourinot was the first secretary of the society. An account of its organization, with the list of original members, will be found in the first volume of _Transactions_, 1882-1883. The society has taken an active part in the establishment of the Public Archives of Canada, the National Museum, the National Gallery, the Research Council, the Ethnological Survey of Canada, the Quebec Tercentenary, the Cabot celebration, and other movements that make for the scientific or intellectual progress of the Dominion. =Bib.=: _Proceedings and Transactions_, 1st series, 1882-1894, 12 vols.; 2nd series, 1895-1906, 12 vols.; 3rd series, 1907, to date. Index volume, 1882-1906. =Royal Visits to Canada.= The Duke of Clarence was the first member of the British Royal Family to visit Canada, in 1787. The Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria, arrived at Quebec in 1791 from Gibraltar, as commander of the 7th Royal Fusiliers, and remained three years, making his home at Kent Lodge, formerly Montmorency House. He returned in 1799 as commander-in-chief at Halifax. One of Haliburton’s finest bits of descriptive writing is of his home near Halifax, also known as Kent Lodge. The Prince of Wales (Edward VII) visited Canada in 1860; Prince Alfred in 1861; and the Duke of Connaught in 1890. The latter returned as Governor-General in 1911. Princess Louise spent the years 1878-1883 in Canada, as wife of the then Governor-General, the Marquis of Lorne. The Duke of Cornwall and York (George V) and his wife paid a visit to Canada in 1901. The Prince of Wales visited Canada in 1919, and in subsequent years paid several visits to his ranch in Alberta. =Royal William.= Built at Quebec in the year 1830; launched in the spring of 1831. On August 5th, 1833, she sailed from Quebec for London, stopping at Pictou for coal. She arrived at Gravesend in twenty-five days from Pictou—the first vessel to cross the Atlantic wholly under steam. She had been named by Lady Aylmer, wife of the governor-general, after William IV. A few days after her arrival in London, the vessel was chartered as a troop-ship by the Portuguese government. In 1894, on the occasion of the opening of the Colonial Conference at Ottawa, Lord Aberdeen unveiled a tablet in the entrance to the Library of Parliament, bearing this inscription: “In honour of the men by whose enterprise, courage and skill the _Royal William_, the first vessel to cross the Atlantic by steam power, was wholly constructed in Canada, and navigated to England in 1833. The pioneer of those mighty fleets of ocean steamers by which passengers and merchandise of all nations are now conveyed over every sea throughout the world.” =Bib.=: Fleming, _Notes on Ocean Steam Navigation_ (Can. Inst. _Trans._, 1891-1982); Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Canada_, 1895. =Ruette d’Auteuil, Denis-Joseph= (1617-1679). Came to Canada in 1651. In 1674 made solicitor-general and a member of the Sovereign Council. Aroused the resentment of Frontenac, who banished him from Quebec for a time. Died, 1679, and was succeeded by his son Francois, who made trouble for the intendant, Meulles. =Ruggles, Timothy= (1711-1795). United Empire Loyalist. Born at Rochester, Massachusetts. Graduated at Harvard in 1732. Studied law and practised at Sandwich. Joined the army and rose to the rank of brigadier-general. Led a body of troops to join Sir William Johnson in 1755, and distinguished himself in the battle of Lake George. In 1757 appointed associate justice of Common Pleas, and subsequently became chief-justice. Delegate in 1765 to the congress at New York, and elected president. Moved to Boston where he attempted to raise a corps of Loyalists. After the revolution he accompanied the army to Halifax and made his home in Nova Scotia. One of the original proprietors of Digby. Died at Wilmot, N.S. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Rundle, Robert Terrell= (1811-1886). First Protestant missionary to the Indians west of Manitoba. Born in Cornwall, he came to Canada in 1840, and made his way to Fort Edmonton by the usual canoe routes. There he was welcomed by John Rowand, chief factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. For eight years he laboured among the Cree and Blackfeet, travelling constantly from fort to fort and from one Indian camp to another. He met Paul Kane at Fort Carlton in 1845 and travelled west with him for some days. The Earl of Southesk, during his expedition to the Rocky Mountains, met a party of Stonies who had been converted to Christianity by Rundle many years before and who remembered the missionary with affection and gratitude. Rundle returned to England in 1848, his health having broken down. He died at Garstang, Lancashire. Mount Rundle in the Rockies was named after him. =Bib.=: MacLean, _Vanguards of Canada_. =Rupert, Prince= (1619-1683). Third son of the elector palatine, Frederick V, and Elizabeth, daughter of James I of England. Served in the army during the Thirty Years’ War; commanded the royal cavalry in the Civil War in England. Returned to England at the Restoration. The first governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Erskine, _A Royal Cavalier: the Romance of Rupert, Prince Palatine_. =Rupert’s Land.= The name applied to the territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company, particularly to that portion lying west of Hudson Bay and east of the Rocky Mountains. The Company held these lands under royal charter granted by Charles II in 1670. The first governor of the Company was Prince Rupert, after whom the territories were named. The Company’s title was repeatedly challenged, but its validity was always upheld by the law officers of the crown, though, with the consent of the Company, the area was considerably reduced about the beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1869 the territories were transferred to Canada, for the sum of £300,000, the company retaining certain blocks of land around their trading posts and one-twentieth of the arable land of the country. It is to-day embraced in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, and the North-West Territories. _See also_ Hudson’s Bay Company; North-West Territories. =Russell, John, first Earl= (1792-1878). Born in London. Entered Parliament, 1813; home secretary, 1835, in Melbourne’s ministry; in 1839, colonial secretary; and in 1846, premier. In 1852, foreign secretary in Aberdeen’s ministry; in 1854, president of the Council, and, in 1855, secretary for the colonies. Prime minister, 1865, with Gladstone as leader of the Commons. As colonial secretary he strongly supported in the Imperial House of Commons the union of Upper and Lower Canada. He was not prepared to concede responsible government in the full sense. Did not believe in representation by population. Favoured Durham’s general policy as to municipal government. Did not believe in an elective council, but held that those appointed to the Legislative Council should previously have been members of the Assembly. He advocated financial assistance by the Home Government for immigration. Supported Rebellion Losses Bill. Sydenham, to whom he had given whole-hearted encouragement and support, said of him in his last moments, “He was the noblest man it was ever my good fortune to know.” =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Russell, Peter= (1755-1808). Born in Cork, Ireland. Educated at Cambridge. Entered the army and in 1778 given a commission as captain in the 64th Regiment. Served in the expedition against Savannah and Charleston in 1779-1780. On Simcoe’s recommendation he was made a member of the Legislative and Executive Councils of Upper Canada. Later became receiver-general of the province. Administered the government of Upper Canada, 1796-1799, as president of the Council. Denounced as a land-grabber. Died in Toronto. =Bib.=: Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Doughty and McArthur, _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. =Russian-American Fur Company.= Chartered in 1799, with a monopoly of the fur trade of Russian America. It absorbed the various smaller independent companies, and for a time was a powerful rival of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Its operations were directed by Baranof, as governor of Russian America, and the headquarters of the company were established at New Archangel (modern Sitka), in 1800. =Bib.=: Dall, _Alaska_; Bancroft, _History of Alaska_; Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_. =Russian Convention, 1825.= Under its terms the subjects of Great Britain and Russia were free to navigate the Pacific and to trade with the natives of any part of the coast not already occupied by Europeans. Prince of Wales Island was to be Russian territory and the southern limit thereof. The boundary in the mainland was to run up Portland Canal and follow the summits of the coast range to long. 141°, and thence due north to the Arctic. For ten years the British were granted the right to trade on the Alaskan coast. =Bib.=: Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Russian Explorations.= By way of Siberia, Russian explorers reached the coast of America, made discoveries, established colonies, and built up an immense trade in furs. _See_ Bering, Baranof, Wrangell. =Bib.=: Muller, _Voyages from Asia to America_; Coxe, _Discoveries of the Russians between Asia and America_; Lauridsen, _Vitus Bering_, trans. by Olson; Kotzebue, _Voyages_, trans. by Lloyd; Krusenstern, _Voyage_; Lutke, _Voyage_; Bancroft, _History of Alaska_; Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_. =Rutherford, Charles Smith.= Lieutenant, 5th Canadian Mounted Rifles. _Victoria Cross._ When in command of an assaulting party at Monchy-le-Preux, on August 26th, 1918, he found himself some distance ahead of his men, and within reach of a fully armed strong enemy party outside a “pill-box.” Marching boldly up to them, he persuaded them that they were surrounded, and the whole party of forty-five, including two officers and three machine-guns, surrendered to him. Later he attacked another “pill-box” with a Lewis gun section and captured a further thirty-five prisoners with machine-guns. =Ryan, John.= United Empire Loyalist. Went to St. John, New Brunswick, after the Revolution, and was a grantee of that town. He established the _St. John Gazette_; became King’s Printer for New Brunswick; and subsequently filled the same office in Newfoundland. Died there in 1847. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Ryerson, Egerton= (1803-1882). Born near the village of Vittoria, Upper Canada. Son of Joseph Ryerson (_q.v._). In 1825 he entered the Methodist ministry. The following year he was sent as a missionary to the Indians at the Credit river, and in 1827 was put in charge of the Cobourg circuit. Two years later he became editor of the _Christian Guardian_, established that year, and threw himself into the struggle for reform, and particularly into its religious and educational sides. This involved among other things a long and sometimes bitter controversy with John Strachan. Ryerson took a leading part in the movement for a Methodist college, which finally resulted in the establishment of Victoria College. In 1832 he was sent to England to represent the Methodists of Upper Canada in negotiations with the parent body in the old land as to missions and other matters. At the same time he put before the colonial secretary the views of the Canadian Methodists as to the claim of the Church of England to be regarded as the state church in Canada, the disposition of the Clergy Reserves, etc. In a series of “Impressions” published in the _Christian Guardian_ after his return to Canada, he expressed his views as to political parties in England, and incidentally revealed his own sympathies as a moderate Conservative. This led to a bitter attack by William Lyon Mackenzie in the _Colonial Advocate_, in which Ryerson was described as the “Benedict Arnold of Canada.” In 1835 he again sailed for England, seeking funds for the new college, and while there wrote a series of articles for the _Times_ on “The Affairs of the Canadas,” in which, while advocating reform in Canada, he clearly disassociated himself from the extreme radical views of Mackenzie and his associates in Canada and of Hume and Roebuck in England. He remained convinced, and all the more so after the events of 1837-1838, that constitutional means could always be found to remedy the grievances of the people. Ryerson was strongly in favour of a provincial university, but preferred state aid to the existing denominational colleges, as proposed by John A. Macdonald in 1847, to a secular university as suggested by Baldwin in 1849. He will be chiefly remembered, however, because of the splendid work he did for Ontario in building up a comprehensive and efficient system of public schools. In 1844 he became superintendent of public schools, and spent the next two years in studying the school systems of Europe and the United States. This investigation resulted in a series of reports, and in the School Act of 1850. He continued in office until 1876, and unquestionably did more than any other man to create the system of education that exists to-day in Ontario. His remaining years were devoted to literary and historical work. =Bib.=: _The Story of my Life_; _Canadian Methodism_; _Loyalists of America and their Times_. For biog., _see_ Burwash, _Egerton Ryerson_; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Ryerson, John= (1800-1878). Born in Norfolk, Ontario. Educated at the public schools. In 1818 became a Wesleyan preacher, and active for many years in the establishment of missionary and other institutions of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1854 sent by the Canadian Conference of that church on a visit to the missions of the London Wesleyan Committee in the North-West Territories. The result of his investigation was the transfer of the missions to Canadian control. =Bib.=: _Hudson’s Bay, or, A Missionary Tour_. =Ryerson, Joseph= (1760-1854). United Empire Loyalist. A native of New Jersey. Served as a volunteer in the South; acted as a despatch bearer; promoted to lieutenancy in the Prince of Wales’s Volunteers. Engaged in six battles, and wounded. After the revolutionary war he went to New Brunswick; afterwards settled in Upper Canada; and became a colonel in the militia. Served with his three sons in the War of 1812-1814. Died near Victoria, Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Ryland, Herman W.= Secretary to Sir Robert Milnes, and afterwards to Sir James Craig. He is described by Lady Edgar, _General Brock_, as “an able but prejudiced man who had a most pronounced aversion to French Canadians and Roman Catholics,” and by DeCelles, _Papineau_, as “the prototype of those gloomy, cold-blooded fanatics who, under the pretext of safeguarding the interests of England, strove in every way to destroy the rights of the French Canadians.” His influence with both governors seems to have been unfortunate, so far as the welfare of the country was concerned. “His pet scheme,” says Lady Edgar, “to which he tried to commit the governor, was to break the power of the Roman Catholic church by taking away its endowments, and by making the priesthood dependent on executive authority.” Sent to London in 1810 to confer with the home government as to certain proposed changes in the constitution, including the suppression of the assembly. His mission was a failure. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Edgar, _General Brock_; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_. =Ryswick, Treaty of.= Signed, September 20th, 1697; brought peace between Great Britain and France. Provided for the mutual restoration of all places taken by either party during the war; the appointment of commissioners to determine their respective rights in Hudson Bay; formally recognized William III as sovereign of Great Britain. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_; _Dict. Eng. Hist._ =Sabine. Sir Edward= (1786-1883). Born in England. Took part in the War of 1812-1814, commanding the batteries at the siege of Fort Erie, 1814. Accompanied Ross and Parry to the Arctic, 1818-1819. As the result of years of careful observation, he made important discoveries leading up to the accurate determination of the figure of the earth, one of the fruits of his researches being the establishment of magnetic observatories in Great Britain and the Colonies. Rose to rank of general; became president of the British Association, and a fellow of the Royal Society, 1818-1883. Sabine township, Ontario, named after him. =Bib.=: Gardiner, _Nothing but Names_. =Sable Island.= Off the coast of Nova Scotia. It was known from about the beginning of the sixteenth century as Santa Cruz, and so appears on Reinel’s map of 1505, and on the Cabot _mappemonde_ of 1544. An Italian cartographer (1548) calls it Isolla del Arena. First appears under its present name on a map of Joannes Freire, dated 1546. Sir Humphrey Gilbert sailed for the island in 1583, and lost one of his ships among its treacherous shoals. He mentions that above thirty years before, the Portuguese had placed neat cattle and swine upon it to breed, and that these had multiplied exceedingly. In 1598 La Roche left fifty convicts upon the island, while he explored the coast, but his little ship was blown out to sea, and he returned to France without them. Five years later a ship was sent out to rescue the survivors, eleven in all. The earliest description of the island is in De Laet’s _Novus Orbis_, 1633. It is at present twenty miles long, by about a mile wide, and is wasting away rapidly. At the end of the eighteenth century, it was forty miles long by two and a half wide; and when white men first visited the island, it must have been of quite a considerable size. Records exist of something over 187 wrecks, and this does not begin to represent the actual tribute in ships to this “Graveyard of the Atlantic.” =Bib.=: Patterson, _Sable Island: Its History and Phenomena_ (R. S. C., 1894); McDonald, _Sable Island and Its Attendant Phenomena_ (N. S. Inst, of Science _Trans._, vi.); Taché, _Les Sablons_; Paul de Cazes, _Ile de Sable_ (R. S. C., 1892). =Sackville, George Sackville Germain, first Viscount= (1716-1785). Served with distinction at Fontenoy, 1745; major-general, 1755; lieutenant-general of the ordnance, 1757; second in command of St. Malo expedition, 1758; dismissed from the service for gross incompetence at Minden, 1760; secretary of state for colonies, 1775-1782. Bradley, _Dorchester_, describes him as “haughty, narrow-minded, mean and revengeful to a degree, and ‘as bellicose in council as pacific in the field.’” He “had an old grudge against Carleton... was self-willed in proportion to his ignorance and to his utter unfitness to direct a campaign upon American soil.” He was colonial secretary during both Haldimand’s and Carleton’s governorships. He was as ignorant of conditions in Canada as in the revolting colonies to the south, and seems to have been a thorn in the flesh to both Haldimand and Dorchester. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Sagard-Théodat, Gabriel.= Récollet missionary. Came out to New France in the days of Champlain. In 1624 he returned to France with Champlain and Pont-Gravé; came out again the following year, and went with Le Caron and Viel to the Huron mission. He wintered there, and in 1625 again sailed for France. His books are valuable as a contemporary account of New France and the Huron missions in the days of Champlain. =Bib.=: _Histoire du Canada_; _Grand Voyage au pays des Hurons_. _See also_ Dionne, _Champlain_. =Saguenay River.= One of the principal tributaries of the St. Lawrence. Rises at the head waters of the Peribonka in lat. 52° N. and long. 71° 10’ W., and joins the St. Lawrence after a course of 405 miles. It was discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1535. Its original Indian name was Chicoutimi, signifying “deep water.” Champlain ascended the river to Chicoutimi in 1603; and Jolliet in 1679 to the height of land. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_; Burpee, _By Canadian Streams_; _Atlas of Canada_; Tremblay, _Les premiéres pages de l’histoire du Saguenay_ (Can. Hist. Assn. _Report_, 1925). =Sailing Vessels on Great Lakes.= The earliest on the lakes above Niagara was La Salle’s _Griffon_, 1679 (_q.v._). La Salle had built a smaller vessel on Lake Ontario a year or two earlier and Longueuil built a small barque there about 1715. The first on Lake Superior was La Ronde’s boat built at Sault Ste. Marie, about 1737, in connection with his search for copper mines. In 1771 Alexander Henry built a sloop of forty tons at Point aux Pins on Lake Superior, while also in search of copper mines. In 1785 the North West Company built the _Beaver_ on Lake Huron, and the following year another schooner on Lake Superior. About the beginning of the next century the X Y Company also had a vessel on Lake Huron. All these schooners were engaged in bringing trading goods and supplies from Detroit to Sault Ste. Marie and from there to the west end of Lake Superior, and carrying back bales of furs. In 1804 the _Nancy_, _Caledonia_ and _Charlotte_ were engaged in this service on the upper lakes. _See also_ Nancy. =Bib.=: Mackenzie, _Voyages_; Henry, _Travels and Adventures_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii, xix; Harmon, _Journal_; Davidson. _North West Company_. =St. Andrews.= Seaport of New Brunswick, and the chief town of Charlotte County. Founded by American Loyalists in 1783, and was for some time only an outbay of St. John, but in 1822 became a separate and free port. Incorporated as a town in 1903. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_; Ganong, _Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick_ (R. S. C., 1896). =St.-Castin, Jean-Vincent d’Abbadie, Baron de= (1650-1712). Native of Béarn; came to Canada, 1665, with the Carignan-Salières Regiment, as an ensign in the company of Chambly. Took part in the expedition of De Courcelle, and when his regiment was disbanded in 1668, removed to Acadia, established a trading house at Pentegoet (now Castine), and roamed far and wide through the woods with the natives, over whom he gained an extraordinary ascendency. The post at Pentegoet was raided by parties of New Englanders in 1686 and 1687, who stripped the stores of everything portable. In 1696, with a party of Indians, St. Castin assisted Iberville in the capture of Pemaquid. In 1702 he drew up a plan for attacking Boston, which, however, was never acted upon. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_; Charlevoix, _History of New France_. =St. Catharines.= City in Lincoln county, Ontario. Named after Catharine Askin Robertson, first wife of Robert Hamilton. Founded about 1796. Incorporated as a town in 1845, and as a city in 1876. Robert Hamilton was a member of the first executive council of Upper Canada in 1791, and the first judge of the district of Nassau, which extended from the Bay of Quinte to Long point, Lake Erie. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_; Ker, _St. George’s Parish_. =St. Clair, Arthur= (1734-1818). Born in Scotland, he entered the army in 1757, and came to America, serving under Amherst at Louisbourg in 1758 and under Wolfe at Quebec in 1759. On the outbreak of the Revolution he took the colonial side; was given command of a Pennsylvania regiment, and served with Sullivan in the invasion of Canada. Promoted brigadier-general in 1777. In command at Ticonderoga the same year, and compelled to retreat by Burgoyne. Court-martialled but acquitted. Sent to the Northwest territory as governor. In 1791 his army was crushingly defeated by the Indians. =Bib.=: _St. Clair Papers_; _Cyc. Amer. Biog._ =St. Clair Lake.= The Indians had told Champlain that the sea was just above Lake Erie, or what they described as Lake Erie. Hence when Sanson prepared his map of 1656 he showed Lake St. Clair as _Lac des Eaux de Mer_. Dollier de Casson and Galinée were the first white men to navigate its waters. The lake is 445 square miles in area. It is connected with Lake Huron by the St. Clair river and with Lake Erie by the Detroit river. The present name was given by La Salle in 1679 because he reached the lake on the feast of St. Claire. Bowen’s map has “Lake St. Clare.” =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =St. Clair River.= Discharges the waters of Lake Huron into Lake St. Clair. The Ontario town of Sarnia and the Michigan town of Port Huron stand upon its banks. About 1685 DuLhut had built fort St. Joseph on the river. He was succeeded in command of the post by the Baron de Lahontan, 1687. In the spring of 1688 Lahontan abandoned the post, burned the fort, and retired with his little garrison to Michilimackinac. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Ste. Croix Island.= Near the entrance to the Bay of Fundy; discovered by Champlain and De Monts in 1604, who in that year erected buildings and fortifications on the island. Scurvy breaking out among the French colonists, they soon afterwards removed from the island to Port Royal. The foundations of these buildings were uncovered in 1797, settling a boundary dispute between New Brunswick and Maine in favour of the former. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Ste. Croix River.= Also known as Schoodiac and Passamaquoddy. Rises in Grand Lake on the borders between Maine and New Brunswick, and flows into Passamaquoddy Bay. It was discovered by Champlain in 1604. For some distance it constitutes the international boundary between Canada and the United States. =St. Eloi, Battle of.= In March and April, 1916, the Canadians struggled for several weeks to gain and hold possession of a series of huge craters at St. Eloi, in the Ypres salient. The conditions were heart-breaking, the ground being everywhere but a quagmire from the constant rains. The craters repeatedly changed hands, but eventually it was found physically impossible for either side to hold them. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_, v. iii. =Ste. Foy, Battle of.= Murray, who had been left in command of Quebec in 1759, found himself the following spring with about 3,000 men fit for duty. In April Lévis assembled at Montreal about double that force, brought them down the river, and established himself between Lorette and Ste. Foy. Murray, having little confidence in the fortifications of Quebec, marched out to meet the French. His initial attack met with some success, but Lévis was too strong for him, the British got into difficulties on soft ground, and eventually were forced into a disorderly retreat back to the town. Lévis, with the aid of some guns brought up from the French ships, bombarded Quebec, but a few days later the appearance of a British fleet turned the tables, the siege was raised and Lévis retreated to Montreal. _See also_ Quebec, Siege of, 1759; Quebec, Siege of, 1760; Lévis; Murray. =Bib.=: Wood, _Winning of Canada_; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Casgram, _Wolfe, Montcalm_; Bradley, _Fight with France_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =St. Francis Xavier College.= Located at Antigonish, Nova Scotia. Diocesan institution, known as Arichat College, opened at Arichat, 1853. Transferred to Antigonish and established as St. Francis Xavier College, 1855. University powers conferred by Act of the Legislature of Nova Scotia, 1866. =St. George, Sir Thomas Bligh= (1765-1837). Born in England. Entered the army and rose to the rank of major-general, 1819. Came to Canada, 1809, as inspecting field officer of militia in Upper Canada; commanded at Amherstburg when it was attacked by Hull in 1812; commanded militia at the capture of Detroit; and defeated Winchester at Raisin River, 1813. Knighted, 1835. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =St. Germain-en-Laye, Treaty of.= Signed between France and Great Britain on March 29th, 1632. Restored Quebec, Port Royal, and the island of Cape Breton to France. De Caën was to supply and equip a vessel of 200 tons to bring to England the English who were at those three places. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_. =St. Hyacinthe.= City in the province of Quebec, on the Yamaska river. Founded, 1760. Incorporated as a town in 1850, and as a city in 1857. Named after Hyacinthe Simon Delorme, who, in 1753, purchased the seigniory of St. Hyacinthe from Pierre François de Rigaud, seignior of Vaudreuil, to whom it had been granted in 1748. Bouchette mentions it as a village of eighty or ninety houses in 1815. =Bib.=: White, _Place-Names in Quebec_; Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_. =St. John.= City and seaport of New Brunswick, situated at the mouth of the St. John River. It was incorporated as the city of St. John in 1785, during the administration of Thomas Carleton. having previously been known as Parrtown, so named after John Parr, governor of Nova Scotia. Founded by United Empire Loyalists in 1784. Champlain was the first white man to stand upon its site, in 1604. See also Fort Charnisay; Fort La Tour. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of the Loyalists_; Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_. =St. John Island.= _See_ Prince Edward Island. =St. John River.= Flows into the Bay of Fundy. For about one hundred miles it forms the international boundary between Maine and New Brunswick and Quebec. Its total length is about four hundred miles. Discovered by Champlain in 1604. La Tour had a fort at the mouth of the river, which was captured by Charnisay. At the close of the Revolutionary war large numbers of United Empire Loyalists settled in the valley of the St. John, on whose upper waters there were already established a number of Acadians. Fredericton, the capital of New Brunswick, and St. John, its chief seaport, are both situated on the St. John. =Bib.=: Bailey, _The St. John River_; Raymond, _History of the River St. John, 1604-1784_. =St. John’s.= Capital of Newfoundland. Founded in 1582 by Sir Humphrey Gilbert. It was captured by Iberville in 1696, and again during the Seven Years’ War, but finally reverted to Britain, with the rest of the island, in 1763. =Bib.=: Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Rogers, _Newfoundland_. =St. Johns.= A city on the Richelieu river, province of Quebec. Probably named after Jean Fréderick Phélypeaux, Count de Pontchartrain, who was French minister of marine when the fort was originally built here in 1748. It was a military station during the American invasion; captured by Arnold in 1775; and relieved by Preston with troops from Montreal. Later in the same year, the fort was besieged by Montgomery, and the little garrison held out gallantly for twenty-four days, being forced to surrender in the end through the capture of Chambly, which gave Montgomery fresh ammunition and supplies. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_. =St. Julien, Battle of.= April 22nd-26th, 1915. Memorable as marking the first use of gas by the Germans as an offensive weapon. The battle of St. Julien was really part of the Second Battle of Ypres, April 22nd to May 13th. It was the Canadian end of the larger conflict. The Canadian lines ran through flat country difficult to defend, and it was one of the critical points where the Germans, if they broke through, would probably force their way to the coast, with all the tremendous consequences that would be involved. At 5 p.m. on March 22nd, the Germans launched great masses of asphyxiating gas. The French Turcos and Zouaves on the left fled in panic, and the Third Canadian Brigade was left with one flank ‘dangling in the air,’ while 150,000 Germans poured into the gap. General Turner at once drew his lines down toward St. Julien, to face the enemy. The Canadian lines bent, but they did not break. The afternoon of the 24th, a second gas attack was launched. Throughout these days of horror the First and Second, as well as the Third, Brigades upheld the finest traditions of their own land and the Motherland. “Attacked and outflanked by four Divisions,” says Buchan, “stupified with a poison of which they had never dreamed, and which they did not understand, with no heavy artillery to support them, they endured till reinforcements came, and they did more than endure. After days and nights of tension they had the vitality to counter-attack. When called upon they cheerfully returned to the inferno they had left. If the Salient of Ypres will be for all time the classic battle-ground of Britain, that blood-stained segment between the Poelcapelle and Zonnebeke roads will remain the holy land of Canadian arms.” =Bib.=: Buchan, _History of the War_, vi. =St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway.= Chartered in 1845 to connect the St. Lawrence at Montreal with a line extending from Portland, Maine, to the international boundary. Afterwards became a part of the Grand Trunk system. This, like other railways of the time, was largely due to the stimulating policy of the then finance minister, Francis Hincks. =Bib.=: Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_. =St. Lawrence Gulf.= The first authenticated voyage to the gulf is that of Jacques Cartier, in 1534. In his second voyage, of 1535-1536. Cartier made further discoveries. On August 10th, 1535, he sailed into what is now known as Pillage Bay, on the Labrador coast of the gulf. As this was the feast of St. Lawrence, he named the bay _Baye Sainct Laurens_. Since then the name has gradually spread until it embraces the whole gulf, and the great river that empties its waters there. =Bib.=: Dawson, _The St. Lawrence Basin_. =St. Lawrence Island.= _See_ Cape Breton. =St. Lawrence River.= Name first given by Cartier in 1535 to a bay in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and extended gradually to the gulf and the river. Rises at the source of the St. Louis river, west end of Lake Superior, and falls into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. West of Lake Ontario the river is known by different names, and the St. Lawrence proper issues from the lake. Cartier explored the river in 1535, as far as the island of Montreal, and in 1541 to the second rapid above Hochelaga. Le Moyne in 1654 was the first white man to ascend the upper St. Lawrence, in the attempt to establish an Iroquois mission. =Bib.=: Dawson, _The St. Lawrence Basin_; Johnson, _Picturesque St. Lawrence_; Russell, _Rivers of North America_; _Atlas of Canada_; Holgate, _The Upper St. Lawrence_. =St. Lawrence Ship Channel.= Its history goes back to 1825, when John Young and other public-spirited citizens began an agitation for the improvement of the St. Lawrence below Montreal. It ranks as one of the great dredging projects of the world. In 1826 the question of the ship channel was taken up by a committee of the Legislature. In 1831 on request of Sir James Kempt, and by instructions of the Admiralty, Captain Bayfield made a survey and report. There were delays in getting the necessary charts made, and from this and other causes nothing further was done until 1841 when, on the report of a committee of the Legislature, a sum of money was voted to begin the work. Dredging actually began in 1844, but was discontinued in 1847 because of differences of opinion as to the most advantageous channel. In 1850 it was taken up again by the Montreal harbour commissioners, and work began the following year in the natural channel. In 1857 a depth of eighteen feet had been obtained through Lake St. Peter. In 1860 the channel improvements were taken over as a national work. A depth of twenty-two feet had been attained in 1878; of twenty-five feet in 1882; in 1899 work was begun on the thirty-foot channel; and in 1910 on the thirty-five-foot channel. The work remained under the jurisdiction of the harbour commissioners to 1888, when it was transferred to the Dominion department of public works; in 1904 it was taken over by the department of marine and fisheries. The total expenditure down to 1925 was about $28,000,000. =Bib.=: _Ship Channel between Montreal and Quebec_, 1884; and the annual reports of the departments of Public Works and Marine and Fisheries. =St. Leger, Barry.= Sent by Germaine in 1777 with six hundred men to force Fort Stanwix, on the Mohawk, and join Burgoyne on the Hudson. His route was by the St. Lawrence to Oswego, up the Oswego river to lake Oneida, by portage to the Mohawk at Fort Stanwix. His force included the New York Loyalists under Sir John Johnson, and a company of Rangers under John Butler. There were also eight hundred Indians, under Colonel Claus and Joseph Brant. The fort was garrisoned with seven hundred and fifty men under Colonel Gansevoort. St. Leger laid siege to the fort. Meanwhile American reinforcements of about eight hundred men were on their way. These were cleverly ambushed by Johnson and Brant, and Herkimer lost more than half his force. This is known as the battle of Oriskany. St. Léger, however, could do nothing with the fort, and finally returned to Oswego and Montreal. From there Governor Carleton sent him to Ticonderoga to help Burgoyne. In 1781 he was sent by Haldimand with a thousand men to occupy Crown Point. Three years later he was in command of the garrison at Quebec with the rank of brigadier-general, and in 1785 became commander-in-chief of the troops in Canada. =Bib.=: Lucas, _History of Canada, 1763-1812_; McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_. =St. Lusson, Simon François d’Aumont de.= Sent by the intendant Talon in 1670, with Nicolas Perrot, to take formal possession of the west for France. They wintered on the shores of Georgian Bay, where among other things St. Lusson enjoyed some splendid moose hunting. In May, 1671, the party reached Sault Ste. Marie, and in June, before a large gathering of representatives of seventeen tribes, and with elaborate ceremonial, St. Lusson took possession of the west in the name of Louis XIV. Thereafter he visited the various posts and missions, and on his return made a report on their condition. Between 1672 and 1674 he was in Acadia. Died about the latter year. =Bib.=: Margry, _Découvertes et Etablissements des Français_; _New York Col. Docs._, ix; Blair, _Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi_; Kellogg, _Early Narratives_. =St. Maurice Forges.= Were situated on the river St. Maurice, about nine miles above Three Rivers, Quebec. Iron ore was discovered on the banks of the St. Maurice in 1666, but the mines were not systematically worked until 1733, when a company was formed and forges established. In 1681 government engineers made an examination of the deposits of bog ore in the valley. A blast furnace and a walloon hearth were erected in 1742 and enlarged in 1752. Portions of the latter are still standing with the date and fleur de lis of France on them. The furnace was in use more or less up to 1883, and in that year the oldest blast furnace on the continent was closed and the work transferred to Radnor a few miles away. During the governorship of Carleton the forges had turned out forty thousand weight of bar iron annually. In the American Invasion of 1775-1776, Livingstone had guns cast there for Montgomery and Arnold. Haldimand, when he was in command at Three Rivers, thriftily used the forges to smelt a quantity of worn-out guns and bombs into bars of serviceable iron. Peter Kalm, the Swedish naturalist, had visited the forges in 1749. _See also_ General Index to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. =Bib.=: McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; Sulte, _Les Forges Saint-Maurice_. =St. Maurice River.= Probably named after Maurice Poulin, sieur de la Fontaine. One of the tributaries of the St. Lawrence, rises in the height of land near the head waters of the Nottaway, and falls into the St. Lawrence at Three Rivers, after a course of 325 miles. During the seventeenth century it was much infested by Iroquois; and the French were constantly at war with them in its neighbourhood. It was first seen by Cartier in 1535, and named by him the Rivière du Fouez, or Rivière du Foix, no doubt after the celebrated Counts of Foix. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_; _Atlas of Canada_; Sulte, _La Rivière des Trois-Rivières_ (R. S. C., 1901). =St. Ours, Charles Louis Roch de= (1753-1834). Entered public life on the establishment of civil government in Canada, and appointed a member of the Legislative Council, where he voiced the views of the French-Canadian majority. Appointed major of militia, 1774, and served with Carleton, 1776, as his aide-de-camp. Travelled in Europe in 1785; and on his return to Canada took an important part in public affairs. Followed Papineau’s leadership. Opposed union of the Canadas. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =St. Ours, François-Xavier de= (1717-1759). Served in the campaigns of 1758 and 1759; severely wounded in the attack on Fort George; commended by Montcalm for conspicuous bravery in the battle of Carillon; and commanded the right wing of the French army on the Plains of Abraham, where he was mortally wounded. Bib.; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =St. Ours.= _See_ Deschaillons. =St. Peter’s Canal.= Connects the strait or gut of Canso with the Bras d’Or lakes, Cape Breton. Built in 1869, and improved in 1912 and 1917. Has one tidal lock with a depth of eighteen feet. =St. Pierre.= _See_ Le Gardeur de Saint-Pierre. =St. Pierre.= An island on the southern coast of Newfoundland, which, with the Miquelon Islands immediately north-west, constitute all that remains of New France still under French government. From 1635 alternately under British and French control until 1816, when finally ceded to France. =St. Regis Indians.= A band of Roman Catholic Iroquois from Caughnawaga, Quebec, who settled about 1755 in the village of St. Regis, on the south bank of the St. Lawrence, on what afterwards became the boundary line between Canada and the United States. =St. Sacrament Lake.= _See_ Lake George. =St. Thomas.= City in Elgin county, Ontario. Named after Colonel Thomas Talbot (_q.v._) who settled in the county in 1803. The first two log houses on the site of the city were built about 1810. Seven years later it is described by Ermatinger as a small hamlet, at one time known as Stirling. Incorporated as a city in 1881. =Bib.=; Ermatinger, _The Talbot Régime_. =St. Vallier, Jean Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières= (1653-1747). Was Knight of Malta, King’s almoner. Born at Grenoble. Came to Canada in 1685 as vicar-general under Laval. Succeeded Laval as bishop of Quebec, 1688. Returning from France in 1704, on the _La Seine_, taken prisoner by the English and detained in England until 1709. Returned to France, spent four years there, and finally arrived in Quebec in 1713. Remained in charge of his huge diocese until his death. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_; _St. Vallier et l’Hôpital General de Quebec_; Parkman, _Old Régime_; La Chesnaye-Desbois, _Dictionnaire de la noblesse française_, vol. vi, p. 547. =Salaberry, Charles Michel d’Irumberry de= (1778-1829). Born at Beauport, near Quebec. Entered the British army; served for eleven years under General Robert Prescott; and in 1794 took part in the capture of Martinique. In 1809 served in Ireland; and in 1810 took part in the Walcheren expedition. In 1811 major and aide-de-camp to General Rottenburg in Canada. At the outbreak of the American War of 1812, promoted lieutenant-colonel, and rendered good service as commander of the Canadian Voltigeurs. On October 26th, 1813, defeated the American forces under General Hampton at Châteauguay, the outcome of this action being to compel the invaders to evacuate Lower Canada. For these services made a C. B. In 1818 elected to the Legislative Assembly. _See also_ Châteauguay. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Salisbury Island.= In the western entrance to Hudson Strait. Foxe in his narrative says of the island—“So named by my predecessor Hudson, after the Right Honourable and not to be forgot, Robert Cicell, Earle of Salisbury, the Lord High Treasurer of England.” Sir Robert Cecil, 14th Earl of Salisbury (1563-1612) was Principal secretary of state from 1596 to 1612. =Bib.=: White, _Place-Names in Northern Canada_. =Sanctuary Wood.= One of the outstanding incidents of the holding of the Ypres Salient in 1916 was the battle of Sanctuary Wood. Toward the end of May Sir Julian Byng had taken command of the Canadians. The battle opened with an unprecedented concentration of heavy German guns on June 2nd, one of the most serious results of the bombardment being the loss of Generals Mercer and Williams, the former being killed and the latter wounded and captured. The Germans followed their bombardment by advancing in dense masses against the Canadian positions. For the next three days the tide of battle moved back and forth, but, in spite of tremendous odds against them, the Canadians held their positions and slightly improved them. “They had reclaimed what had been written off as lost by General Headquarters, and had established a line which was now dangerous to the enemy as a possible jumping-off place for a fresh attack by us.” =Bib.=: Hill, _Holding the Salient_ (_Canada in the Great World War_, v. iii.). =Sandwich.= A town in Essex county, Ontario; first settled in 1750 by the soldiers of a disbanded French regiment. One of them is said to have sold his hundred acres of splendid land for a flitch of bacon. It was subsequently named after the town of Sandwich, in Kent, England. The fort here held a small garrison in 1812. It was occupied by General Hull that year, and subsequently evacuated. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_. =San Juan Boundary.= Dispute arose between the United States and Great Britain out of a difference of opinion as to the meaning of the phrase “middle of the channel which separates the continent from Vancouver Island” in the treaty of 1846, and by which the rightful possession of San Juan and other islands in the vicinity for years remained unsettled. A compromise was made in 1859, both governments jointly occupying San Juan with troops. Finally, by the Washington Treaty of 1871, the question was referred to the arbitration of the German emperor, who decided in favour of the United States. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_; White, _Boundary Disputes and Treaties_ (_Canada and its Provinces_); Milton, _History of the San Juan Water Boundary Question_. =San Juan Island.= Haro strait, state of Washington, east of the south-eastern end of Vancouver Island. Named in 1791 by the Spanish commander Eliza, and appeared for the first time on his chart of that year. Also known at different times as Rodger’s Island, and Bellevue Island. _See also_ San Juan Boundary. =Bib.=: Mayne, _Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island_. =Sarnia.= City of Lambton county, Ontario. Surveyed, laid out and first settled in 1833. In its early days known as The Rapids. Name changed in 1836 to Port Sarnia, the name being the Roman name of the island of Guernsey, where Sir John Colborne was governor before he came to Canada. Present name adopted, 1886. Incorporated as a town in 1856 and as a city in 1914. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Saskatchewan.= Organized as a provisional district in 1882. It then extended from long. 111° 20’ W. to the Manitoba boundary and Lake Winnipeg, and from the northern boundary of the district of Assiniboia, to the southern boundary of Athabaska. The province of Saskatchewan, created in 1905, extends from long. 110° on the west to the Manitoba boundary on the east, extended north to lat. 60°, which forms the northern boundary of the new province. The capital of the province is Regina, former capital of the North-West Territories, Area 243,381 square miles. Population by the census of 1921—757,510. _See also_ North-West Territories. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_; Black, _History of Saskatchewan_. =Saskatchewan Rebellion.= _See_ Riel Rebellion, 1885. =Saskatchewan River.= Ultimate source is at the head waters of the Bow river, about lat. 51° 40’, in the heart of the Rocky Mountains. After a course of 1,205 miles, it flows into Lake Winnipeg, finally discharging its waters by the Nelson into Hudson Bay. The length of the South Saskatchewan to its junction with the North Saskatchewan at the Forks is 865 miles; and of the North Saskatchewan, which rises in the watershed range of the Rocky Mountains, near the source of the Athabaska, is 760 miles. La Vérendrye, or one of his sons, reached the river, then known as the Pasquia, or Poskoyac, in 1748, and built Fort Bourbon on the shores of Cedar Lake. He ascended the river to the Forks, a few miles below which he built Fort Poskoyac. In 1751 a party of French explorers ascended one of the branches to a point some hundreds of miles beyond Fort Poskoyac, where they built Fort La Jonquière. Anthony Hendry reached the Saskatchewan from Hudson Bay in 1754; and descended the river from the upper waters of the Red Deer to the Pas. Matthew Cocking followed him in 1772-1773. Many trading posts were afterwards built at different points on the two branches, both by the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; Tyrrell, _Report on Northern Alberta_ (Geol. Survey, 1886); Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Hind, _Canadian Red River_ and _Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Expeditions_. =Saskatchewan, University of.= Act passed establishing the university, 1907. Board of Governors decided to fix location of university at Saskatoon, 1909. Dr. Walter C. Murray first president. The university devotes particular attention to agriculture in all its branches. =Saskatoon.= City in the province of Saskatchewan, on the South Saskatchewan river. The name, after the saskatoon or service berry that grows abundantly in the neighbourhood, was given by John N. Lake in 1882. The townsite was surveyed by Frank L Blake in 1883; and the first post office opened, 1884. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Sauk Indians.= An Algonquian tribe, closely related to the Foxes, and also to the Mascouten and Kickapoo. They lived on Saginaw Bay of Lake Huron, when white men first came in contact with them. Fled before the Iroquois to the western side of Lake Michigan. Visited by Perrot in 1668 on Green Bay. He describes them as brutal and unruly, good hunters, but very unskilful with a canoe. Moved with the Foxes to Detroit in 1710, on the invitation of Cadillac, but subsequently returned to Green Bay. Villiers killed at one of their villages in 1733. Langlade opened trade with them in 1746. The Sauk moved later to what is now Iowa; from there to Kansas; and finally to Indian Territory in 1867. They were estimated to number 750 in 1736; 2,250 in 1783; 2,500 in 1834. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Sault Ste. Marie.= Twin towns on either side of the St. Mary’s river, near the outlet of Lake Superior. The first white men to visit the place would appear to be Brûlé and another interpreter named Grenoble, who described Lake Superior to the Récollet missionary Gabriel Sagard in 1623. Brûlé’s journey must have been about 1620. Nicolet probably also passed the same spot in 1634. The first recorded visit is, however, that of Isaac Jogues and Charles Raymbault, Jesuit missionaries, in 1641. It was at this time the beautiful rapids and the river received their name. Radisson, Jolliet, DuLhut, La Vérendrye, and many other famous travellers, passed this way from time to time. The first Jesuit mission dated from 1668, and was established by Father Jacques Marquette. Galinée and Dollier de Casson were there in 1670, and found a number of fur traders already on the spot. The following year St. Lusson met representatives of all the surrounding tribes, and with elaborate ceremonies took possession of the country. Sault Ste. Marie has known a succession of trading posts, French, British and American, merging finally into the towns of the present day. =Bib.=: Johnson, _Michigan Fur Trade_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_; Newton, _Story of Sault Ste. Marie_; Fowle, _Sault Ste. Marie and its Great Waterway_. =Sault Ste. Marie Canals.= The earliest canal here was built by the North West Company in 1798, for the purpose of getting their boats and canoes around the rapids. The lock was destroyed by the Americans in the War of 1812-1814, and has recently been restored for the sake of its historical interest. The first ship canal was built on the United States side of the river in 1853-1855. It has since been superseded by four immense locks of modern type, built at intervals between 1881 and 1919. The Canadian canal was completed in 1895, with a lock 900 feet long and 60 feet wide with a depth of over 18 feet. =Saunders, Sir Charles= (1713-1775). Born in Scotland. Entered the navy in 1727, becoming lieutenant in 1734. In 1739-1740 served under Lord Anson. Stationed in home waters in 1745, and on October 14th, 1747, took part in Hawke’s victory over the French. In 1750 elected member of parliament for Plymouth. In 1752 commodore and commander-in-chief on the Newfoundland station; in 1755 comptroller of the navy; and, in 1756, rear-admiral. In 1758 he took part in the siege and capture of Louisbourg. In 1759 Pitt appointed him commander-in-chief of the fleet which coöperated with Wolfe in the siege of Quebec, with the rank of vice-admiral of the blue, and his operations in the St. Lawrence largely contributed to the success of the British arms. In 1760 commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean; in 1761 created K.B.; in 1765 a lord of the admiralty; in 1766 first lord; and in 1770 reached the rank of admiral. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _Logs of the Conquest of Canada_ and _The Fight for Canada_; Bradley, _The Fight with France_. =Saunders, John= (1754-1834). United Empire Loyalist. Born in Virginia. Joined the royal forces, raised a troop of horse, and served throughout the War of Independence. He had a commission in the Queen’s Rangers under Simcoe. In 1780 commanded the garrison at Georgetown, South Carolina. At the peace he went to England; studied law, and called to the bar. In 1790 appointed judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, and a member of the Council; from 1822 to 1834 chief-justice of the province. His estates in Virginia were confiscated. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Saunders, John Simcoe= (1795-1878). Born in Fredericton, New Brunswick. Went to England; educated at Oxford University. Called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1819, and to that of Lower Canada, 1820. Surveyor-general of New Brunswick, 1840; advocate-general, and provincial secretary, 1845. Appointed to the Legislative Council, of which he became president, 1866; also senior justice of the Court of Common Pleas. =Bib.=: _The Law of Pleading and Evidence in Civil Actions_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Annual Register_, 1878; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_; Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Schank, John= (1740-1823). Born in Scotland. Entered the navy, 1758. Commanded the _Canso_ in the St. Lawrence, 1766. Placed in charge of the naval establishment at St. Johns; succeeded in launching several small war vessels on Lake Champlain. Subsequently had charge of the marine depots at Quebec and at Detroit; and in 1777 employed under Burgoyne in the construction of floating bridges. In 1780 was employed superintending the building of gunboats for lake Ontario. Gave evidence against Du Calvet. Returned to England with Haldimand in 1784. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Schreiber, Collingwood.= Born in Essex, England, in 1831. Came to Canada in 1852, and employed on engineering staff of Toronto and Hamilton Railway. Associated with Sandford Fleming in private engineering practice in Toronto, 1856-1860. Superintending engineer of Northern Railway, 1860-1863. Employed on construction of the Pictou Railway, 1863-1867; and in various capacities on the Intercolonial Railway surveys and construction, 1867-1873. Chief engineer and general manager of Government railways, 1873; and in 1880 succeeded Sandford Fleming as chief engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1892 appointed deputy minister of Railways and Canals for Canada; and in 1905 consulting engineer to the Dominion government. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Schultz, Sir John Christian= (1840-1896). Born in Amherstburg, Ontario. Educated at Oberlin College, Ohio; studied medicine at Queen’s and Victoria Universities; licensed to practise, 1860. Removed to Fort Garry, 1860, and began practice of his profession there. Also engaged in the fur trade. Owner and editor of the _Nor’Wester_, the pioneer newspaper of the Canadian West. Played an important part in the Riel Rebellion of 1869-1870. Imprisoned by the rebels, but made his escape, and, after enduring many hardships, reached Toronto. Elected to the House of Commons at the first election after the formation of the province of Manitoba, and sat almost continuously until 1883, when he was called to the Senate. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1888-1895. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Begg, _History of the North-West_. =Schurman, Jacob Gould.= Born in Freetown, Prince Edward Island, 1854. Educated at Prince of Wales College, Charlottetown, Acadia College, University of London, Heidelberg and Göttingen. Professor of English literature and political economy at Acadia, 1880-1882; and of metaphysics and English literature at Dalhousie, 1882-1886. In the latter year, became head of the department of philosophy of Cornell university; and, in 1892, president of the university. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Schuyler, Peter= (1657-1724). Born in Albany. Appointed lieutenant in the militia, 1685, and served in the colonial and Indian wars. In 1709 second in command of the expedition against Montreal. Became president of the Council, 1719; and acted as governor of New York until 1720. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Schuyler, Philip John= (1733-1804). Born in Albany. Served in the French and Indian War, 1755, and took part in battle of Lake George. Resigned from the army, 1757, and again served, 1758-1761. On the breaking out of the Revolution, took the colonial side, and in 1775 appointed major-general by Congress. Organized the invasion of Canada in 1775, and was court-martialled for the evacuation of Ticonderoga in 1777, but acquitted. Served in House of Representatives and afterwards in the Senate. =Bib.=: Lossing, _Life and Times of Philip Schuyler_; _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Scotch in Canada.= The most important area of Scottish influence in what is now Canada is, of course, Nova Scotia. It is recorded that in 1620, replying to James I who had sought his advice in regard to the settlement of Acadia, Sir William Alexander wrote, “My countrymen would never adventure in such an enterprise unless it were, as there was, a New France, a New Spaine, and a New England, that they might likewise have a New Scotland.” The king agreed to the name, and made Sir William Alexander hereditary lieutenant of the new colony. In the next few years the latter sent out several ships with emigrants from Scotland to Port Royal, but the Scotch were slow to take up the new venture. The settlement of Pictou was made by Scotch from Philadelphia in 1765, and by the _Hector_ with her cargo of Highlanders in 1773. From that date a fairly steady stream of Scots flowed into New Scotland, notably Cape Breton. A considerable percentage of the United Empire Loyalists in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were of this stock; as were also the colonists Selkirk brought to Prince Edward Island in 1803. The Glengarry settlements in Upper Canada, and the Red River Colony, are characteristic examples of Scottish enterprise. It may also be noted that most of the leaders of the fur trade, in both the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company, were of this race. The census of 1921 shows 1,173,637 people in Canada, of Scottish origin, the largest number being in Ontario, with Nova Scotia, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and British Columbia following in that order. =Scott Act.= The popular name given to the Temperance Act introduced by (Sir) R. W. Scott and passed by the Dominion government in 1878. Its principal provisions were that on a petition of one-fourth of the electors of a city or county, a vote was to be taken, and if a majority of the votes polled were in favour of the act, it came into force at the close of the then current license year. _See also_ Prohibition. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Scott, Sir Richard William= (1825-1913). Born in Prescott, Ontario. Educated privately, and studied law; in 1848 called to the bar and practised with success in Ottawa. Elected mayor of Bytown (now Ottawa) in 1852. Sat in the Legislative Assembly, 1857-1863. A member of the first Legislature of Ontario, 1867-1873; in 1871 elected Speaker; and in 1872 appointed commissioner of crown lands. Called to the Senate in 1874. Secretary of state and registrar-general of Canada in Mackenzie ministry, 1874-1878. In 1878 introduced the Temperance Act, more commonly known as the Scott Act, which constitutes his principal title to a place among Canadian legislators. In 1896 secretary of state in Laurier government, which position he held until 1908; knighted, 1909. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Scott, Thomas= (1746-1824). Born in Scotland. Studied for the ministry and became a probationer; employed for a time as private tutor. Studied law and called to the English bar, 1793. While yet a student, in 1788, employed by Dorchester to investigate the estates of the Jesuits in Quebec. Appointed attorney-general of Upper Canada, 1801. Chief-justice, 1804. President of the Loyal and Patriotic Society of Upper Canada during the War of 1812; president of a special tribunal created for the trial of cases of treason during the war. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Scott, Thomas.= A former resident of Ontario who had gone out to the Red River Settlement. On March 4th, 1870, Riel, after a farcical trial, had him put to death. Scott’s death aroused a storm of indignation throughout Ontario, and hastened the despatch of the expeditionary force under Wolseley and the downfall of Riel. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870. =Scott, Walter.= Born in Middlesex county, Ontario, in 1867. Took up the profession of journalism. Removed to the North-West Territories, and, in 1895, became proprietor and editor of the _Leader_, Regina. Sat in the House of Commons for Assiniboia West, 1900-1905; first premier of Saskatchewan, 1905. Resigned in 1916 owing to ill health. =Bib.=: _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Scott, Winfield= (1786-1866). Entered the United States army, and served at the battle of Queenston Heights in the War of 1812. From 1832 to 1838 engaged in Indian warfare. In 1839 instrumental in allaying the excitement arising out of the dispute as to the boundary between New Brunswick and Maine, known as the Aroostook War, and paving the way for its settlement by the Ashburton Treaty. In 1841 commander-in-chief of the United States army. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Scrimger, Francis Alexander Caron.= Captain, and medical officer, 14th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ On the afternoon of the 25th April, 1915, in the neighbourhood of Ypres, when in charge of an advanced dressing station in some farm buildings which were being heavily shelled by the enemy, he directed the removal of the wounded, and himself carried a severely wounded officer in search of a place of safety. When unable alone to carry the officer further, he remained with him under fire till help could be obtained. For several days he displayed continuously, day and night, the greatest devotion to his duty amongst the wounded at the front. =Seat of Government.= Throughout the French régime, Quebec was the capital of the colony, and after the cession to Great Britain, Quebec remained the seat of government until 1791. With the division of the province into Upper and Lower Canada, the capital of the former was first at Newark (Niagara) and later at York; and of the latter at Quebec, until 1838, and then at Montreal. In 1841 the two Canadas were reunited, and Kingston became for a time the capital; then Montreal, 1844-1849; Toronto, 1849-1851; Quebec, 1851-1855; Toronto, 1855-1859; Quebec, 1859-1865; Ottawa, 1865 to the present day. The Legislature assembled in Ottawa for the first time on the 7th June, 1866. By the terms of the Confederation Act, Ottawa was made the federal capital of the Dominion. The provincial seats of government have remained unchanged: Ontario—Toronto; Quebec—Quebec; Nova Scotia—Halifax; New Brunswick—Fredericton; Prince Edward Island—Charlottetown; Manitoba—Winnipeg; Saskatchewan—Regina; Alberta—Edmonton; British Columbia—Victoria. _See also_ Ottawa; Quebec; Montreal; Toronto; Kingston; and the several provincial capitals. =Bib.=: Dunbar Ross, _Seat of Government of Canada_. =Seaton, Sir John Colborne, first Baron= (1778-1863). Entered the army, 1794. Served in Holland, Egypt, and Italy, and in the Peninsular campaign. Military secretary and principal aide-de-camp to Sir John Moore. With him at Corunna. Commanded a brigade under Wellington, 1810-1814, and led the 52nd Light Infantry in their victorious movement at Waterloo. Sent to Upper Canada as lieutenant-governor, 1829; appointed commander-in-chief of the forces, 1835; suppressed the Rebellion in Lower Canada, 1837-1838; acted as administrator, 1838, both before and after Durham; and the same year appointed governor-general. Aroused bitter antagonism by endowing a number of Church of England rectories in Canada. Returned to England, 1839, and created Baron Seaton the same year. Promoted to field-marshal, 1860. Described as a stern administrator. Colborne township, Huron county, Ontario, named after him. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Secord, Laura.= Wife of James Secord, one of a family of United Empire Loyalists, who lived at Queenston. In June, 1813, Colonel Boerstler, who commanded a party of about 600 Americans at Fort George, marched up the Niagara to Queenston, and thence to Beaver Dam, where he expected to surprise FitzGibbon and his little force. Laura Secord overhearing their plans at Queenston, started at early dawn on the morning of June 23rd, and tramped twenty miles through the woods, braving all dangers to warn her people of their peril. FitzGibbon got the message, and in turn prepared a surprise for the Americans. _See_ Beaver Dam; FitzGibbon. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; FitzGibbon, _A Veteran of 1812_; Curzon, _Laura Secord_; Currie, _The Story of Laura Secord_. =Seely, Alexander McLaughlan= (1812-1882). Born in St. John, New Brunswick. Engaged in lumbering, shipbuilding, and in banking. Appointed a member of the Legislative Council for New Brunswick, 1854, and held the seat until his death. =Seignelay, Jean Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de= (1651-1690). French minister of marine and the colonies, 1683-1690, in succession to his father Colbert. His office brought him into close relations with several of the governors of New France, La Barre, Denonville, and Frontenac; the intendants De Meulles and Champigny; Bishop Laval; La Salle the explorer, and others. =Seigniorial Tenure.= The history of this feudal system of land tenure, transplanted from Old to New France, dates back to the commission of the Sieur de la Roche, 1598, in which he is empowered to make grants in the form of fiefs, seigniories, etc., to persons of merit. Up to 1627, when the Company of New France (or the Company of One Hundred Associates) was chartered, only three seigniories had been granted, two to colonial laymen and the third to the Jesuit Order. Thereafter a large number of seigniorial grants were made—no less than sixty between 1632 and 1663, when the Company surrendered its rights to the crown. Details as to the later history of Seigniorial Tenure in Canada, how it was applied to the land, and why it outlived the same system in Old France, will be found in the works cited below. Under the old régime “about eight million _arpents_ of land had been granted to the seigniors on a feudal basis. The holders of land (_censitaires_) under the seigniors had a permanent right of occupancy but were compelled to pay fixed yearly dues in money and in kind, and in the event of their selling out their tenancy must pay one-twelfth of the purchase price to their lord. The latter had also various vexatious privileges, such as the _droit de banalité_ or sole right of grinding corn.” The system, after years of discussion, was finally abolished in Canada in 1854, provision at the same time being made for compensation to the seigniors. =Bib.=: Munro, _Seigniorial System in Canada_ and _Documents Relating to Seigniorial Tenure_; Munro, _Droit de Banalité_; _Pièces et Relatifs à la Tenure Seigneuriale_; _Lower Canada Reports_; _Seigniorial Questions_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. On the history of individual seigniories, _see_ Lalande, _Une Vielle Seignieurie_; _Boucherville_; _Mingan Seigniory_; _Documents in Appeal to Privy Council_; Roy, _Seigneurie de Lauzon_; Sellar, _History of Huntingdon_; Jodoin et Vincent, _Histoire de Longueuil_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_. =Select Committee on Grievances.= Of the Assembly of Upper Canada. Of the Committee’s earlier reports little is known, but the Seventh Report, the work of William Lyon Mackenzie, has become famous as leading up to the Rebellion of 1837-1838. The committee was appointed in 1835, and in this Seventh Report it complains of “the almost unlimited extent of the patronage of the Crown, or rather of the colonial minister for the time being”—patronage so widespread that “the granting or withholding of supplies is of no political importance, unless as an indication of the opinion of the country concerning the character of the government.” Not only did the governor and the British ministry control colonial patronage, but “they hold the sole dominion of the country, and leave the representative branch of the Legislature powerless and dependent.” There are many other grievances in this voluminous document, but this is the crux of the whole matter—the refusal to grant responsible government. _See also_ Mackenzie, William Lyon. =Bib.=: Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Selkirk, Thomas Douglas, Earl of= (1771-1820). Born at St. Mary’s Isle, Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh university. A man of warm sympathies, he took a keen interest in the state of the Highlands at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and the sufferings resulting from the policy of the great landowners of consolidating small crofts into great sheep runs. He saw as the only practicable remedy the working out of comprehensive schemes of emigration. Before outlining those schemes, it may be noted that he also worked out a remarkable plan of national defence, and held views rather ahead of his time on parliamentary reform. Bryce also credits to him two anonymous works of some interest and importance—“Observations on a Proposal for forming a Society for the Civilization and Improvement of the North American Indians within the British Boundary,” and “On the Civilization of the Indian in British America,” in which are advocated the establishment of schools in which young Indians might be taught useful occupations; the establishment of Indian reservations; and the total suppression of the liquor traffic among the Indians. In 1802 in a letter and memorial to Lord Pelham, then home secretary, he first broached his idea of a colony on the Red River. That was thought at the time to be too remote, and in 1803 Selkirk turned his attention to the eastern coast and took out a party of eight hundred Highlanders to Prince Edward Island. Leaving that colony fairly established, he travelled through Lower and Upper Canada, discussed his plans with the leading men of the country, and bought a tract of land near Lake St. Clair, which he named Baldoon. This small settlement for various reasons did not thrive. He offered to build a main highway from York to Amherstburg, taking payment in grants of land on either side of the road, but the Executive Council rejected his offer. He had also planned a settlement in Moulton township, but nothing came of it. In 1810 Selkirk went back to his original and more ambitious scheme—a colony at Red River. He and his friends secured a large block of the stock of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and at the next meeting of the shareholders he proposed to purchase from the Company a tract of land on either side of Red River, over one hundred thousand square miles. This was agreed to, and Selkirk threw himself into plans for securing his colonists, transporting them to the remote banks of the Red River, and establishing them there. A young Canadian, Miles Macdonell, was put in charge of the expedition, which finally entered Hudson Bay in September, 1811, wintered at York Factory, and in June, 1812, reached Red River. A second batch of settlers arrived in 1813, a third and larger party in 1814, and the following year Robert Semple brought out a hundred Highlanders, mostly from Kildonan. In 1815 Selkirk came out himself. Difficulties and determined opposition on the part of the North West Company had created a very serious situation, and the existence of the infant colony was in jeopardy. Failing to enlist the active support of the government in Canada, Selkirk collected a number of disbanded Swiss soldiers and took them out with him to Red River, in 1817. These early years of the colony were filled with trials and tribulations, conflicts between fur traders and settlers, charges and counter-charges, cases in court which usually came to nothing. Selkirk returned to England in 1818, disillusioned and dispirited. In a letter written the following year to Lady Katherine Halkett, Sir Walter Scott says of Selkirk: “I never knew in my life a man of a more generous and disinterested disposition, or one whose talents and perseverence were better qualified to bring great and national schemes to conclusion.” Failing health drove Selkirk to the south of France, where he died, April 8th, 1820. _See also_ Hudson’s Bay Company; North West Company; Red River Colony; Baldoon; Robert Semple; Miles Macdonell. =Bib.=: Works, _Sketch of the British Fur Trade in 1806_; _Observations on the Present State of the Highlands of Scotland, with a View of the Causes and Probable Consequences of Emigration_; _On the Necessity of a More Efficient System of National Defence_. For biog., _see_ Bryce, _Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists_; _Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson_; Martin, _Selkirk’s Work in Canada_; Wood, _Red River Colony_. =Selkirk Mountains.= A range lying west of the Canadian Rockies, and surrounded by the Columbia river and its great tributary the Kootenay. It is said by geologists to be very much older than the Rockies. So far as white men are concerned, the first mention of the Selkirks is found in the narrative of David Thompson, who crossed Howse pass in 1807 and built Kootenay House, or Fort Kootenay, in the valley between the Rockies and Selkirks. He calls the Selkirks “Nelson’s Mountains,” but the name did not survive. Alexander Henry, Franchère, Ross Cox and other early travellers saw the Selkirks, but it was not until surveyors were searching for a route through the range for the Canadian Pacific Railway that the mountains were actually explored by Walter Moberly and Major A. B. Rogers. Dominion topographical surveyors followed some time later, and after them the Alpine climbers. _See also_ Rocky Mountains. =Bib.=: Wheeler, _The Selkirk Range_; Green, _Among the Selkirk Glaciers_; Palmer, _Mountaineering and Exploration in the Selkirks_. =Selkirk Settlement.= _See_ Red River Colony. =Selwyn, Alfred Richard Cecil= (1824-1902). In 1845 appointed assistant geologist in the Geological Survey of Great Britain; and director of the Geological Survey, Victoria, Australia, 1852-1869. Came to Canada in 1869, and filled the office of director of the Canadian Geological Survey, 1869-1895. In addition to his important duties as director, he did a lot of valuable field work in various parts of Canada, and was the author of a number of reports. A charter member of the Royal Society of Canada. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Semple, Robert= (1766-1816). Born in Boston, Massachusetts. Engaged in mercantile pursuits and travelled extensively. In 1802 visited Cape Colony, and from 1805 to 1810 travelled through Spain, Portugal, the West Indies, and Brazil. In 1813, while on a journey in the rear of the allied armies from Hamburg to Gottenburg, arrested by Lord Cathcart as an American spy. In 1815 appointed governor of the factories and territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In the course of his tour of inspection, reached his headquarters at Douglas (now part of Winnipeg), early in 1816. For some time there had been an active feud between the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company, and in an attack at Seven Oaks in 1817 by a party of “Nor’ Westers,” under Cuthbert Grant, Semple was killed. _See also_ Red River Colony; Seven Oaks; Selkirk. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Bryce, _Manitoba_. =Senate.= The Upper House of the Canadian Parliament, corresponding to the Legislative Council of pre-Confederation days, which still survives in two of the provinces. Unlike the Senate of the United States, its members are appointed not elected. At present it consists of ninety-six members, divided geographically into four equal groups representing respectively Quebec, Ontario, the Maritime Provinces and the Western Provinces. In Quebec alone the Senators represent definite senatorial divisions. Under the provisions of the British North America Act, the governor-general (which in practice would mean the cabinet) may recommend the crown to add from four to eight members to the senate, in the event of a deadlock between the two branches of the Legislature. The Senate has the same powers and privileges as the House of Commons, except that it cannot originate a money bill. It may reject but cannot amend a finance bill from the commons. The Speaker is not elected, as in the Commons, but is appointed by the governor-general. =Bib.=: Kennedy, _The Constitution of Canada_; Bourinot, _How Canada is Governed_; MacKay, _The Unreformed Senate_. =Seneca Indians.= One of the tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy. They dwelt chiefly in the region of the Seneca and Canandaigua lakes, and extended westwards to the Genesee river. During the American Revolution they espoused the British cause. There are now some hundreds living in Grand River Reservation, Ontario. _See also_ Iroquois. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Separate Schools.= Questions involving the right to establish and maintain Roman Catholic separate schools have arisen from time to time in Manitoba. New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the North-West Territories. The problem goes back to the days before Confederation, and was crystalized in the following provision of the British North America Act: “Where in any Province a system of separate or dissentient schools exists by law at the time of the Union, or is thereafter established by the Legislature of the Province, an appeal shall lie to the governor-general in council from any act or dissent of any Provincial authority affecting any right or privilege of the Protestant or Roman Catholic minority of the Queen’s subjects in relation to education.” In Manitoba, separate schools had existed from the early days of the province. In 1890 the Manitoba Legislature passed an Act abolishing its separate schools. The question at once became a national issue. The Roman Catholic minority appealed to the Dominion government for redress, in the form of remedial legislation. A case was also taken to the courts, and finally reached the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which decided that the Dominion parliament had jurisdiction. A Remedial Bill was introduced in 1896 for the purpose of restoring the separate schools of Manitoba. The government of Sir Charles Tupper failed to pass it, and in the succeeding elections went down to defeat. A compromise was subsequently arrived at providing for religious instruction in Manitoba schools whenever desired. A somewhat similar situation arose in New Brunswick in 1871, when the provincial government abolished its separate schools. The matter was agitated for several years in and out of parliament, but was finally settled locally by a compromise very similar to that afterwards reached in Manitoba. This vexed problem had also arisen in the sixties in Nova Scotia, without, however, any very serious consequences. In 1905, when the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created, Sir Wilfrid Laurier made provision in the Act for separate schools. Although these had actually been authorized by legislation as far back as 1875, a storm of protest arose. A compromise was finally reached, which proved reasonably satisfactory to all parties. It may be added that both Ontario and Quebec maintain separate schools, with this difference—the separate schools of Ontario are Roman Catholic and of Quebec Protestant, or maintained for Protestants; in reality they are non-sectarian like the public schools of the other provinces. The Ontario separate schools date back to the days of Upper Canada. The proposal to permit them was at first strenuously opposed by George Brown and the _Globe_, but finally acquiesced in, and supported by Egerton Ryerson. For further references, see _Lit. Am. Hist._ pp. 438-39. =Bib.=: Ewart, _Manitoba School Question_; Wade, _Manitoba School Question_; Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; DeCelles, _Papineau, Cartier_; Tracy, _Tercentenary History of Canada_; Hodgins, _History of Separate Schools in Upper Canada_. =Seven Oaks.= Skirmish, about three miles north of present boundaries of Winnipeg, on June 19th, 1816, between a party of employees of the North West Company and those of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in which Governor Semple was killed, and a score more killed or wounded. Cuthbert Grant, who led the half-breeds, who for the most part made up the North West Company party, took possession of Fort Douglas after the fight. A stone monument to-day marks the site of the skirmish. _See also_ Semple. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson_. =Seven Years’ War.= Brought to a conclusion by the treaty of Paris, 1763. So far as America is concerned, it embraced Braddock’s disastrous campaign, the removal of the Acadians, the expedition against Crown Point and the capture of Dieskau, Montcalm’s capture of Oswego and Fort William Henry, the fall of Louisbourg, Abercromby’s repulse at Ticonderoga, the capture of Fort Frontenac, Wolfe’s victory at Quebec, capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, the battle of Ste. Foy, and the capitulation of Montreal. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Sewell, Jonathan= (1728-1796). Born in Massachusetts, he graduated at Harvard, 1748; taught school in Salem until 1756; then studied law and opened an office in Charlestown. He was the last Royal attorney-general of Massachusetts. Proscribed and banished as a Loyalist, he went to England in 1775 and remained there for some years. John Adams, afterwards President of the United States, had been his most intimate friend. They parted in 1774, and did not meet again until 1788, when Adams met Sewell in London. “Both of us,” says Adams, “forgetting that we had ever been enemies, embraced each other as cordially as ever.” Sewell soon afterwards sailed for Nova Scotia, where he had been appointed judge of Admiralty. He died at St. John, New Brunswick. His son Stephen was solicitor-general of Lower Canada, and died at Montreal in 1832. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Sewell, Jonathan= (1766-1839). Son of preceding. Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he was educated at Brasenose, Oxford; came to Nova Scotia with his father, and studied law with Ward Chipman in St. John, New Brunswick. Practiced law in Quebec, 1789, and four years later was appointed solicitor-general of Lower Canada and inspector of crown lands. In 1795 he was promoted attorney-general. In 1796 he became judge of the Vice-Admiralty Court, and the same year was elected to the Legislative Assembly for Sorel, holding his seat up to 1808, when he became a member of both the Executive and Legislative Councils. The same year he was appointed chief-justice of the Court of King’s Bench of Lower Canada; and in 1809 president of the Legislative Council. He remained a member of the council up to 1838. He had resigned from the Executive Council (president, 1808-1829) in 1830, and the same year became chief-justice of Lower Canada. In 1838 he retired from the bench with a pension. The dispute as to boundaries, between the Dominion government and the province of Ontario, was afterwards settled on the basis of his decision of 1818. Introduced, in 1809, into the procedure of the courts, certain rules of practice which for some years met with strong opposition. In 1814 he went to England to meet the charges made against him in this regard, and his conduct was upheld. Received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard. =Bib.=: Audet, _Les juges en chef de la province de Québec_ (_Revue du Droit_, 1925); Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Seymour, Frederick.= Succeeded Sir James Douglas as governor of British Columbia, and arrived in the colony, April, 1864. Had previously been governor of British Honduras. On the union of Vancouver Island and British Columbia in 1866 he became governor of the united colonies. In the spring of 1869 visited several Indian tribes on the coast; was taken ill, and died at Bella Bella, June 10th, 1869. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of British Columbia_. =Shankland, Robert.= Lieutenant, 43rd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ At Passchendaele, October 26th, 1917, in a very critical situation, he revealed great gallantry and skill in rallying the remnant of his own platoon and men of other companies, disposing of them so as to command the ground in front, and thus inflicting heavy casualties upon the retreating enemy. Later he dispersed a counter-attack, thus enabling supporting troops to come up unmolested. =Shaughnessy, Sir Thomas George, Baron= (1853-1923). Born at Milwaukee. After various employment on American railways, he came to Canada and entered the service of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1882 as general purchasing agent, becoming successively assistant to general manager, 1884-1885, assistant general manager, 1885-1889, assistant to president, 1889-1891, vice-president and director, 1891-1898, president, 1898. Knighted, 1901; K. C. V. O., 1907; created baron, 1915. He maintained, says Dr. Skelton, “the progressive policy and the honourable record of straightforward management which has distinguished the Canadian Pacific.” He was in his day one of the outstanding figures in Canadian transportation and Canadian finance. =Bib.=: Greene, _Who’s Who and Why_. =Sheaffe, Sir Roger Hale= (1763-1851). Born in Boston, Massachusetts. Entered the army, 1778; served in Ireland and Holland; stationed in Canada, 1802-1811, and 1812-1813. Commanded the British forces at Queenston Heights after the death of Brock; and at York when the place was captured and burned by the Americans in 1813. His conduct on that occasion did not redound much to his credit. Administered the government of Upper Canada, 1812-1813. Created a baronet, 1813; raised to the rank of lieutenant-general, 1821; general, 1828. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Shelburne.= A town on the south-west coast of the province of Nova Scotia; founded by United Empire Loyalists in 1783; first known as Port Roseway. For a few years after its foundation the town grew at an astonishing pace, and at one time “had a population larger than that of Quebec and Montreal combined,” but the locality afforded none of the elements of permanent prosperity, and the bulk of the population drifted to other parts of the province. =Bib.=: Haliburton, _History of Nova Scotia_; Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_. =Sherbrooke.= A city in the Eastern Townships, Quebec, on the St. Francis river, named, in 1818, after Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, then governor-general. Before that time it was known as Little Forks. Founded by David Moe and other pioneers, about the year 1800. Incorporated as a town in 1852. =Bib.=: Channell, _History of Compton County_. =Sherbrooke, Sir John Coape= (1760-1830), Born in Nottinghamshire, England. Entered the army; took part in the capture of Seringapatam, 1797; and served under Wellington in the Peninsular War, 1809. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia in 1811; and governor-general of Canada, 1816-1818. Kingsford says he proved to be one of the wisest governors of the period, but that all he accomplished was nullified by the “ill-judged self-assertion of his incompetent successor, the Duke of Richmond.” =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Sherwood, Henry= (1807-1855). Born in Brockville, Upper Canada. Represented Toronto in Legislative Assembly, 1841-1854; member of Executive Council and solicitor-general, 1842 and 1844-1846; attorney-general for Upper Canada, 1847-1848, and head of the government. Opposed Rebellion Losses Bill. In 1844 he had proposed division of the Clergy Reserves. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Sherwood, Livius Peters= (1777-1850). Born in St. Johns, Lower Canada. Removed to Upper Canada; studied law and called to the bar, 1803. Elected to the Assembly for Leeds, 1821; Speaker of the Assembly, 1822; Speaker of the Legislative Council, 1841. Appointed judge of the Court of King’s Bench, 1825. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Shipping on the Great Lakes.= _See_ Sailing Vessels on Great Lakes. =Shirley, William= (1693-1771). Born in Preston, England. Called to the English bar; removed to Boston, where he practised his profession. Governor of Massachusetts, 1741-1745; planned the successful expedition against Louisbourg. Resided in England, 1745-1753. One of the commissioners at Paris to settle the boundaries of Nova Scotia, 1750. Again appointed governor of Massachusetts, 1753; commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America. Lieutenant-general, 1759; afterwards governor of the Bahama Islands. Returned to Massachusetts, 1770; and resided at Roxbury until his death. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_. =Short Administration.= Name applied to the government formed by George Brown in 1858, and which lived less than forty-eight hours. =Bib.=: Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_. =Shortt, Adam= (1859-). Born at Kilworth, Ontario. Educated at Queen’s University, and at Edinburgh and Glasgow. Appointed assistant professor of philosophy at Queens’ University, 1885; lecturer in political science, 1889; professor of political science, 1892. In 1908 became a member of the Historical Manuscript Commission; civil service commissioner, 1908-1917. Chairman of the Board of Historical Publications, Public Archives of Canada, 1917. =Bib.=: _Lord Sydenham_; _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759-1791_ (with A. G. Doughty); Joint Editor _Canada and its Provinces_. =Sicotte, Louis Victor= (1812-1889). Born in St. Famille, Boucherville, Quebec. Studied law, and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1838. Entered public life, 1852, as member for St. Hyacinthe. Proposed secularization of the Clergy Reserves. Elected Speaker of the Assembly, 1854, and held the office until 1857; appointed to the Executive Council as commissioner of crown lands, 1853; and held the same office, 1857-1858; chief commissioner of public works, 1858; attorney-general, 1862-1863, in the John Sandfield Macdonald-Sicotte administration. He was recognized as a leader of the Moderate Reformers. In 1863 appointed a judge of the Superior Court, retiring, 1887. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Sieges.= _See_ Quebec; Louisbourg; Detroit; Port Royal; Ticonderoga; Beauséjour; Oswego; Duquesne. =Sifton, Arthur L.= (1858-1921). Educated at Victoria University; called to the bar, 1883. Removed to the North-West Territories and elected to the Legislature, 1891; held office as treasurer and commissioner of public works; appointed chief-justice of the North-West Territories; chief-justice of Alberta, 1905; premier of Alberta, 1910-1917. =Bib.=: _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Sifton, Sir Clifford= (1861-). Educated at Victoria University. Removed to Manitoba and called to the bar of that province, 1882. Elected to the Manitoba Assembly, 1888; attorney-general and minister of education, 1891; represented the province in the negotiations in connection with the Manitoba School Question; elected to the House of Commons for Brandon, 1896; minister of the interior in the Laurier administration, 1896; resigned 1905, because of difference of opinion in regard to the educational clauses of the North-West Territories Autonomy bill; agent of British government before Alaska Boundary Commission, 1903; chairman of Commission of Conservation of Natural Resources, 1909. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Sifton, Ellis Welwood.= Lance-Sergeant, 18th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ During an attack on enemy trenches, on April 9th, 1917, at Neuville St. Vaast, his company being held up by machine-gun fire, he located the gun and charged it single-handed, killing all the crew, and thereafter held back an enemy party advancing down the trench until his own men had gained the position. He was killed in the action. =Sillery.= Village on the north side of the St. Lawrence, four miles above Quebec. It was originally founded by Noel Brulart de Sillery in 1637 as a settlement for Christian Indians. Montcalm had a battery there in 1759, which was captured by Colonel Howe. =Bib.=: Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_. =Silver.= Is said to have been found by a Russian near Sault Ste. Marie some time before the year 1800. It is, at any rate, certain that silver was found on Lake Superior as early as 1846, but the first important discovery was made by Peter McKellar on Thunder Bay in 1866. The most spectacular discovery was that of Silver Islet on the north side of Lake Superior, which was opened in 1870 and in fourteen years yielded over $3,000,000. The mine was closed in 1884 and reopened for a short time in 1921. The big period in silver mining in Canada dates, however, from 1903 when the Cobalt silver area was discovered. Since that date discoveries have been made at various points north-west and east of Lake Temiskaming. =Bib.=: Wilson, _Precious Metals in Canada_ (_Handbook of Canada_); Noxon, _The Islet of Silver_ (_United Empire_, April, 1926). =Simcoe.= A lake situated between Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay; named after Governor Simcoe’s father. Area three hundred square miles. Known to the Indians as _Teyoyagon_, and to the French as Lac aux Claies. It was discovered by Champlain in 1615, and was within the field of the famous Huron Mission of the Jesuit fathers. La Salle crossed the lake in 1680, on his way west to the Mississippi; and the following year dated one of his letters from the long portage between Toronto and Simcoe. A monument was erected to Champlain at Orillia, on Lake Simcoe, in 1925. =Simcoe, John Graves= (1752-1806). Born at Cotterstock, in the county of Northumberland, England; son of a naval captain, John Simcoe, who sailed with Saunders in 1759 but died on his ship the _Pembroke_ before she reached the St. Lawrence. Educated at Eton and Merton College, Oxford, the son obtained a commission in the 35th Regiment in 1771, came out to America, and after several years’ service was put in command of the Queen’s Rangers. In 1775 sailed with the army from Boston to Halifax, and from there several weeks later to New York. During the summer of 1776 he took part in the operations on Long Island and in the Jerseys; fought at Brandywine and was wounded at Chadd’s Ford. He took a keen interest in the training of the Queen’s Rangers, and produced a corps of “disciplined enthusiasts in the cause of their country.” In 1778 he was promoted to lieutenant-colonel, and the following year fell into an ambush and was captured. After being imprisoned for some time, he was released by order of Washington, and in December rejoined his regiment at Richmond. He and his Rangers won distinction by their success in beating off a superior force under Butler. With Cornwallis’ surrender came the end of Simcoe’s military career. In 1790 he was elected to represent St. Maw’s, Cornwall, in the Imperial parliament; and the following year was appointed lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada. He sailed for Canada in September, and in July of the following year reached Niagara or Newark, the little town at the mouth of the Niagara river which was to be for a short time the capital of the new province. Here Simcoe presided over the opening of the first session of the legislature of Upper Canada, 1792. He was no idle figure-head, but on the contrary took an active part in the plans for developing the infant community that in the course of years was to grow into the great province of Ontario. The Legislature was not very impressive in those early days. The Duc de la Rochefoucauld has left an account of the meeting of the fourth session. The harvest had begun, and out of seven members of the Legislative Council only two were present; when Simcoe opened the Assembly only five out of sixteen attended. “The whole retinue of the governor consisted of a guard of fifty men of the garrison of the fort. Dressed in silk he entered the hall with his hat on his head, attended by his adjutant and two secretaries.” Simcoe’s connection with Canada is limited to a comparatively short range of years; he returned to England in 1796; yet in that short time he did much to lay well and true the foundations of Upper Canada, to assist the farming community, to promote trade between Upper Canada and the United States, to provide an adequate currency, to build up a system of education, to supply means for the enforcement of law and order, and the care of the Indians. At his little court he entertained from time to time such notable visitors as Prince Edward, the Duc de la Rochefoucauld, and Alexander Mackenzie the explorer. He made an official tour throughout the province, prepared plans for its defence, provided for the building of Yonge Street and Dundas Street, and planned government buildings at the new provincial capital, York, 1796. After his return to England he was offered but declined the governorship of Lower Canada; was sent to St. Domingo to quell an insurrection; placed in command at Plymouth; appointed commander-in-chief in India, but sent instead to Portugal on an important diplomatic and military mission. Ill health forced him to return to England, and he died at Exeter. He had received military promotion from time to time, and reached the rank of lieutenant-general. “His character,” says Dr. Scott, “held in happy combination traits that made him an almost perfect governor for the place and the time. He treated his people as a nobleman might treat his tenants if his temper were magnanimous and progressive... His genius for exhibiting personal interest in the individual concerns of his little people made him beloved and respected. His stern sense of duty and his military prowess gave a feeling of security to scattered settlements in a troubled and uncertain time... We might choose more widely and not choose so well if, in a search for ideals, we passed by the worth of the first governor of Upper Canada. It is by his purity of purpose and his lofty rectitude that he may be of abiding use to us. His words are now as cogent as they were in his day... and we might all profit by a close observation of the group of virtues that, in the following words, our exemplar has brought together that he considers the prime qualities to assist at the founding of a nation: ‘It is our immediate duty to recommend our public acts to our fellow-subjects by the efficacy of our private example; and to contribute in this tract of the British Empire to form a nation, obedient to the laws, frugal, temperate, industrious, impressed with a steadfast love of justice, of honour, of public good, with unshaken probity and fortitude amongst men, with Christian piety and gratitude to God.’” =Bib.=: _Journal of Operations of the Queen’s Rangers_. For biog., _see_ Read, _Life of Simcoe_; Scott, _John Graves Simcoe_; Cruikshank, _Correspondence of John Graves Simcoe_. =Simonds, Charles.= A member of the New Brunswick Assembly; of United Empire Loyalist descent. Sent to England in 1833, with Edward B. Chandler, to lay before the Imperial authorities the grievances of the province in the matter of the control of the revenue derived from the sale of Crown lands. Became a member of the Executive Council. Elected for St. John county in 1850, and the same year became speaker of the Assembly. Re-elected speaker in 1856. =Bib.=: Hannay, _Wilmot, Tilley_. =Simpson, Sir George= (1792-1860). Born in England, he was sent out in 1820 by Andrew Colville, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, to the remote Athabaska district, where his resourcefulness and courage found ample scope. The following year the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company were united under the name of the former, and Simpson became the first governor of the larger organization. Imperious and impetuous by nature, he was at the same time a shrewd and far-seeing administrator, and could be both tactful and patient when occasion seemed to demand the exercise of such qualities. He took over the control of the Company at a critical moment. It was his task to weld together the hitherto bitterly antagonistic elements of two great corporations, and to use them as a means to carry the influence and commerce of the fur trader into remote parts of North America never before reached by either Company, And in carrying out that task Simpson was conspicuously successful. “The Governor,” says Bryce, “knew how to attach his people to himself, and he gathered around him in the course of his career of forty years a large number of men most devoted to the interests of the Company. His visits to Fort Garry on the Red river were always notable. He was approachable to the humblest, and listened to many a complaint and grievance with apparent sympathy and great patience. He had many of the arts of the courtier along with his indomitable will.” He was also a good judge of character, and saw to it that men who had earned promotion by ability and faithful service were not overlooked. In 1828 he made a journey from York Factory to the Pacific, travelling in state with his piper, and at the headlong speed that his soul delighted in. He descended the tumultuous Fraser river in his canoe, the same journey which Simon Fraser had made twenty-one years before. Simpson, however, made the trip at a much more favourable season of the year. From Fort Langley he made his way over to Fort Vancouver, and returned east the following season. In 1839 he was knighted in recognition of his public services in furthering the cause of western exploration and otherwise. He had crossed to England in 1840, and in March of the following year started from London on a journey around the world, by way of Halifax, Boston, Montreal, thence by the fur trader’s route to Fort William, Fort Garry, Edmonton House, over the mountains to Fort Colville on the Columbia, and Fort Vancouver, thence to Fort Nisqually on Puget Sound. There he took the Company’s ship _Beaver_ up the coast to Sitka in Alaska where he was the guest of the Russian governor Etholine; back to Fort Vancouver, and down the coast to California, the Sandwich Islands, and back to Sitka. He then sailed across the Pacific to Okhotsk, and travelled across Siberia to Russia, visiting Moscow and St. Petersburg, and finally reached London once more, after an absence of nineteen months and twenty-six days. He died at Lachine. _See also_ Hudson’s Bay Company. =Bib.=: _Narrative of a Journey round the World_; McLeod, _Peace River_; Bryce, _Remarkable History of the Hudson’s Bay Company_; Bryce, _Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson_. =Simpson, John= (1807-1878). Born in Helmsley, Yorkshire, England. Elected to the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada, 1858, for the town of Niagara, and sat for the same constituency until 1864. Member of the Executive Council and provincial secretary, 1864; assistant auditor-general, 1864-1878. Retired from ministry with Foley and Buchanan to make room for George Brown, Mowat and McDougall. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Simpson Pass.= About eighteen miles by trail south-west of Banff. Leads through the summit range of the Rockies from the headwaters of Healy creek on the Alberta side to the headwaters of a northerly branch of Simpson river on the British Columbia side. The trail to Mount Assiniboine leaves Healy creek about four miles from the summit of the pass. The pass (summit elevation 6,914 feet) was first crossed by Sir George Simpson in 1841, in the course of his journey around the world. Name appears on Palliser’s map of 1863. =Bib.=: _Report of Alberta-British Columbia Boundary Commission_. =Simpson, Thomas= (1808-1840). Born in Dingwall, Scotland. Educated at University of Aberdeen. In 1829 appointed secretary to his cousin, Sir George Simpson, resident governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. With Peter Warren Dease, commanded an expedition to connect the discoveries on the Arctic coast of Sir John Ross and Sir George Back, and in July, 1837, arrived at Foggy Island Bay, the farthest point reached by Sir John Franklin. Surveyed the Arctic coast of North America, from the mouth of the Mackenzie to Point Barrow, and from the Coppermine river to the Gulf of Boothia, and solved the problem of the existence of a passage by water between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. =Bib.=: _Narrative of the Discoveries on the North Coast of America, 1836-1839_. For biog., _see_ Simpson, _Life and Travels of Thomas Simpson_. =Simultaneous Polling.= Provided for in the Dominion Act of 1874 by Alexander Mackenzie. It had been adopted some years before in Nova Scotia. Canadian elections had previously been held, as Bourinot says, “on such days and as long as the necessities of the party demanded.” =Bib.=: Bourinot, _How Canada is Governed_. =Sioux Indians.= The name is an abbreviation of _Nadouessioux_, the name, meaning “snake-like-ones,” by which this tribe or group of tribes was commonly known among the Algonquian peoples east of them. Their own name for themselves is Dakotan. A western tribe occupying the country between the west end of Lake Superior and the headwaters of the Mississippi when French explorers and missionaries first went among them. Radisson and Chouart wintered among them in 1661-1662; they were visited by Du Lhut about 1678; and constant references are made to the tribe in the _Jesuit Relations_ of the seventeenth century. Fierce and implacable by nature, they were rightly known as the Iroquois of the West. Nevertheless the French had a trading post among them for several years. They are described in the narratives of Hennepin and other early writers. =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations_, ed. by Thwaites; Carver, _Travels through the Interior Part of North America_; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_; Catlin, _North American Indians_; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Sitka.= Capital of Alaska. Baranof built a fort there in 1799, which he named Archangel Gabriel. It was captured by the natives in 1802, and recaptured by the Russians two years later. The same year, another fort was built near by, which was called Archangel Michael. The town which grew up about it was known as New Archangel, or Sitka. The latter name is of native origin, and the meaning is unknown. =Bib.=: McCormick, _Geographic Dictionary of Alaska_. =Skeena River.= Flows into the Pacific after a course of 335 miles. Prince Rupert stands on an island near its mouth. Name said to be an adaptation of _K’shian_, the Tsimshian name for the river, meaning a “divide.” Discovered by Whidbey, master of the _Discovery_, in 1793. but he did not get beyond the mouth and supposed it to be a small, unimportant stream. Vancouver named the opening Port Essington. The river was known to the early traders as Ayton’s river. Captain Charles Duncan anchored at the entrance in 1788. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Place Names_. =Slave River.= Flows from the western end of Lake Athabaska, and after a course of 265 miles empties into Great Slave Lake. Fort Smith, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, stands on its banks about midway between the two lakes. The river was first seen by Samuel Hearne on his return journey from the Coppermine about the end of 1771. He called it the Grand Athapuscow river. It was also the route of Alexander Mackenzie on his famous journey to the Arctic. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Slavery.= With the exception of Denmark, Upper Canada was the first civilized community to legislate against slavery. In 1793, mainly at the instance of Simcoe, a law was passed to prevent the introduction of negro slaves. The British Act which permitted the admission of slaves into a colony was repealed, so far as Upper Canada was concerned; in future, no slave could be brought into the province; children of slaves then in the province were to be declared free when they reached the age of twenty-five. Naturally the sentiment of the province was strongly against slavery in general, and half a century later it found expression in the organization of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada (1851), and in the passing of an Act by the Canadian Parliament “for the settlement and moral improvement of the coloured population of Canada.” In Lower Canada, slavery was legally recognized for many years. By the census of 1784 there were found to be 212 slaves in Montreal, four in Three Rivers, and 88 in Quebec. Advertisements for runaway slaves frequently appeared in the Montreal _Gazette_, and the same conditions prevailed in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. During the French régime, slavery was recognized. In 1689 a royal mandate authorized the importation of slaves. In 1709 the intendant, Raudot, issued an ordinance to the effect that negro slaves and _panis_ should belong to the persons who bought them in full proprietorship. The _panis_ were Indian slaves, the name coming from _Pawnees_, a tribe settled in the eighteenth century on the Missouri river. The Indian tribes generally enslaved their captives taken in war, and so many were obtained from the Pawnees, that Indian slaves came to be known as _panis_. Many of these were transferred to the whites and brought down to Canada. The last vestiges of slavery were abolished in Canada by the Imperial Act of 1833. _See also_ Index to vols. i-xx, _Wis. Hist. Coll._, and Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_, as to slavery among the Indians. =Bib.=: Smith, _Slavery in Canada_ (N. S. Hist. Soc. _Coll._, v. x); Jack, _Loyalists and Slavery in New Brunswick_ (R. S. C., 1898); LaFontaine, _L’Esclavage en Canada_ (Soc. Hist, du Montreal, 1858); Withrow, _The Underground Railway_ (R. S. C., 1902); La Paquet, _L’Esclavage en Canada_ (R. S. C., 1913); Garneau, _Histoire du Canada_; Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Small, John E.= Clerk of the Executive Council of Upper Canada in 1791. In 1800 he fought a duel with the attorney-general, John White, and mortally wounded him. Became solicitor-general of Upper Canada in the Baldwin-LaFontaine ministry, 1842. Elected as a Baldwin supporter in 1844. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Smallpox.= The early history of Canada offers much evidence of the ravages of this disease. Epidemics are noted in New France in 1679, 1716, etc., and at Michilimackinac in 1757-1758. As early as 1670 the dread disease had been introduced by white men among the Indians, and the narratives of western travellers and fur traders are filled with the appalling result, whole tribes being almost wiped out of existence. =Smith, Sir Albert James= (1824-1883). Born in Shediac, New Brunswick. Educated at the Westmoreland County Grammar School; studied law, and called to the bar, 1847. Represented Westmoreland in the New Brunswick Assembly, 1851-1867. A member of the government without portfolio, 1856. Resigned with his colleagues, and on the return of his party to power again resumed office. Attorney-general, 1862. A strong opponent of Confederation. On the resignation of the Tilley government, he was called on to form an administration; succeeded and held the office of president of the Council. Went to England to oppose Confederation, 1865. Held the attorney-generalship, 1865. His administration resigned office, 1866. Returned for Westmoreland to the House of Commons, 1867. Held office as minister of marine and fisheries in the Mackenzie government, 1873-1878. Chief counsel of the Canadian government before the Halifax Fisheries Commission, 1877. In recognition of his services, was created K. C. M. G., 1878. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Smith, Sir David William= (1764-1837). Surveyor-general of Upper Canada and made a map of the province in 1798. A member of the first three legislatures of Canada, and Speaker in two of them. Created a baronet in 1821. Became a member of the Executive Council, and one of the trustees for the Six Nations Indians. His father, John Smith, lieutenant-colonel of the Fifth Foot, commanded Fort Niagara, and died there, 1795. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._ =Smith, Goldwin= (1823-1910). Born in Reading, England. Educated at Eton and Oxford; elected a fellow of University College, London, 1846; regius professor of modern history at Oxford, 1858-1866; honorary professor of English and constitutional history at Cornell, 1868-1871. Came to Canada, 1871; and thereafter made his home in Toronto. Elected a member of the Senate of Toronto University; and was first president of the Council of Public Instruction. His curiously warped point of view on some public questions is revealed in a letter to Charles Eliot Norton in 1867. Speaking of the Confederation of Canada, he says: “Our aristocracy are going, if they can, to plant an offset of their own institutions on your continent, under the name of the Canadian Confederation, which our government has been assiduously promoting. I hope it is not unpatriotic to pray that the slip of the upas tree may not grow and that the Canadian monarchy may share the fate of the Mexican empire. If it flourishes, it will brew you mischief.” Much of his life was lived in Canada, and he did much to encourage the intellectual life of the country; to raise the standards of journalism; to advance the cause of education; to encourage art; but politically, he would recognize no possible alternatives but independence or annexation to the United States. He took an active part in the Canada First movement, which he interpreted as independence, and was first president of the National Club of Toronto. He founded the _Bystander_ and the _Week_, and contributed largely to the _Canadian Monthly_, the _Nation_, and for some years to the _Farmer’s Sun_. He left his beautiful home “The Grange” to Toronto as a public art gallery. =Bib.=: Works: _Three English Statesmen_; _Lectures on the Study of History_; _Canada and the Canadian Question_; _Cowper_; _Essays on Questions of the Day_; _A Trip to England_; _Life of Jane Austen_; _The Moral Crusader_; _Oxford and Her Colleges_; _Shakespeare the Man_; _Guesses at the Riddle of Existence_; _Irish History and the Irish Question_; _The United Kingdom_; _The United States_; _Labour and Capital_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Denison, _The Struggle for Imperial Unity_; Haultain, _Goldwin Smith, Life and Opinions_; Haultain, _Goldwin Smith’s Correspondence_. =Smith, Sir Henry= (1812-1868). Born in London, England. Came to Canada with his parents in 1822; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1836. Entered Parliament, 1841, as member for Frontenac; appointed solicitor-general, 1854, in MacNab-Morin ministry, and held same office in succeeding governments till 1858. Elected Speaker, 1858. Knighted, 1860, on the occasion of the visit of the Prince of Wales to Canada. Represented Frontenac in the Ontario Legislature, 1867-1868. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Smith, H. W.= Elected to the Nova Scotia Assembly. Delegate of Anti-Confederate party; accompanied Joseph Howe to England in 1868 to ask repeal of British North America Act so far as Nova Scotia was concerned. Received thanks of Nova Scotia Assembly. =Bib.=: Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Smith, William= (1728-1793). Born in New York, studied at Yale, and was called to the bar in New York. He was appointed chief-justice of the province of New York, and a member of the Council. In 1786 he became chief-justice of the province of Quebec, an office which he held up to the time of his death. He was also appointed a member of the Council. In an elaborate report on the administration of justice in Quebec, he put forward a scheme for the confederation of all the British North American colonies. The Constitution of the United States was, he asserted, based upon a plan of government outlined by himself and embodied in a letter to an intimate friend of Washington’s in 1775. Became president of the Legislative Council, 1791. Author of a number of historical works. Died at Quebec. =Bib.=: _Review of Military Operations in North America, 1753-1756_; _History of the Province of New York_; _History of Canada_. For biog., _see_ Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Soissons, Charles de Bourbon, Comte de= (1565-1612). At the urgent solicitation of Champlain, who was in desperate need of a powerful protector to shield the infant colony of New France from rival intrigues, the Comte de Soissons was appointed by the king lieutenant-general of the colony, with vice-regal powers. Made Champlain his lieutenant with full control of the fur trade as well as of the exploration and settlement of the colony. Unfortunately for Champlain, his protector died shortly after the commission was issued. Succeeded as viceroy by Henri de Bourbon, Prince de Conde. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Somerville, Alexander= (1811-1885). Born in Scotland. Served in the regular army. Came to Canada, 1858. Took up newspaper work; for a time editor of the _Canadian Illustrated News_. Present as a volunteer at the battle of Ridgeway. =Bib.=: Works: _Diligent Life_; _Narrative of the Fenian Invasion of Canada_. For biog., _see_ Rattray, _The Scot in British North America_. =Somme, Battle of.= The Canadian army’s part in what was known as the Second Battle of the Somme—March-April, 1918—cannot very readily be summarized. The battle was tremendous, in area covered, forces engaged, and time; and the Canadians saw a great variety of service. For nineteen days the Canadian Motor Machine-Gun Brigade served with the Fifth Army, on a thirty-five mile front east of Amiens, constantly fighting rearguard actions to delay the enemy’s advance. For ninety-two days the 2nd Canadian Division held six thousand yards near Telegraph Hill. Each of the other Canadian Divisions was serving for a time with Imperial Corps. The Germans had launched a tremendous offensive, and in General Currie’s special order to the Canadians on March 27th, he said: “Under the orders of your devoted officers in the coming battle you will advance or fall where you stand facing the enemy.... On many a hard-fought field of battle you have overcome this enemy. With God’s help you shall achieve victory once more.” Early in April, the Canadian Corps occupied no less than twenty-nine thousand yards of line, forming a deep salient, thinly held, and guarding the immensely important coal-fields of northern France. Under conditions that were always difficult, and often nearly desperate, they held Vimy Ridge. =Bib.=: Willison, _Holding the Line_ (_Canada in the Great World War_, vol. v). =Sorel.= A city of Quebec, at the mouth of the Richelieu river. Incorporated as a city in 1889. Named after Pierre de Sorel. A fort was built here by Montmagny in 1642, of which Senneterre was commandant in 1645. It was abandoned in 1647, and a new fort built by Sorel in 1655. Haldimand fortified the place in 1778, in view of another possible American invasion. In 1787 the Duke of Clarence, then in command of H. M. S. _Pegasus_, visited the place, and made himself so popular that for a time the name was changed to William Henry. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_; McIlwraith, _Sir Frederick Haldimand_. =Soudan Campaign.= _See_ Nile Expedition. =Soulanges Canal.= On the north side of the St. Lawrence, between Cascades Point and Coteau Landing. Surmounts the Cascades, Cedar and Coteau rapids. Longest and deepest of the St. Lawrence canals, being fourteen miles long and fifteen feet deep. Commenced in 1892 and opened for traffic in 1899. Under the French régime four small canals of shallow draft, suitable for the passage of _bateaux_, were built between lakes St. Louis and St. Francis. Subsequently rebuilt and enlarged by the British authorities, they were replaced in 1845 by the Beauharnois Canal on the south side of the river, and that in turn by the Soulanges Canal. =South African War.= _See_ Canadian Contingents in the Boer War. =Southampton Island.= A large island in the northern part of Hudson Bay. Its eastern part was for many years supposed to be a separate island, and was so shown on the maps. Named after the third Earl of Southampton (1573-1624) by Foxe. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Southesk, Earl of.= In the spring of 1859 he accompanied Sir George Simpson west to Fort Garry, and from there travelled on to Fort Edmonton. Leaving Edmonton, he made an extended exploration through the heart of the Rockies, up the McLeod river to the height of land, and along the eastern slope of the mountains to the sources of Bow river, which he ascended until he met the Edmonton trail—the same which Sir George Simpson had followed in 1841. Returned to Fort Garry by way of the North Saskatchewan, Fort Carlton and Fort Pelly, reaching Red River in January, 1860. =Bib.=: _Saskatchewan and the Rocky Mountains_. _See also_ Wallace, _Southesk’s Journey through the West_ (_Royal Geog. Journal_, Sept., 1925). =Sovereign Council.= Created by Louis XIV, in 1663, “as a means of providing for the better administration of justice in the colony, and also the due control of its finances.” It consisted of the governor, the bishop or other senior ecclesiastic, and five councillors chosen by them jointly, one of the latter being the attorney-general. In the next decade it was reorganized to consist of seven members, each holding office by direct commission from the king. The change was distasteful to Frontenac, who was then governor, as it augmented the power of the bishop, Laval, at the expense of the governor. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_ and _Old Régime_; LeSueur, _Count Frontenac_; Brumath, _Bishop Laval_. =Spall, Robert.= Sergeant, Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry. _Victoria Cross._ During an enemy counter-attack, August 12th-13th, 1918, near Parvillers, his platoon was isolated. He took a Lewis gun and, standing on the parapet, fired upon the advancing enemy. He then came down the trench directing the men into a sap well away from the enemy. He then took another Lewis gun, again climbed the parapet, and by his fire held up the enemy, deliberately giving his life to extricate his platoon from a most difficult position. =Speakers of the House of Commons= (since Confederation). James Cockburn, 1867-1874; Timothy Warren Anglin, 1874-1878; Joseph Goderich Blanchet, 1879-1882; George Airey Kirkpatrick, 1883-1887; J. A. Ouimet, 1887-1891; Peter White, 1891-1896; Sir James David Edgar, 1896-1899; Thomas Bain, 1899-1900; Louis Philippe Brodeur, 1901-1904; Napoleon Antoine Belcourt, 1904; Robert Franklin Sutherland, 1905-1908; Charles Marcil, 1909-1911; Thomas Simpson Sproule, 1911-1915; Albert Sevigny, 1916-1917; Edgar Rhodes, 1917-1921; Rodolphe Lemieux, 1921-1926. =Speakers of the Senate= (since Confederation). Joseph E. Cauchon, 1867-1872; P. J. O. Chauveau, 1873-1874; David Christie, 1874-1878; R. D. Wilmot, 1878-1880; A. E. Botsford, 1880; Sir D. L. Macpherson, 1880-1883; William Miller, 1883-1887; J. B. Plumb, 1887-1888; G. W. Allan, 1888-1891; Alexandre Lacoste, 1891; J. J. Ross, 1891-1896; Sir A. P. Pelletier, 1896-1901; L. G. Power, 1901-1905; Raoul Dandurand, 1905-1909; James K. Kerr, 1909-1911; C. P. Landry, 1911-1916; Joseph Bolduc, 1916-1922; Hewitt Bostock, 1922-1926. =Special Council.= As a result of the Rebellion, the constitution of Lower Canada was suspended in 1838, and in April Sir John Colborne summoned a Special Council. On the 1st June, Lord Durham dissolved the Special Council, and appointed one of his own consisting of his chief secretary, Charles Buller, T. E. M. Turton, Vice-Admiral Sir Charles Paget, Major-General Sir James McDonell, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Grey, Colonel George Cowper, Arthur Buller, Major-General John Clitherow, Commissary-general Routh, all members of Durham’s staff, and Dominick Daly, the provincial secretary. The beginning of November, 1838, the Special Council was reconstituted, and remained until February 10th, 1841. Its chairmen were successively, James Cuthbert, Toussaint Pothier, James Stuart and George Moffatt. The members, who served for varying periods, were, in addition to those mentioned above, Charles Etienne Chaussegros De Léry, Peter McGill, Marc Pascal de Laterrière, Barthélémy Joliette, Pierre de Rocheblave, John Neilson, Amable Dionne, Samuel Gerrard, Jules Quesnel, William P. Christie, Charles Eusèbe Casgrain, William Walker, Joseph Edouard Faribault, John Molson, Etienne Mayrand, Paul Holland Knowlton, Turton Penn, Joseph Dionne, Thomas Brown Anderson, Ichabod Smith, Thomas Austin, Dominique Mondelet, Edward Hale, Robert Unwin Harwood, John Wainwright, Jean Baptiste Taché, Charles Richard Ogden, Dominick Daly, Frederich George Heriot, Henry Black, Charles Dewey Day. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_, vol. x; Audet, _Canadian Historical Dates and Events_; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Spragge, John Godfrey= (1806-1884). Born in New Cross, Surrey, England. Came to York with his father, 1820. Educated at the Central School, York, under his father, who was headmaster, and at the Home District School under John Strachan. Called to the bar, 1828; elected a bencher of the Law Society of Upper Canada, 1835, and treasurer of that body, 1850. Appointed judge of the Surrogate Court of the Home District, 1836; master in Chancery, 1837; registrar of the Court of Chancery, 1844; vice-chancellor of Upper Canada, 1851; chancellor, 1869, and chief-justice of Ontario, 1881. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Stadacona.= An Indian town, which stood near the mouth of the St. Charles river, in what is now the city of Quebec. It was occupied by a tribe of the Huron-Iroquois race, of which Donnacona was chief in 1535, when Jacques Cartier brought his little fleet to anchor in the St. Charles. =Bib.=: Casgrain, _Champlain_. =Stairs, William J.= (1820-1897). Born at Halifax, son of William Stairs, a well-known merchant of the first half of the nineteenth century. The son was one of the founders of the League of the Maritime Provinces, or the Anti-Confederation League (_q.v._), of which he became vice-president. Appointed to the Legislative Council of Nova Scotia, 1867. His son, John F. Stairs, represented Halifax in the House of Commons, 1883-1896. =Standard Time.= In 1879 Sandford Fleming published a paper on “Time-reckoning and the selection of a prime meridian to be common to all nations” in the transactions of the Canadian Institute, and with quiet persistence urged his views upon learned societies and governments in Europe and America until they were generally adopted. The Astronomer Royal of Russia, Otto Struve, some years ago said: “It is through Mr. Fleming’s indefatigable personal labours and writings that influential individuals and scientific societies and institutes in America and Europe have been won over to the cause.” The idea was endorsed at the International Geographical Congress at Venice in 1881 and the Geodetic Congress at Rome the same year. Time-reckoning by the standard of Greenwich and the zone system were adopted by Canada and the United States in 1883. In 1885 the Canadian Institute published a special volume on the subject. In furthering the movement Sandford Fleming had the active support of the Royal Society of Canada. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Sandford Fleming: Empire Builder_. =Stanmore, Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, Baron.= Born in London, England, in 1829. Fourth son of fourth Earl of Aberdeen. Represented Beverley in the Imperial Parliament, 1854-1857. Secretary of Special Mission to Corfu, 1858-1859. Lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1861-1866. Governor of Trinidad, 1866-1870; Mauritius, 1871-1874; Fiji, 1875-1880; New Zealand, 1880-1882; high commissioner and consul-general Southern Pacific, 1877-1882; governor of Ceylon, 1883-1890. During his tenure of office in New Brunswick, he was at first inclined to oppose Confederation, but reversed his attitude on instructions from the Colonial office. He was a strong advocate of Maritime union. Organized first military camp in New Brunswick. =Bib.=: _Wilderness Journeys in New Brunswick_; _Story of a Little War_; _Life of Lord Aberdeen_; _Memoir of Sidney Herbert_. =Star.= Newspaper published in Montreal. Established in 1869 by Hugh Graham (Baron Atholstan), George Thomas Lanigan (1845-1886) and Marshall Scott. Lanigan was a brilliant journalist who afterwards joined the staff of the New York _World_ and wrote a series of clever political Fables, and the amusing bit of doggerel called “The Akhoond of Swat.” =Steamship Service.= The earliest steam vessel in Canadian waters was the _Accommodation_, which made her first trip between Montreal and Quebec in 1809. She was followed by the _Swift Sure_ in 1811. The _General Smyth_ made her first journey on the St. John river in 1816; and the _Frontenac_ was the pioneer steamer on Lake Ontario, 1817. In 1834 the _Beaver_ was launched on the Thames, and went into service on the British Columbia coast the following year. The _International_ was the first steam vessel on Red River. The first vessel to cross the Atlantic under steam was the _Royal William_, built at Quebec, 1830-1831, and crossed the Atlantic, 1833. The _Unicorn_, built by Samuel Cunard, sailed from Liverpool to Halifax in 1840. The _Britannia_ followed the same year. The Allan Line began its career in 1852, the Dominion Line in 1870, the Canadian Pacific Steamship Line in 1859, and the Canadian Northern in 1910. _See also_ Allan; Cunard; Molson; _Accommodation_; _Royal William_. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Steele, Sir Samuel Benfield= (1849-1919). Born in Purbrook, Simcoe county, Ontario. Served during Fenian Raids, 1866; Riel Rebellion, 1870; joined the Mounted Police, 1873; commanded cavalry and scouts of General Strange’s column in the Rebellion of 1885; in charge of the Mounted Police posts at the summits of White and Chilkoot passes during the gold rush of 1898; commanded Lord Strathcona’s Horse in South Africa, 1900; officer commanding Military District No. 13, 1907-1909, and Military District No. 10, 1909-1910; in command of troops at Shorncliffe throughout the War of 1914-1918; promoted to major-general, and knighted. =Bib.=: _Forty Years in Canada_. =Steeves, William Henry= (1814-1873). Born at Hillsborough, New Brunswick. Represented Albert county in the Assembly, 1846-1851; member of Legislative Council, 1851-1867; surveyor-general, 1854-1855; commissioner of public works, 1855-1856, and, 1857-1863; member of Intercolonial Railway Council, 1862; delegate to Charlottetown Conference, 1864; and Quebec Conference, 1864; called to the Senate, 1867. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Stefansson, Vilhjalmur= (1879-). Born Arnes, Manitoba. Educated University of North Dakota and Harvard. Has carried out a number of expeditions to the Arctic, and made important contributions to the causes of exploration, archaeology and ethnology, 1906-1907, 1908-1912, 1913-1918, on behalf of the Canadian government and Harvard university. =Bib.=: _Life with the Eskimo_; _The Friendly Arctic_; _The Northward Course of Empire_; _Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-1918_; Noice, _With Stefansson in the Arctic_. =Steinhauer, Henry Bird= (1804-1885). A full-blooded Chippewa Indian. Born in the Ramah Indian settlement, Lake Simcoe, Ontario. Adopted in early life by a Pennsylvania family whose name he took and by whom he was educated. About 1840 went to the North-West with the Rev. James Evans. Established himself at Norway House, where he remained for fifteen years. Assisted Evans in his invention of the Cree syllabic characters. Translated almost the whole of the Old Testament, and the greater part of the New Testament, into Cree. About 1858 removed to Whitefish Lake and established the Methodist mission there. =Bib.=: MacLean, _Vanguards of Canada_. =Stewart, Alexander= (1794-1868). Born in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Engaged in the West Indies trade. Afterwards studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1822. Elected to the Assembly in 1826. Appointed a member of the Legislative Council in 1837, and of the Executive Council in 1840. Longley describes him as an eminent lawyer, a man who had attained a recognized position in the history of the province, and who was “associated with those fighting the battle of the assembly.” Apparently his views changed somewhat after he became a member of the Legislative Council, as he was in 1838 appointed a delegate with Lewis M. Wilkins to proceed to England and defend the old system. =Bib.=: Longley, _Joseph Howe_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Stikine River.= Rises in northern British Columbia and flows into the Pacific, through Alaskan territory, after a course of 335 miles. The name is a corruption of the Thlinkit word _sta-hane_, meaning “the river.” The mouth of the river was visited by Captain Cleveland in 1799. The Russians built Port Dionysius there in 1834, on the site of the present town of Wrangell. An attempt by the Hudson’s Bay Company to establish a trading post on the river the same year was prevented by the Russians. Three years later, the Russian post was acquired by the Hudson’s Bay Company, and renamed Fort Stikine. The upper waters of the river were visited by J. McLeod, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1834. The river was explored in 1863 by Lieutenant Pereleshin, of the Russian navy; and in 1866-1867 by the surveyors of the Western Union Telegraph Company. =Bib.=: Blake, _Geographical Notes upon Russian America and the Stickeen River_; Dawson, _Report on Yukon District_ (Geol. Survey Report, 1887-1888). =Stirling, Sir William Alexander, Earl of= (1567?-l640). King James gave him a patent, September, 1621, to the territory now embracing the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick and the Gaspé peninsula. To further the colonization of his huge domain, Alexander persuaded the king to institute the baronetcy of New Scotland, or Nova Scotia. In 1628 the first colonists were landed at Port Royal. _See also_ Baronets of Nova Scotia. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Rogers, _The Earl of Stirling’s Register of Royal Letters Relative to the Affairs of Scotland and Nova Scotia_; Alexander, _An Encouragement to Colonies_ in Laing, _Royal Letters Relating to Colonization of New Scotland_; Patterson, _Sir William Alexander_ (R. S. C., 1892); Kirke, _The First English Conquest of Canada_; Campbell, _The Scotsman in Canada_. =Stisted, Sir Henry William.= Educated at Sandhurst and entered the army as ensign, 1835. Served through the Persian War and the Indian Mutiny. Made major-general, 1864, and divisional commander of the troops in Upper Canada, 1866. Appointed first lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1867; held office until July 14th, 1868. Returned to England; knighted, 1871. Died in England, 1875. =Bib.=: Read, _Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada_. =Stobo, Robert.= Acted as Wolfe’s guide in reconnoitering the north shore above Quebec in 1759. William Wood says of him: “The British guide in these operations was the infamous Stobo, an officer of the Virginia Regiment, who had been taken as a hostage by the French for the affair of Fort Necessity. He had kept up a correspondence with the British forces, notwithstanding his parole, and had been condemned to death in consequence. Unfortunately, he had been reprieved; and he repaid French generosity by escaping to Louisbourg, and then coming back to Quebec as a spy.... His character has been highly coloured by several hands, and he has often passed as a hero of romance and a prominent figure in the Battle of the Plains. But nothing could be further from the truth. He was a disgrace to the Service in breaking his parole; and he was not in the battle at all, as he left Wolfe to join Amherst on the 7th of September.” =Bib.=: Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; _Memoirs of Major Robert Stobo, of the Virginia Regiment_. =Stoney Creek, Battle of.= Took place on June 5th, 1813, when the American troops, under Generals Chandler and Winder, were defeated by the British forces under Colonel (afterwards General) Harvey. The defeat was decisive, the two American generals being captured. It was a turning-point in the Niagara campaign. _See also_ War of 1812-1814. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Richardson, _War of 1812_; Wood, _The War with the United States_; Brymner, _Battle of Stoney Creek_. =Strachan, John= (1778-1867). Born in Aberdeen, Scotland. Graduated at King’s College, Aberdeen, in 1796. Came to Canada three years later, and opened a school at Kingston, Upper Canada. Ordained deacon in 1803, and priest the following year. Became rector of York in 1812; archdeacon in 1827; and bishop of Toronto, 1839. Appointed to the Executive Council in 1815, and to the Legislative Council in 1818; remained a member of the former until 1836 and of the latter until 1841. “He was,” says Burwash, “endowed with all the qualities of a great political leader, a pleasing personality, intense energy, tireless pertinacity of purpose, a mind fruitful of resources for the practical accomplishment of his purposes, and a judgment of men and of circumstances which enabled him to take their measure with accuracy and to make both serve his purposes.... His ambition was to make the Church of England dominant as the established church in the country with full control of the vast clergy reserve endowments and of the superior education as well as the government of the province.” Strachan took a deep and abiding interest in education in Upper Canada, and particularly in the establishment of secondary schools and colleges. Under the Act of 1816 he became the head of the educational system of the province as chairman of the general board. He is properly regarded as the founder of the University of Toronto. During a visit to England in 1827 he persuaded the government to sanction a university charter for King’s College, Toronto, which in time became the provincial university. He himself became its first president. Years later, when the government of Upper Canada decided to secularize King’s College, he founded Trinity College as a Church of England institution. It is, perhaps, part of the irony of events that Trinity, which Dr. Strachan founded as a protest against the “Godless university,” has since been affiliated with the provincial university. A tireless fighter for what he conceived to be the right, he fought in season and out of season against a non-sectarian university, against the secularization of the Clergy Reserves, and against what is known to-day as democratic government. He fought Robert Baldwin over the University bill; carried on an endless controversy with Egerton Ryerson on religious liberty, the question of a state church and political reform; and maintained against all comers the right of the Church of England to the Clergy Reserves. “Whilst every tribute,” says Bourinot, “must be paid to the zeal, energy, and courage of the bishop, we must at the same time recognize the fact that his former connection with the Family Compact and his inability to understand the necessity of compromise in educational and other matters did much injury to a great church.” That statement is confirmed in an opinion of Sir John Macdonald, quoted by Pope in his _Memoirs_. =Bib.=: Bethune, _Memoir of Bishop Strachan_; Mockridge, _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_; Burwash, _Egerton Ryerson_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Robertson, _The Fighting Bishop_. =Strachan, Marcus.= Lieutenant, Fort Garry Horse. _Victoria Cross._ At Masnières, on November 20th, 1917, he took command of the squadron of his regiment, when the squadron leader was killed, led them through the enemy line of machine-gun posts, and then, with the surviving men, led the charge on the enemy battery. All the gunners having been killed and the battery silenced, he fought his way back at night through the enemy’s line, after cutting three main lines of telephone communication two miles in rear of the enemy’s front trenches, and brought all unwounded men safely in, together with fifteen prisoners. =Strange, Thomas Bland= (1831-1925). Born in Merut, India. Educated at Edinburgh Academy and Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Entered Royal Artillery as second lieutenant in 1851; lieutenant-colonel, 1877; colonel, 1881; major-general, 1881. Served in India, 1857-1858. He was attached to the garrison at Quebec in 1871 when the Imperial troops were withdrawn, and was commissioned by the Dominion government to organize and command the first garrison of Canadian artillery. Established the Canadian school of gunnery. In 1881 he left the Canadian military service and engaged in ranching near Calgary. At the outbreak of the Rebellion of 1885 he took command of the Alberta field force. For several years he edited the _Canadian Military Review_. =Bib.=: _The Artillery Retrospect of 1870-1871_; _The Military Aspect of Canada_; _Manual for Canadian Artillery_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Strathcona and Mount Royal, Donald Alexander Smith, Baron= (1820-1914). Born in Archieston, Morayshire, Scotland. Entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1838, and spent thirteen years at various trading posts on the Labrador coast. Moved to the North-West, becoming chief factor, 1862; afterwards resident governor and chief commissioner; and ultimately governor of the Company in England. Appointed by the Dominion government in 1869, special commissioner to investigate the Riel Rebellion. Member of first Executive Council of the North-West Territories, 1870; represented Winnipeg in Manitoba Legislature, 1871-1874; elected for Selkirk to Dominion House, 1871, 1872, 1874, 1878; and represented West Montreal, 1887-1896. Appointed high commissioner for Canada in London, 1896. Knighted, 1886, and in 1897 raised to the peerage. In the debate on the Pacific Scandal in the Canadian House of Commons, in 1873, he absolved Sir John Macdonald personally from the suspicion of having taken money from Sir Hugh Allan for corrupt purposes, but nevertheless announced that he would have to vote against the government and against his own party. “For the honour of the country,” he said, “no government should exist that has a shadow of suspicion of this kind resting on them.” Although Macdonald at the time deeply resented his action, which contributed materially toward driving his government from power, Smith in 1878 helped to bring him back again, feeling that on his return to power depended the future of the country. Smith was one of the small group of far-sighted Canadians that laid the foundation of the Canadian Pacific Railway. More than once he, like his associates, faced the prospect of losing everything that he had in the gigantic undertaking—but in the end his faith was more than justified. He had the satisfaction of driving the last spike of the railway at Craigellachie in the Rocky Mountains, on November 7th, 1885. A man of extraordinarily varied experience, of tireless energy and resourcefulness, shrewd and strong-willed, ruthless to those who stood in his way, a princely benefactor, he did much to build up Canada from an insignificant colony to a strong and self-reliant Dominion. _See also_ Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870. =Bib.=: Willson, _Lord Strathcona_; Preston, _Strathcona_; Macnaughton, _Lord Strathcona_; Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Who’s Who_. =Strathcona’s Horse.= A corps raised and equipped by Lord Strathcona at his own expense for service in the South African War. _See_ Canadian Contingents in the Boer War. It also saw service in Europe, 1915-1919, being finally demobilized in the latter year. Its commanding officers in the European War, where it was known as the Royal Canadians, were successively: A. C. Macdonell, J. A. Hesketh, M. Doherty, D. G. MacDonald, C. Goodday. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =Street, John Ambrose.= Member of the New Brunswick Assembly, a member of the Executive Council, and solicitor-general. In 1837 the governor, Sir Archibald Campbell, sent him on a secret mission to England to delay assent to the Civil List bill, which gave the Assembly control of provincial revenues. When the matter came up in the House, he with one other member supported the governor. In 1851 succeeded Robert Parker as attorney-general, and became leader of the government in the Assembly. Introduced a series of resolutions favouring the building of the Intercolonial Railway jointly by Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Strickland, Samuel= (1804-1867). Born at Reydon Hall, Suffolk; brother of Agnes Strickland, Catherine Parr Traill, and Susanna Moodie. Entered the army, and reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Emigrated to Canada, 1826. The three sisters were all prolific writers, Miss Strickland (1796-1874) being the author of _Lives of the Queens of England_, _Lives of the Seven Bishops_, _Letters of Mary Queen of Scots_, etc.; Mrs. Traill (1802-1899) of _The Backwoods of Canada_, _Pearls and Pebbles_,and _Studies of Plant Life in Canada_; and Mrs. Moodie (1803-1886) of _Roughing it in the Bush_ and _Life in the Clearings_. =Bib.=: _Twenty-Seven Years in Canada West_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Strong, Sir Samuel Henry= (1825-1909). Born in Dorsetshire. England. Came to Canada; studied law, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1849. Member of the commission for consolidating the statutes, 1856. Appointed vice-chancellor of Ontario, 1869; transferred to the Court of Error and Appeal, 1874; puisne judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1875; and chief-justice, 1892-1902. Knighted, 1893. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Stuart, George Okill= (1807-1884). Born in York, Upper Canada. Grandson of the Rev. John Stuart (_q.v._). Educated at Kingston and Quebec, and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1830. Mayor of Quebec, 1846-1850; elected to represent Quebec in the Assembly, 1852; defeated at the general election, but again returned, 1857. Appointed by the Imperial government judge of the Vice-Admiralty Court of Quebec, 1873. =Stuart, Sir James= (1780-1853). Born at Fort Hunter, New York, where his father, John Stuart (_q.v._), was a missionary to the Mohawks. The son was educated at Kingston under John Strachan, and at King’s College, Windsor, N.S. He studied law in Montreal, and was admitted to the bar, 1801. Four years later he became solicitor-general of Lower Canada. In 1808 he was elected to the Assembly for Montreal, and continued to hold his seat until 1820. He represented William Henry (Sorel), 1825-1827. In 1825 he became attorney-general of the province, and member of the Executive Council, 1827. Suspended from office by Lord Aylmer in 1831, and the suspension confirmed by the colonial secretary. A few months later the injustice of the decision was recognized, and he was offered, but declined, the chief-justiceship of Newfoundland. Appointed chief-justice of Lower Canada, 1838, and continued to occupy the position until his death. Created a baronet, 1840. =Bib.=: Audet, _Les juges en chef de la province de Québec_ (_Revue du Droit_, 1925); Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Stuart, John.= Spent many years in the service of the North West Company, and afterwards of the Hudson’s Bay Company. He accompanied Simon Fraser on his famous journey down the Fraser in 1808. Stuart lake, in Northern British Columbia, was named after him. In 1813 he explored a route overland from the Fraser to the Columbia by way of lake Okanagan. He had built Fort St. James, on Stuart lake, 1806. Present at Astoria in 1814 when the post was transferred to the North West Company, and signed the agreement. Entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1821, and became chief factor the same year. Bryce says that, “he was a man of much information and literary tastes. Far up in the fastnesses of the Rocky mountains he kept in touch with the important new books, and from his lofty standpoint discoursed upon the amenities of literature in correspondence with his fellow-traders of kindred tastes.” He adds that Stuart is generally believed to have been the brains of the enterprise down the Fraser river. =Bib.=: Davidson, _North West Company_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Stuart, John= (1740-1811). Born at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. United Empire Loyalist. Sent as a missionary to the Iroquois, he prepared a Mohawk translation of St. Mark’s Gospel, and a history of the Bible. Persecuted as a Loyalist, he emigrated to Canada, and opened a school at Montreal, later moving to Kingston. He is described as the first Church of England clergyman in Upper Canada, and his Kingston academy as the first school in the province, opened in 1786. Became rector of Kingston and chaplain of the garrison. Father of Sir James Stuart (_q.v._). He supervised the education of the young Mohawks who had settled on the Bay of Quinte. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Stuart, Robert= (1784-1848). Born in Scotland, and educated in Paris, he came to Montreal in 1806, his uncle David being engaged there in the fur trade. Both entered the service of John Jacob Astor’s Pacific Fur Company, and sailed in 1810 in the _Tonquin_ for the Columbia. Returned in 1812 with the overland party to St. Louis and New York. In 1819 he represented Astor’s interests at Mackinac, and remained there for some years. Retired in 1833 and made his home in Detroit. Died during a visit to Chicago. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xix. =Sturgeon Lake.= On the north side of the lower Saskatchewan. A notable place in the annals of the Western fur trade. Here the traders from Montreal built a post about 1772; and in 1774 Samuel Hearne built a rival post for the Hudson’s Bay Company. The latter, Cumberland House, remained an important centre of the fur trade for many years, and is still in operation. By way of this lake, the fur traders’ route lay north to Frog portage and the Churchill river. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_. =Sullivan, John= (1740-1795). Commanded northern army during Revolutionary War in 1776; served in Canada during the American invasion, commanding the forces at Sorel; and took part in the battles of Trenton, Brandywine, and Germantown. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Sullivan, Robert Baldwin= (1802-1853). Born in Bandon, Ireland. Came to Canada with his father, 1819, and settled at York. Studied law and called to the bar, 1828. Practised for a time at Vittoria, in the county of Norfolk. Elected mayor of Toronto, 1835. Appointed to the Executive Council by Sir Francis Bond Head, 1836. Served in the militia during the Rebellion of 1837. Appointed to the Legislative Council, 1839; member of the first Executive Council after the union of Upper and Lower Canada; continued in the office under the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration. Resigned office with his colleagues, 1843; defended the course of the ministry against Sir Charles Metcalfe, and for the cause of responsible government, in a series of brilliant letters in the _Examiner_, under the _nom de plume_ of “Legion.” Again took office as provincial secretary in the second LaFontaine-Baldwin administration. In a public address in 1847, he urged the value to Canada of the North-West Territories, and the importance of settling and developing them without delay. The Americans were working their way west to Oregon, and unless something was done they would occupy the British west and outflank Canada. Sullivan was ahead of his time in his understanding of the tremendous potentialities of what afterwards became the Prairie Provinces of Canada. Appointed judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1848; judge of the Court of Common Pleas, 1850. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_ and _Last Forty Years_; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Sullivan, Sir William Wilfrid= (1843-1920). Born at New London, Prince Edward Island. Educated at Central Academy and St. Dunstan’s College, Charlotte town. Engaged for a time in journalism; studied law and called to the bar, 1867. Elected to the Assembly; held office as attorney-general; premier, 1879-1889; chief-justice of Prince Edward Island, 1889. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Sulpicians.= A Canadian order, founded by Jean-Jacques Olier, in 1640, as part of the threefold religious settlement of Ville Marie. Named after Olier’s parish of St. Sulpice, in Paris. After Maisonneuve had laid the foundations of Montreal, the Sulpicians built their Seminary, and became proprietors of the island, much of which still remains in their possession. They encouraged settlement on their seigniory, and in 1666, when Queylus was superior, granted a large tract of land at Lachine to La Salle. Among the notable members of the order in its early days were the Abbé Fénelon and Dollier de Casson, the latter the historian of the order. Their early history is closely identified with that of Montreal. Among their more recent works in the public interest is the establishment and support of a well-equipped public library in Montreal, of which Ægidius Fauteux, F.R.S.C., is librarian. =Bib.=: Dollier de Casson, _Histoire de Montreal_; Faillon, _Colonie Française en Canada_; Parkman, _La Salle_. =Sulte, Benjamin= (1841-1923). Born at Three Rivers. Served as a volunteer in the Fenian Raids, 1865-1866; employed in the Department of Militia and Defence, 1870-1903; president of Royal Society of Canada, 1904. One of the most prolific of Canadian historians; an authority on certain periods of the history of New France. =Bib.=: Works: _Mélanges d’Histoire_; _Histoire des Canadiens-Français_; _Pages d’Histoire du Canada_; _Histoire de la Milice Canadienne_; _Bataille de Châteauguay_; _Histoire des Trois-Rivières_; _Histoire de St. François-du-lac_; _La Mère Marie de l’Incarnation_; _La Langue François en Canada_. A collected edition of his works, edited by Malchelosse, is being published by Ducharme, Montreal; 13 volumes issued to 1926. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Superior, Lake.= Area, 31,800 square miles. Discovered by Étienne Brûlé, in 1622. In the next quarter century the devoted Jesuit Fathers penetrated to the shores of the lake. Jogues and Raymbault preached the faith at the outlet of the lake in 1641; Ménard attempted a mission on the south shore in 1661; and a few years later Allouez explored most of the same side. Radisson and Chouart penetrated to the western end of the lake and beyond in 1661; and Du Lhut covered much the same ground in 1678-1681. From that time, the shores of the lake became familiar ground to missionaries, explorers, and fur traders. =Bib.=: Kohl, _Wanderings round Lake Superior_; Agassiz, _Lake Superior_; Butterfield, _History of Brûlé’s Discoveries_; Longstreth, _Lake Superior Country_; _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_; Johnston, in Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_. =Supreme Court of Canada.= Created by Act of Parliament in 1875. Sits at Ottawa. Consists of a chief-justice and five puisne judges, who also constituted the Exchequer Court until 1887, when the latter was separated. The first chief-justice was Sir William Buell Richards, 1875-1879; succeeded by Sir William Johnston Ritchie, 1879-1892. For full list, _see_ under Chief-Justices. =Sutherland, Thomas J.= Took part in the Rebellion in Upper Canada, 1837-1838, as a supporter of William Lyon Mackenzie. Planned the occupation of Navy Island, in the Niagara river. He tried to escape after the failure of the Rebellion, was captured, tried and found guilty, but released. _See also_ Rebellion of 1837-1838; Navy Island. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canada Rebellion_. =Suze, Treaty of.= Signed, April 24th, 1629. Under its terms peace was declared between France and England; the former French possessions in America to revert to France. The conditions were not fulfilled until three years later. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_. =Sweatman, Arthur= (1834-1909). Born in London, England. Educated at Christ College, Cambridge. Headmaster of Hellmuth College, London, Ontario, 1865-1872; rector of Grace Church, Brantford, 1872-1876; archdeacon of Brant, 1876-1879. Succeeded Dr. Bethune as bishop of Toronto, 1879; and in 1907 elected archbishop and metropolitan, and primate of all Canada. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Mockridge, _The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland_. =Swift Current.= City of Saskatchewan, on the Canadian Pacific Railway. It is the translation of an Indian name for the Saskatchewan river. Name dates from 1882. Post office opened the following year. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Sydenham, Charles Edward Poulett Thomson, first Baron= (1799-1841). Born at Waverley Abbey in Surrey, England. His father’s firm was engaged in the Baltic trade, and he spent some of his early years in St. Petersburg. Elected to the British House of Commons for Dover in 1826, and four years later became vice-president of the Board of Trade and treasurer of the navy, and president of the Board of Trade in 1834. In 1839 offered the choice of Chancellor of the Exchequer or Governor-General of Canada, and chose the latter, partly at least because he would be associated with Lord John Russell as colonial minister. He came to the direction of Canadian affairs at a peculiarly difficult period. It was his lot to “bring to a close the old régime with its absolute racial antagonism and its party division of loyalists and rebels, and to open a new era of responsible government in which it was possible for both races to take their share in the government, and in which both government and opposition were brought within the pale of loyal Canadian citizenship. In accomplishing this he was required to be at once the last and most powerful of the autocratic governors, and the first and most influential of the diplomatic representatives under responsible government.” That he was eminently successful in this difficult rôle has long been evident to all students of Canadian history. With characteristic thoroughness, he made a tour of all the provinces soon after his arrival, visiting Upper Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as Lower Canada; conferring with the leaders of public opinion, and securing reports on a variety of questions with which he would have to deal. At the outset he found the Reformers and the Moderate Conservatives of Upper Canada friendly, but the extremists on both sides inclined to oppose his views; the French Canadians looked askance at the new governor. Ultimately, he managed by his tact and persuasiveness and honesty of purpose to win over all but the irreconcilables. One of the vexed questions which he managed to dispose of was the settlement of the Clergy Reserves. Another was the union of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. In financial affairs, trade, immigration, municipal government, public works and education, his sound common sense and good judgment were of inestimable value to the country. He was instrumental in reorganizing the public departments and the Executive Council; and took part in extradition and boundary negotiations with the United States. The consummation of union was marked by his elevation to the peerage as Baron Sydenham of Sydenham in Kent and Toronto in Canada. He had selected Kingston as the seat of government, and there he ended his life. Having completed in less than two years the great task he had undertaken, he was preparing to return to England for a well-earned and much-needed rest, but a serious accident aggravated a physical condition that was already decidedly unfavourable, and he died while the Legislature was completing its work. His final message to the Canadian people was published after his death. His “remarkable success in Canada,” says Dr. Shortt, “was undoubtedly due to the singular fitness of his personal qualities, training and experience for the exceptional task which was required of him at so critical a stage in Canadian history. He came to Canada with a wide knowledge of men and affairs. While no visionary, he was a courageous reformer, a sane and practical radical. His courage, his sanity, and his progressiveness are abundantly evidenced by the fact that, while many of the reforms which he advocated in Britain were regarded as ruinous or absurd, all were accomplished within the next thirty years. So also the radical changes which he introduced into Canadian constitutional practice and administrative government, and for which he was so bitterly denounced by his ablest Canadian critics, are now regarded as the very palladium of our liberties and the inspiration of our national life.” _See also_ Union of 1841; Clergy Reserves; Responsible Government. =Bib.=: Scrope, _Memoir of Life of Sydenham_; Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Dent _Last Forty Years_. =Sydney.= An important seaport of Nova Scotia; formerly the capital of the colony of Cape Breton. Named in honour of Thomas Townshend, first Viscount Sydney. The Indian name was _Cibou_, meaning “river.” Founded in 1784, and the seat of the local government until 1820, when the island was united to Nova Scotia. Incorporated as a town in 1886, and received a city charter in 1904. =Bib.=: Brown, _Place Names of Nova Scotia_. =Sydney, Thomas Townshend, first Viscount= (1733-1800). Entered parliament, 1754; lord of the treasury, 1765; war secretary, 1772; and home secretary, 1783. The office of home secretary then included the colonies. Carried on a considerable correspondence with Sir Guy Carleton, also with Haldimand, and took an intelligent and broad-minded view of colonial affairs. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Taché, Alexandre Antoninus= (1823-1894). Born in Rivière du Loup, Quebec, and educated at Quebec and Montreal. In 1845 volunteered as a missionary to the Indians on the Great Lakes, and in the same year ordained to the priesthood. Founded several missions, schools, colleges, and convents in the North-West. In 1853 became bishop of St. Boniface, and in 1871 made archbishop. He had done his best to avert the Rebellion of 1870 by warning the government of the serious unrest among the half-breeds and the importance of meeting their legitimate requests, but the government practically ignored his representations. =Bib.=: Works: _Sketch of the North-West of America_; _Vingt Années de Missions dans la Nord-Ouest_. For biog., _see_ David, _Vie de Taché_; Benoit, _Vie de Mgr. Taché, Archevêque de St. Boniface_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Taché, Sir Étienne Pascal= (1795-1865). Born in St. Thomas, Quebec. Served during the War of 1812-1815. Studied medicine, practising until 1841. Entered parliament, and in 1848 became commissioner of public works. Held the position of receiver-general from 1849 to 1856. Appointed to Legislative Council, 1856; subsequently elected Speaker; shortly after became premier, nominally with MacNab, but with John A. Macdonald as attorney-general and virtual leader of the lower House. In 1858 visited England; knighted by Queen Victoria; appointed to the honorary rank of colonel in the British army, and made an aide-de-camp to the queen. For a few months in 1864 again premier in conjunction with Macdonald, but on the defeat of the government retired from public life. “By his age, his long experience, and a certain benignity of disposition,” says Lewis, “Taché was admirably fitted to be the dean of the coalition and the arbiter between its (more or less antagonistic) elements.” He was a Liberal of the old school, and had no sympathy with the Rouges. Opposed secularization of the Clergy Reserves. Was instrumental in inducing the Grand Trunk to extend their lines from Quebec, or Lévis, to Rivière du Loup. He had been a delegate from Canada to the Quebec Conference and had been its chairman, and had presented the case for Confederation in the Upper Canadian Chamber. His loyalty toward the empire was expressed in the famous phrase. “The last gun fired for British supremacy in America will be fired by a French Canadian.” =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Leacock, _Baldwin, La Fontaine, Hincks_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_. =Tadoussac.= A town in Saguenay county, Quebec, situated at the confluence of the Saguenay river with the St. Lawrence. Founded in 1599 by Chauvin, and visited by Champlain in 1603 and 1609. J. E. Roy, in his _In and Around Tadoussac_ says that, long before the settlement of Canada, Tadoussac was a great centre of the fur trade, in which the Basques were largely interested. “It is recorded that in a single year, as many as 22,000 skins were shipped. The value of a single cargo was from 150,000 to 200,000 francs.” A Récollet mission there in 1627. The name is derived from the Montagnais word _Totouchac_ meaning “breast.” According to Father Jerome Lalement, the Indians called the place _Sadilege_. =Tait, James Edward.= Lieutenant, 78th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ In an attack near Amiens, August 8th to 11th, 1918, the advance having been checked by intense machine-gun fire, he rallied his company and led it forward with consummate skill and dash under a hail of bullets. A concealed machine-gun still causing many casualties, he dashed forward alone and killed the enemy gunner. Later when the enemy counter-attacked, he displayed outstanding courage and leadership, and, though mortally wounded by a shell, continued to direct and aid his men until his death. =Tait, Sir Melbourne McTaggart= (1834-1918.) Born at Melbourne, Quebec. Educated at St. Francis College, Richmond. Studied law in Montreal, and graduated B. C. L. at McGill University, 1862; called to the bar, 1863; practised at Melbourne and afterwards at Montreal. In 1882 created Q. C.; in 1886 became a fellow-in-law in McGill University; in 1887 appointed judge of the Superior Court of Quebec; in 1894 acting chief-justice; and in 1906 chief-justice. Retired, 1912. On the completion of the sixtieth year of Queen Victoria’s reign in 1897, knighted. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Talbot, Thomas= (1771-1853). Born at Malahide, county Dublin, Ireland. Obtained a commission in 1782; with Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington), was for a time aide-de-camp to the Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In 1790 joined the 24th regiment as lieutenant at Quebec. Attached to the staff of Governor Simcoe. Became major of the 5th regiment, and saw service in Europe. Resigning his commission after the treaty of Amiens, he obtained in 1801 a grant of 5,000 acres on the north shore of Lake Erie for the purposes of a settlement, and devoted himself to its development. Brought out a band of colonists from England, and others followed. Port Talbot became the centre of an ever-widening region of cultivated land, until, before his death, twenty-eight townships had been settled as the result of his efforts. “The keynote of Talbot’s character,” says Dr. Coyne, “will be found in his pride of birth, his military and court training, his domineering temperament, his isolation, and his desire to accumulate a great landed estate. Talbot Road and Settlement were merely incidental to his main object. His virtues, common to all settlers, were his unflinching loyalty and the welcome of the open door. To religious, political and moral reform he was blindly opposed or contemptuously indifferent.” =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Taylor, _Brit. Am. See also_ Coyne, _The Talbot Papers_ (R. S. C., 1907, 1909); Ermatinger, _Life of Colonel Talbot_; _The Talbot Régime_; Davis, _The Irishman in Canada_. =Talbot Road.= Projected by Thomas Talbot, and surveyed in 1809 by Mahlon Burwell. Follows generally an old Indian and pioneer trail. Settlers immediately began to come into the townships east of Port Talbot. The road extends from Fort Erie, at the eastern end of Lake Erie, through Port Talbot and the Talbot Settlement to the Detroit river. Dr. Coyne says it was the first good road of any considerable length in the province. In 1837 it was described by Mrs. Jameson as the finest in the province. A list of the original settlers on the Talbot Road will be found on p. 100 (R. S. C., 1907). =Bib.=: Coyne, _Talbot Papers_ (R. S. C., 1907, 1916). =Talon, Jean-Baptiste= (1625-1691). Born in Picardy, France. Held offices in the intendancies of Bordeaux and Lyons, and intendant of Hainant from 1661 to 1663. In 1663 intendant of New France. During his administration in Canada, was the first to build ships in the colony; opened up trade between Canada and the West Indies; established the first brewery in North America; and developed cod fisheries along the St. Lawrence. In 1668 left for France, but returned to Canada in 1670, and resumed the intendancy. In 1672 returned to France, and for several years held high positions in the king’s household. Abbé Gosselin, _Laval_, says that Talon “troubled himself little about the moral condition of the colony so long as he saw its commerce and industry flourishing.” Le Sueur, _Frontenac_, describes him as “a man of wide views, of singular discretion, and of indefatigable industry.” He took a keen and intelligent interest in the settlement of the country, sent Perrot to visit the northern and western tribes, promoted the explorations of Jolliet and Marquette, and took steps to develop the St. Maurice forges. =Bib.=: _Mémoire sur l’Etat Présent du Canada, attributé à M. Talon_ (Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc., _Hist. Doc._, 1st ser., 1840); Parkman, _Frontenac_; Garneau, _Histoire du Canada_; Faillon, _Histoire de la Colonie Française_; Bibaud, _Histoire du Canada sous la Domination Française_; Ferland, _Cours d’Histoire du Canada_; Miles, _Canada under French Régime_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Régime_; Roy, _Intendants de la Nouvelle France_ (R. S. C., 1903); Chapais, _Jean Talon, The Great Intendant_; Le Sueur, _Count Frontenac_. =Tanguay, Cyprien= (1819-1902). Born in the city of Quebec. Graduated at Quebec Seminary in 1839, and ordained priest, 1843. In 1860 removed to St. Germain, and was instrumental in building the cathedral for the diocese of Rimouski, as also the college and convent in that diocese. Entered the service of the Canadian government in 1865, and for some years connected with the statistics branch of the Department of Agriculture. In 1867 went to Paris to report on the French archives bearing on Canadian history. In 1883 received the honorary degree of Litt.D. from Laval University, and in 1886, being one of the original fellows of the Royal Society of Canada, received the Confederation medal from the Dominion government. In 1887 visited Europe and reported on the historical archives. Subsequently created a _Prélat Romain_ by the pope. =Bib.=: _Dictionnaire Généalogique des Familles Canadiennes_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Tarieu, de la Pérade de la Naudière, Charles François= (1710-1775). Married, in 1743, a daughter of Boishébert. He was an ensign in 1724; lieutenant, 1742; captain, 1750. In 1747 he commanded at Fort Ouiatanon; in charge of part of the militia at Carillon in 1748; and served at Quebec, 1759. Went to France after the capitulation, but returned to Canada, 1763, and became aide-de-camp to Dorchester; served against the Americans in 1775; became a member of the Legislative Council and deputy postmaster-general. =Bib.=: _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvii; Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_. =Tariff.= Customs duties on certain articles imported into Canada were levied and collected under both the French régime and the British régime. In the former they were pretty well confined to wine, brandy and tobacco. In Canada after the conquest, as well as in the Maritime colonies, the list was more extensive. It was not until the concession of responsible government that the regulation of the tariff and the collection and disposition of the resulting duties came finally under the control of the Legislatures. In 1841 the provincial tariff of Canada was revised, the duties on imported merchandise being advanced from two and one-half to five per cent. The following year a special duty of three shillings a quarter was imposed upon wheat from the United States. Up to 1843 the customs tariff was mainly on merchandise. In that year the Legislature put duties on horses, cattle and all grains other than wheat. The Customs Act of 1849 placed the average duty at about thirteen and one-quarter per cent. In 1856 the duty on general merchandise was raised to fifteen per cent. Between Confederation and the present time (1926) the average rate fluctuated for a decade between twelve and fourteen per cent; then jumped in 1880 to 19.70, and in 1888 to 21.57 per cent; varying in the next decade between seventeen and eighteen; and since then somewhat lower. The tariff of 1907, which still prevails with certain modifications, established three scales of duties, British preferential, intermediate and general. By the agreement with the West Indies in 1920 rates of duty were granted even lower than those of the ordinary preferential tariff. The regular British preference was increased in 1923. The intermediate tariff applies to certain foreign countries with which agreements have been made; and the general tariff to all other countries. Broadly speaking, the Conservative party in Canada has favoured a protective tariff, and the Liberal party a tariff for revenue only. See also Reciprocity; National Policy; Free Trade; Protection; Preferential Trade; Unrestricted Reciprocity; Commercial Union. =Bib.=: Skelton, _General Economic History of the Dominion_ (_Canada and its Provinces_); _Reciprocal and Preferential Tariffs_ (McGill Economic Series). =Tarte, Joseph Israel= (1848-1907). Born at Lanoraie, Quebec. Educated at l’Assomption College, he practised as a notary for a short time, and then drifted into journalism. He edited successively _Les Laurentides_, St. Lin, _Le Canadien_, Quebec, and _L’Evénement_, Quebec. Was for many years organizer of the Conservative party in Quebec. Elected for Bonaventure to the Quebec Assembly, 1877-1881. Represented Montmorency in the House of Commons, 1891-1892. He brought charges of fraud and corruption against members of his own party, which were investigated by a parliamentary committee. Joined the Liberal party, and in 1893 was elected in L’Islet as a follower of Laurier. His unusual ability as a political organizer did much to bring the Liberals into power in 1896. Became Minister of Public Works in the Laurier cabinet. Founded _Le Cultivateur_, and afterwards _La Patrie_, which his sons continued to edit after his death. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Taschereau, Elzear Alexandre= (1820-1898). Born at Ste. Marie de la Beauce, Quebec. Educated at the Seminary of Quebec; subsequently travelled throughout Europe; and in 1837 entered the Grand Seminary at Quebec. In 1842 ordained to the priesthood in his native parish. In 1847, while attending the sick and dying immigrants at Grosse Island, stricken with fever. In 1854 went to Rome, and in 1856 received the degree of D.D. In 1860 elected superior of the Quebec Seminary, the appointment including the rectorship of Laval University. In 1871 consecrated archbishop of Quebec, in succession to Archbishop Baillargeon. In 1872 founded the Hôtel Dieu du Sacré-Cœur at Quebec, and also instrumental in restoring the church at St. Anne de Beaupré. In 1886 created cardinal. Towards the end of 1894 retired from the administration of his diocese. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._; Têtu, _Le Cardinal Taschereau_; Hamel, _Taschereau_. =Taschereau, Sir Henri Elzear= (1836-1911). Born at Ste. Marie de la Beauce, Quebec. Educated at Quebec Seminary; called to the bar, 1857, and practised in Quebec. From 1861 to 1867 represented Beauce in the Canadian Assembly. In 1867 appointed a Q. C.; and in 1868 clerk of the peace for the district of Quebec. In 1871 appointed judge of the Quebec Superior Court; in 1878 judge of the Supreme Court of Canada; and in 1902 chief-justice; retired, 1906. In 1904 a member of the Imperial Privy Council. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Tassé, Joseph= (1848-1895). Born in Montreal. Educated at Bourget College. Chose journalism as his profession; in 1867 became editor of _Le Canada_; from 1869 to 1872 associate editor of _La Minerve_; and a director of _La Revue Canadienne_. About the same period appointed assistant French translator of the House of Commons. In 1878 elected to the House of Commons for Ottawa, and re-elected, 1882; member of the Senate from the province of Quebec, 1891-1895. =Bib.=: _Canadiens de L’Ouest_. =Taylor, John Fennings= (1817-1882). Born in London, England. Educated at Radley, England, and came to Canada, 1836. Held various clerical offices under the Assembly and Council of Canada, and after Confederation was appointed deputy clerk of the Senate. Died in Old Point Comfort, Va. =Bib.=: Works: _Portraits of British Americans_; _The Last Three Bishops Appointed by the Crown for British North America_; _Life and Death of the Hon. Thomas D’Arcy McGee_; _Are Legislatures Parliaments?—A Study and Review_. =Tecumseh= (1768-1813). Chief of the Shawnee tribe. Born near the site of Springfield, Ohio. First appeared as a brave in a battle with Kentucky soldiers about 1788. In the campaign of 1794-1795 between American troops and Indians, came into prominence as a daring warrior. In 1805 he and his brother Ellskwatawa, the Prophet, formed the project of uniting all the western tribes of Indians in a war against the Americans. With this object he visited the different tribes and he induced many to join his ranks. He is described as very erect, with an oval face, clear hazel eyes, straight nose, and a Napoleonic mouth, finely formed and expressive. He invariably dressed in the Indian fashion, and, although he could speak English, from motives of policy on public occasions always used his native tongue. In the campaigns of 1812-1813 he joined the British against the Americans, and was wounded at the battle of Maguaga. In 1812 was given the rank of brigadier-general. In 1813 killed at the battle of Moraviantown, on the Thames, while leading his Indian troops on the British side. Brock, whom the Indian warrior held in high respect, said of him, “a more sagacious or more gallant warrior does not exist. He was the admiration of every one who conversed with him. From a life of dissipation he has not only become in every respect abstemious, but has likewise prevailed on all his nation and many of the other tribes to follow his example.” =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Drake, _Life of Tecumseh_; Eggleston, _Tecumseh and the Shawnee Prophet_; Tupper, _Life and Correspondence of Brock_; Tupper, _Family Records_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Raymond, _Tecumseh_. =Telegraphs.= The semaphore system was used in Canada as early as 1809, between Isle Vert and the city of Quebec, for the purpose of signalling ships. The first electric telegraph in Canada was established in 1847 by the Toronto, Hamilton, Niagara and St. Catharines Telegraph Company. The same year a line connected Montreal and Quebec. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were connected by telegraph the following year. The first transcontinental telegraph was that of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1923 there were 270,782 miles of telegraph wire in Canada. The two principal systems are those of the Canadian National Telegraph Company and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. Six transoceanic cables have a terminus in Canada, five on the Atlantic and one on the Pacific coast. The first Marconi wireless telegraph station was established in Canada in 1903. There were in 1924 ninety radiotelegraph stations in Canada, government-owned and commercial. _See also_ Cables. =Bib.=: _Canada Year Book_, 1924. =Telephones.= _See_ Bell, Alexander Graham. =Temple, Sir Thomas= (1614-1674). Born in England. Given a grant of land in Nova Scotia, in 1656; induced Cromwell to confirm it, and in 1657 appointed governor of Acadia. Sailed for America, and occupied the forts of St. John and Pentagoet. On the restoration of Charles II, his claims were again in jeopardy, but were eventually confirmed. In 1662 created by Charles II a baronet of Nova Scotia, and again appointed governor. In 1667 Nova Scotia was ceded to France, and in 1670 Temple was forced to resign his claims to the territory. Afterwards settled in Boston, finally returning to England. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Thames, battle of the.= War of 1812-1814. In September, 1813, after Perry’s victory on Lake Erie, Procter’s position on the Detroit frontier became untenable. The Americans were pressing forward in force, and he had but 800 troops, not by any means all effectives, besides the Indians under Tecumseh. Destroying the fort at Malden and the shipyard, barracks and such stores as he could not take away, he retreated up the Detroit river and the Thames to a point about two miles short of the missionary station of Moraviantown, where he finally turned and faced the enemy, on October 5th. His movements had been “culpably slow, the movements of an undecided man,” and his retreat was cumbered by a great mass of baggage. Both white soldiers and red warriors were discouraged and disheartened by Procter’s lack of decision and spirit. Harrison, the American general, was following fast with about 3,500 men. Procter had a good defensive position at Moraviantown, but was hopelessly inferior in men, and had but one small gun. The result was a foregone conclusion. The regulars, conscious of bad leadership, put up a poor fight. The Indians did better, until Tecumseh fell, depriving the British cause of the “most skilful and the most chivalrous native leader who ever fought on their side.” Procter escaped with a handful of men, to be afterwards court-martialled. “It would have been well for his reputation,” says Lucas, “had he fallen like Brock or Tecumseh in the forefront of his men, instead of finding personal safety in headlong retreat.” =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Wood, _The War with the United States_; Lossing, _Field Book of the War of 1812_. =Thom, Adam.= Born in Scotland. Educated at King’s College, Aberdeen. Came to Canada, and practised law in Montreal. Appointed recorder of Rupert’s Land, 1838, and arrived in the Red River Settlement the following year. Also legal adviser to the governor of Assiniboia. His arbitrary conduct made him extremely unpopular, especially among the French half-breeds, and he was compelled to retire from the bench in 1849. The following year reinstated, to try a complicated case of defamatory conspiracy, but the verdict proved so unsatisfactory that Governor Caldwell procured his permanent removal, and had him appointed clerk of the court. Resigned this office in 1854, and returned to Scotland. _See also_ Red River Colony. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Manitoba_, and _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Ross, _Red River Settlement_; Begg, _History of the North-West_. =Thomas, John= (1725-1776). Born in Marshfield, Massachusetts. Surgeon in a regiment sent to Annapolis Royal, 1746; and in 1747 surgeon, and afterwards lieutenant, in Shirley’s Regiment. In 1759 promoted colonel of Provincials, and in 1760 commanded a regiment at the capture of Montreal. On the outbreak of the Revolution joined the colonials; raised a regiment of volunteers; and in 1775 became brigadier-general. In 1776 commanded a brigade at the siege of Boston, capturing Dorchester Heights, and promoted major-general. Succeeded to the command of the American army in Canada on the death of General James Montgomery, arriving before Quebec on May 1st, 1776. Died near Chambly, on the retreat from Quebec. _See also_ Siege of Quebec, 1775-1776. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Thompson, David= (1770-1857). Born in the parish of St. John’s, Westminster, England. Educated at the Gray Coat School; and entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1784. The first of his voluminous journals opens at Fort Churchill in that year. The last is dated 1850. The journals fill forty-five volumes of manuscript, and cover a period of sixty-six years. Remained in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company until 1797, and in that period carried on explorations and surveys of the Nelson, Churchill, and Saskatchewan rivers, and the intervening territory, and north by way of Reindeer river, Reindeer lake and Black river to lake Athabaska. In 1797 joined the North West Company. He had found the officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company entirely unsympathetic towards his plans for a comprehensive survey of their immense territories, and turned with relief to their rivals who gave him practically a free hand and ample facilities for exploration. In the years that followed, he explored the upper waters of the Assiniboine; made a journey overland to the Mandan villages on the Missouri; and another to the headwaters of the Mississippi; and surveyed portions of the upper waters of the Saskatchewan, Athabaska, and Peace rivers. From 1807 to 1811, explored the entire system of the Columbia and Kootenay rivers, from source to mouth. Left the North-West in 1812, and from 1816 to 1826 was engaged in surveying and defining the international boundary. Spent some years in the preparation of his great map of the North-West, which hung for many years in the hall of Fort William, and is now preserved in the Ontario Archives. It is reproduced in facsimile in the _Narrative_, and in part in the _Henry-Thompson Journals_. Afterwards carried our several minor surveys, in what is now eastern Canada, Died at Longueuil, near Montreal. “David Thompson,” says J. B. Tyrrell, “was the greatest land geographer who ever lived.... With extraordinary accuracy he placed on the map the main routes of natural travel in one million two hundred thousand square miles of Canada and five hundred thousand square miles of the United States. ... Study of his journals shows that on foot, by canoe, and on horse-back he covered fifty-five thousand miles.” As an example of his accuracy, with the cumbersome instruments of his day, Tyrrell notes that “his location of Cumberland House is within one mile of exactitude—nearer than the Capitol at Washington was placed by the foremost scientists up to the time when the Atlantic cable brought Washington into instantaneous communication with Greenwich observatory.” And he adds,” Thompson toiled in the wilderness without thought of the public distinctions that usually incite public men. He never learned to advertise. He suffered privation in his old age without a murmur. With a noble humility he exemplified the Christian virtues during nearly thirty years in the wilderness, where not a single missionary had ever been, For what he did and what he was he deserves to be held in everlasting homage.” A memorial to Thompson, in the shape of a reproduction of a typical trading post, was built on the shores of Lake Windermere, British Columbia, near the site of his own fort Kootenay, and in 1926 the Canadian Historical Association put a monument over his grave in Mount Royal cemetery, Montreal. =Bib.=: Tyrrell, _Narrative of David Thompson_; _Henry-Thompson Journals_, ed. by Coues; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Cochrane, _David Thompson_. =Thompson, David= (1796-1868). Born in Scotland. Served in the British army and in the Canadian militia. Taught school in Niagara and acted as a surveyor. In 1832 published _History of the late War between Great Britain and the United States of America_. =Thompson, Sir John Sparrow David= (1844-1894). Born in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Educated at Free Church Academy, Halifax. In 1859 a reporter in the House of Assembly. In 1865 called to the bar and practised in Halifax. In 1877 member for Antigonish, in the Assembly; and in 1878 attorney-general in the Holmes-Thompson government. On the retirement of Holmes in 1882, became premier, but being defeated in the House, resigned two months later. In 1882 appointed a judge of the Supreme Court. In 1885 minister of justice and attorney-general of Canada, in Sir John A. Macdonald’s government, being elected for Antigonish to the House of Commons. Appointed legal adviser to the British plenipotentiaries, who arranged the Fisheries Treaty with the United States in 1888, and knighted for his services. In 1892 premier, on the retirement of Sir John Abbott. In 1893 went to Paris as one of the arbitrators upon the Bering Sea fisheries dispute. In 1894, while on a visit to England, and soon after being sworn in as a member of the Imperial Privy Council, died suddenly at Windsor Castle. The British government sent his body home in a warship. Sir John Macdonald had selected him as minister of justice because of his conspicuous ability. “No more upright man,” says Sir Joseph Pope, “ever breathed. He had a fierce intolerance of the slightest departure from absolute rectitude.” He also had a caustic wit, of which Pope gives several amusing examples in his _Day of Sir John Macdonald_. “Thompson,” said Macdonald, “has just two faults. He is a little too fond of satire, and a little too much of a Nova Scotian.” Skelton, _Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier_, pays a tribute to Thompson’s “power of intellect, unswerving integrity, and sound Canadianism.” =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Hopkins, _Life of Sir John Thompson_. =Thompson, William= (1725-1781). Born in Ireland. Emigrated to Pennsylvania, and commanded a troop of mounted militia in the French and Indian campaigns. In 1776 appointed a brigadier-general by Congress, and sent to Canada with reinforcements for General John Thomas. On June 6th, ordered by General Sullivan, who had succeeded Thomas, to attack the enemy at Three Rivers, but was badly defeated and taken prisoner; exchanged two years later. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Thorneloe, George.= Born at Coventry, England, in 1848. Educated at Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, where he won unusual honours in Classics, English and mathematics. Entered the ministry of the Church of England. Elected bishop of Algoma, 1896. A delegate to the Lambeth Conference in 1897. Elected archbishop and metropolitan of Ontario, 1915. =Bib.=: Greene, _Who’s Who and Why_. =Thornton, Sir Edward.= Born in London, England, 1817; son of Sir Edward Thornton, minister to Portugal. Graduated at Cambridge in 1840. Entered the diplomatic service, and in 1842 stationed at Turin. In 1845 attaché in Mexico, and in 1851 secretary of legation. Appointed minister to the Argentine Confederation in 1859; and in 1865 minister to Brazil; in 1867 minister to Washington; in 1871 a member of the Joint High Commission on the _Alabama_ claims; and in 1873 one of the arbitrators of the American and Mexican Claims Commission. Joint plenipotentiary with George Brown to negotiate a reciprocity treaty between Canada and the United States in 1874. In 1878 served on the Ontario Boundary Commission. In 1881 appointed ambassador to St. Petersburg; and to Turkey in 1884; retired from the diplomatic service, 1887; made a G. C. B., 1883. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Thorpe, Robert.= A member of the Irish bar. Judge of the Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island, 1802; judge of the Court of King’s Bench of Upper Canada, 1805. Took part in the political quarrels of the time; elected a member of the Upper Canadian Assembly, 1807; dismissed from his judgeship by order of the secretary of state, on the representations of the governor, Sir Francis Gore; sued Sir Francis Gore in England for libel and recovered damages. Appointed chief-justice of Sierra Leone; returned to England after two years on account of ill health; brought with him for delivery a petition to the home government from the people of Sierra Leone, and on this account dismissed from office. Died in England. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Thousand Islands.= Name applied to a large number of islands in the St. Lawrence river, between Kingston and Brockville. Originally confined to the smaller islands between Brockville and Gananoque. The name _Les Mil Isles_, or in its modern form _Les Mille Iles_, first appears on a map by de Léry; dated 1727. Poncet, the Jesuit missionary, descending from the Mohawk country in 1653, was probably the first white man to see the Thousand Islands. This was one of the minor scenes in the War of 1812-1814. After the war Captain William Fitzwilliam Owen (1774-1857) surveyed the upper St. Lawrence (1818) from Lake Ontario to Cornwall, and gave them names associated directly or indirectly with the war. One group was called Brock, and the individual island in it named after other officers who had served in the war. Another group was the Indian, including Tecumseh and other native leaders. Others were the Admiralty, Lake Fleet and Navy Islands. To-day the Thousand Islands have been developed into a popular summer resort for both Canadians and Americans. It was the scene of Fenimore Cooper’s novel _The Pathfinder_. The Indian name was _Manatoana_ or the Garden of the Great Spirit. =Bib.=: Browne, _The St. Lawrence River_. =Three Rivers.= City of Quebec, at the mouth of St. Maurice river. Named after the three branches of the river formed by two islands at its mouth. First colonists settled there in 1633; the Jesuits arrived the following year; and the same year a fort was built by Laviolette, who is regarded as the founder of the town. It was for many years an important centre of the fur trade. Throughout the seventeenth century, it was the scene of almost constant conflict with the Iroquois. In 1670 the Jesuits were replaced by the Récollets; and in 1697 the Ursulines established a convent. The population in 1666 was 461. Haldimand was military governor there in 1762-1763, and again in 1763-1764. In the latter year the governorship was abolished. For list of governors under the French régime, _see_ under Governors. Three Rivers was used as a military depot by the Americans during their invasion of Canada. =Bib.=: Sulte, _Histoire des Trois-Rivières, 1634-1637_ and _Album d’Histoire des Trois-Rivières, 1634-1721_. =Thurlow, Edward, Baron= (1731-1806). Born in Norfolk, England. Entered parliament for Tamworth, 1768. In 1770 appointed solicitor-general, and in 1771 attorney-general. In 1774 supported on constitutional grounds the ministerial scheme for the government of Quebec province. In 1778 lord chancellor and raised to the peerage. Supported Pitt’s foreign policy throughout, but on other questions was not a loyal adherent of the prime minister. Throughout his career an ardent supporter of the king, and added all his influence in favour of the policy which led to the revolt of the American colonies. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Ticonderoga.= Known to the French as Carillon. Built by Lotbinière in 1755-1756, on a promontory at the southern end of Lake Champlain, where it formed the advanced post of the French, and guarded the frontier from British attack. Abercromby brought an army against it in 1758, and was badly beaten by Montcalm. The following year Amherst captured the fort, Bourlamaque retreating down the lake with his force. In 1775 it was taken by the Americans, under Ethan Allen; and recaptured in 1777 by Burgoyne, remaining in the possession of the British until the close of the war. Which the boundary was settled, it became the property of the United States. _See_ Carillon; Abercromby; Allen; Amherst. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Smith, _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_. =Tilley, Sir Samuel Leonard= (1818-1896). Born in Gagetown, New Brunswick, of United Empire Loyalist stock, his great-grandfather, Samuel Tilley, having been a grantee of Parrtown or St. John. Educated at the Madras school in Gagetown. Engaged in business in St. John for some years. Elected to the Provincial Legislature for St. John in 1850. Resigned the following year. Re-elected in 1854 and became provincial secretary. In the session of 1855 he introduced a prohibitory liquor law, as a private member. That became an issue in the elections of 1856, and both Tilley and the government were defeated. The new government went to the country in 1857 and was in turn defeated. Tilley came back to the Assembly, once more as provincial secretary. Took a deep interest in the Intercolonial Railway project, went to England to press the views of the province upon the Imperial government, and also attended the Quebec Railway Conference. He also proposed a uniform tariff for the Maritime provinces. A strong supporter of Confederation, he attended both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences, and later the Westminster Conference which put the finishing touches to the British North America Act. Elected to the House of Commons, and became minister of customs in the first Dominion government; afterwards succeeding Sir Francis Hincks as minister of finance. In 1873 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. In 1878 resigned his office and once more ran for St. John, elected to the House of Commons, and again became minister of finance in the Macdonald government. He took a leading part in framing the new tariff based upon the National Policy which had brought Macdonald back to power. In 1885 failing health forced him to resign, and he was once more appointed lieutenant-governor, retaining the office until 1893. He had been knighted in 1879. Died in St. John. He has been described as a statesman of ability, whose public and private life were equally free from stain, gifted with the capacity for securing and retaining friends, loyal to his own side without bitterness to his political opponents, a gentleman in the best sense of the term. Parkin in his _Sir John A. Macdonald_ says that Tilley’s influence was of scarcely less importance than that of Tupper in moulding the early history of the Dominion. “Previous to Confederation he had long been the foremost figure in the public life of New Brunswick, and it was his weight of character and tenacity of purpose which more than anything else determined that wavering province to commit itself finally to the scheme. Ability in administration and patriotic zeal were in him combined with a strength of moral purpose and a steadfast uprightness which enabled him to go through a long political career with less of the soil of politics than any of his contemporaries of equal standing. It was upon Tilley’s financial ability and the confidence which his character inspired among business men that Macdonald chiefly relied when it became necessary to put into actual operation the national policy of protection for native industries.” =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Hannay, _Life and Times of Sir Leonard Tilley_ and _History of New Brunswick_; Parkin, _Sir John A. Macdonald_; Lewis, _George Brown_; Pope, _Sir John Macdonald_; Stewart, _Sir Leonard Tilley_ (_Canadian Men of the Day_). =Timiskaming, Lake.= A long lake on the upper waters of the Ottawa river, sixty-seven miles long by about fifteen wide. According to Dr. Robert Bell, the name means “deep lake” in the Cree. James White gives the meaning as “at the place of the deep dry water,” referring to the extensive clay flats in the north-eastern portion of the lake, which are dry at low water. The average depth is over four hundred feet. For years the Hudson’s Bay Company maintained a small trading post on the east side of the lake, Temiscamingue House, now abandoned. The mining towns of Haileybury and Liskeard stand on the shores of the lake, in the Cobalt mining district. =Bib.=: Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_; White, _Place-Names in Quebec_. =Timiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway.= A railway built and operated by the Government of Ontario through a provincial railway commission. Runs from North Bay, on Lake Nipissing, and on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway, to Cochrane, on the Canadian National transcontinental line, a distance of a little over 371 miles, through the Cobalt and Porcupine mining districts. Begun as a colonization road in 1902, it was instrumental in opening up a territory rich not only in gold and silver but also in agricultural possibilities. =Tithes.= The collection of, practised in New France. In 1663 the king authorized the seminary of Quebec, founded by Laval, to collect tithes from the colonists for the maintenance of the priests and for divine service in the parishes. They were fixed by the Sovereign Council at a twenty-sixth part of the harvest. Laval had asked for a thirteenth, but the people protested and had the support of both the governor and the intendant. An edict of 1679 decreed that the tithes should only be paid to the permanent parish priests. After the conquest the Quebec Act legalized the tithe. Under the instructions to Dorchester in 1791, it was provided that tithes collected from Protestants should be used for the support of a Protestant clergy. This applied to both Upper and Lower Canada, but has long since become a dead letter. Tithes in Quebec for the Roman Catholic clergy may still be legally collected, but in practice other methods of raising the necessary revenue have generally been substituted. For the origin of tithes in Great Britain, see _Dict. Eng. Hist._ =Titles in Canada.= One barony survives from the days of New France, that of De Longueuil, which was officially recognized by the Imperial government. In 1781 the fourth baroness married Captain David Alexander Grant, and their son, Charles William Grant, succeeded as fifth baron. The eighth baron succeeded to the title in 1898. Sir Arthur Lawrence Haliburton, son of Thomas Chandler Haliburton, was created Baron Haliburton of Windsor, Nova Scotia, in 1898. The widow of Sir John Macdonald was created Baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe, in 1891. Other Canadians who have been elevated to the peerage are: Baron Mount Stephen of Mount Stephen, 1891; Baron Strathcona of Glencoe and Mount Royal, 1897; Baron Shaughnessy, 1915; Baron Atholstan; and Baron Beaverbrook. A list of Canadians who have been given the rank of baronet will be found in Audet’s _Canadian Historical Dates and Events_. Under the Constitutional Act of 1791 provision was made for the conferring of hereditary titles upon persons called to the Legislative Councils of Upper and Lower Canada, but no titles were actually conferred under this act. In a memorandum prepared for Lord Monck by Sir John Macdonald in 1867, he refers to a suggestion that had been made that the members of the Senate should hold the rank and title of Knight Bachelor, but thought it objectionable. In this same memorandum he suggested that the governor-general should be styled ‘His Excellency,’ the lieutenant-governors of the provinces ‘His Honour,’ and the members of the Privy Council ‘Right Honourable.’ The first two suggestions were adopted but not the last. The official table of titles now used in Canada will be found in the _Canadian Parliamentary Guide_. In 1919 the Canadian parliament adopted an Address to the King praying that His Majesty would “refrain hereinafter from conferring any title of honour or titular distinction upon any of your subjects domiciled or ordinarily resident in Canada, save such appellations as are of a professional or vocational character or which appertain to an office.” Parliament also asked that appropriate action be taken for the extinction of hereditary titles held by Canadians on the death of the present holders, and that “thereafter no such title of honour, titular distinction or dignity or title as a Peer of the realm shall be accepted, enjoyed or used by any person (domiciled or ordinarily resident in Canada) or be recognized.” Military and naval decorations were excepted. Foreign titles and distinctions were also forbidden to Canadians. =Tobin, Michael.= A member of the Uniacke government in Nova Scotia, 1848. Resigned his seat as a protest against Joseph Howe’s attack on the Irish Roman Catholics. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Tod, John.= Born in Water Leven, Dumbartonshire, Scotland. Joined the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1813, and employed for a time at York Factory as superintendent of the fur shed. Sent by Governor Simpson to New Caledonia, 1823; took an active part in the development of the Company’s operations west of the mountains. A man of strong personality, and a notable correspondent; many of his letters to Hargrave, Ermatinger, and other contemporaries among the fur traders have been preserved. Stationed at Fort McLeod in 1824, and still there when Sir George Simpson visited the post on his overland journey in 1828. Chief trader in charge of Fort Kamloops, 1846. Bancroft describes some dramatic incidents of his reign at Kamloops. Retired from the Company’s service, 1851; appointed same year a member of the council of government; subsequently a member of the Legislative Council of Vancouver Island. Died at Oak Bay, near Victoria. Left manuscript journals, copies of which are in the Public Archives of Canada. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Begg, _History of British Columbia_. =Todd, Alpheus= (1821-1884). Born in London, England. Removed to Canada in 1833. In 1836 appointed assistant librarian of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada, and upon the union of the two provinces of Canada, assistant librarian to the Legislative Assembly. In 1854 appointed principal librarian, and constitutional adviser to both Houses of the Legislature. In 1856, a library grant of £10,000 having been made, sent to Europe to expend it. Upon the Confederation of the provinces in 1867, appointed librarian to the Dominion Parliament. In 1881 received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Queen’s University, Kingston. =Bib.=: Works: _Parliamentary Government in England_; _Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies_. For biog., _see_ Rose, _Cyc. Can. Biog._ =Tolmie, William Fraser= (1812-1886). Born at Inverness, Scotland. Studied medicine; joined the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1832, arriving at Fort Vancouver the following year. Filled the dual positions of medical officer and trader in the Company’s service for many years. Stationed at Fort McLoughlin, 1833-1836; visited Scotland, 1841-1843; chief factor, 1856, and removed to Victoria, where he was appointed to the board of management of the Company, 1859. Retired in 1860, and for five years sat in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia. Died in Victoria. Tolmie Channel was named after him. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_; Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Tonquin.= An American vessel, which brought out the Astorians from New York to the Columbia in 1810. She was commanded by a somewhat irritable and domineering officer, Captain Thorn. The following year, accompanied by Alexander McKay, one of the partners of Astor’s company, Thorn sailed north on a trading expedition. At Nootka, while trading with the natives, he struck one of the principal chiefs and turned him out of the ship. A few days later a large party of Indians came on board, ostensibly to trade, but carrying concealed weapons. At a preconcerted signal, they fell on the officers and crew, killing all but five seamen, who hid themselves in the hold. Four of these escaped the following day in a boat, but perished at sea. The natives, believing the ship deserted, come on board in a crowd to pillage her. Suddenly, while four or five hundred were huddled together on the deck, the ship blew up with a frightful noise. The sailor who had remained behind, probably wounded, is supposed to have taken this terrible revenge. An Indian of Gray’s Harbour, who had been among the crew, managed to escape during the massacre, and brought the news to Astoria. =Bib.=: Franchére, _Voyage to the North-West Coast of America_; Irving, _Astoria_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Tonty, Chevalier Henri de= (1650-1704). Born in Gaeta, Italy; son of a well-known financier, and inventor of the Tontine form of life insurance; also a cousin of Du Lhut. Served in the Silician wars, where he lost one of his hands. Introduced to La Salle in Paris, and agreed to join him in his ambitious schemes of western exploration. They crossed the Atlantic together in 1678, and the same year set forth for the west. At Cayuga Creek, above Niagara Falls, Tonty built the _Griffon_, while La Salle went back to Fort Frontenac for supplies. In the spring of 1679, they sailed together to Michilimackinac; descended the Illinois, 1680, and built Fort Crèvecœur. Tonty remained in charge after the departure of La Salle, but was compelled to seek refuge among the Kaskaskia as his men mutinied and burned the fort. Wounded in Iroquois attack. In 1682 accompanied La Salle down the Mississippi to the Gulf. He almost alone of La Salle’s associates remained loyal to him to the end. Engaged in the fur trade at Fort St. Louis after the death of La Salle. Remained there until 1700, when he was deprived of his post by the king, and joined Iberville’s colony at Biloxi. Died at Mobile of yellow fever. _See also_ La Salle. =Bib.=: Parkman, _La Salle_; Margry, _Relations et Mémoires Inédits_; Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_; Legler, _Henry de Tonty_ (Parkman Club _Publications_, No. 3). His narrative of the 1678-1680 expedition of La Salle is in Kellogg’s _Early Narratives_, 286-297. =Toronto.= Capital of the province of Ontario. The name is of Huron origin and means “place of meeting.” Fort Rouillé was built on the site of the city by the French in 1749; also known as Fort Toronto. In 1793, Governor Simcoe moved the seat of government from Newark (Niagara), to Toronto Bay, and named the new settlement York. In 1813 it was captured and sacked by the Americans. In 1834 the city was incorporated and renamed Toronto. Became the seat of government of the province of Ontario in 1867. Had been in the fifties the capital of Canada, alternately with Quebec. _See also_ York. =Bib.=: Robinson, _History of Toronto_; Robertson, _Landmarks of Toronto_; Adam, _Toronto Old and New_; Scadding, _Toronto of Old_; Mulvany, _Toronto Past and Present_; Taylor, _Toronto Called Back_; Pearson, _Toronto of Old_; Hopkins, _Toronto: an Historical Sketch_. =Toronto University.= Projected in 1797, and chartered, 1827, as King’s College, mainly through the efforts of Bishop Strachan. The charter was amended in 1837, as the result of an agitation against its theological bias. In 1849 the university was completely secularized; and in 1853 received its present name. In 1887 the charter was again amended. Victoria, Knox, St. Michaels, and Wycliffe colleges were affiliated with the university in that year; and Trinity in 1903. Further changes were made in the government of the university in 1906. Baldwin’s act of 1849, transforming King’s College into the University of Toronto, placed it, according to Sir John Bourinot, “upon that broad basis on which it still rests.” Loudon, a former president of the University, criticized the act because of the needless complexity of its clauses and its failure to affiliate the sectarian colleges. Leacock also draws attention to “the elaborate regulation of the whole structure and the lack of elasticity in its organization, in marked contrast to the more simple provisions of the charter of King’s College,” but says, “the great merit of Baldwin’s University Act lay, not in its treatment of the details of organization but in the cardinal point of establishing a system of higher education, non-sectarian in its character, in whose benefits the adherents of all creeds might equally participate.” The University of Toronto, as a provincial organization supported and controlled by the province, has not benefitted by private benevolence to the same extent as, for instance, McGill University. It has, however, been the recipient of one very notable gift in Hart House, built and equipped by the public-spirited Massey family. See also Strachan; Baldwin; Ryerson. =Bib.=: Loudon, _History of the University of Toronto_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. 4; Burwash, _Founding and Development of University of Toronto_ (R. S. C., 1905); _The University of Toronto and its Colleges, 1827-1906_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_. =Tory Party.= The name is said to be derived from an Irish word, meaning to pursue for the sake of plunder. “It was,” says the _Dictionary of English History_, “applied to those Irish who, in 1654, preferred to remain as outlaws in their own lands to emigrating to Connaught. The government offered prizes for their heads, and a free pardon to any Tory who brought in the head of a confederate.” In English politics the word “appears to have been first used contemptuously to designate the Court and Roman Catholic party in the disputes between the Abhorrers and Petitioners in 1679.... In William III’s reign the term was coming into current use without an opprobious meaning, as the title of the party who opposed the Whig interest in Church and State.” The younger Pitt was responsible for putting the Tory party and its principles on a solid and enduring basis. In the early history of the British North American Colonies, the party was made up, as in England, of the majority of the propertied class, who were “opposed to what were assumed to be revolutionary and radical changes in domestic affairs.” It has also to some extent been regarded as synonymous with United Empire Loyalist (_q.v._). _See also_ Conservative Party; Liberal-Conservative Party. =Bib.=: Cooke, _History of Party_; Kingsford, _History of Canada_. =Totem Poles.= Carved cedar poles erected by members of various Indian tribes along the north Pacific coast from Vancouver Island to Alaska. Among the Haida they are said to be of three principal varieties: the outside and inside house poles, and memorial columns. Grave posts were “almost always crests owned by the family of the deceased, while those on house poles might be crests or they might illustrate stones.” Tsimshian posts were more slender than those put up by the Haida, “but the ones erected in front of Kwakiutl houses are usually much more slender still, and are all heraldic, referring to the tradition of the house-owner.” A similar practice is recorded among some eastern tribes, such as the Iroquois and Delaware. The making of totem poles on the Pacific coast is rapidly becoming a lost art, and efforts are being made to preserve the examples that remain, some of which are extraordinarily bold and impressive. =Bib.=: White, _Handbook of Indians of Canada_. =Townshend, Sir Charles James= (1844-1924). Born at Amherst, Nova Scotia. Educated King’s College, Windsor. Studied law and called to the bar, 1866; Q. C., 1881. Was for several years a member of the law faculty of King’s College. Made a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia in 1887; appointed chief-justice in 1907; retired, 1915. He had been elected to the Nova Scotia Assembly in 1878, for Cumberland county, and again in 1882; to the House of Commons in 1884. Member of the Executive Council of Nova Scotia, 1878-1882. Chancellor of King’s College, 1887-1907. =Bib.=: _History of the Courts of Judicature of Nova Scotia_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; Greene, _Who’s Who and Why_. =Townshend, George, Marquis= (1724-1807). Born in Norfolk, England. Entered the army, and engaged in the battles of Dettingen, Fontenoy, and Culloden. In 1759 ordered to Canada; brigadier-general, and commanded one of the divisions under Wolfe. Commanded British right in the battle of Montmorency, and same position in the Battle of the Plains. On Wolfe’s death succeeded to the command, and received the capitulation of Quebec. Returning to England, served in continental campaigns. Lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1767 to 1772. In 1784 created Earl of Leicester, and in 1787 Marquis Townshend. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Townshend, _Life of Marquess Townshend_. =Tracy, Alexandre de Prouville, Marquis de= (1603-1670). Served with distinction in the French army, and in 1655 recaptured Cayenne from the Dutch. In 1663 appointed lieutenant-general of all the French dominions in America, and, after spending a year in the West Indies, reached Quebec, June 30th, 1665. With the newly arrived Carignan-Salières Regiment as his weapon, at once initiated a vigorous policy against the Iroquois, and especially the contumacious Mohawks. Built forts at the mouth of the Richelieu, at Chambly, forty miles up-stream, and two others still higher up the river toward Lake Champlain. In 1666, with thirteen hundred men, marched against the Mohawks, burnt their villages, and drove them into the woods. The following year deputies arrived at Quebec from all the Iroquois tribes, suing for peace. Having secured to the colony a peace which lasted for nearly twenty years, returned to France, Laval held him in high esteem. “He is,” he wrote Pope Alexander VII, “a man powerful in word and deed, a practising Christian, and the right arm of religion.” Le Sueur describes him as “a brave old soldier of much distinction.” =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime_; Charlevoix, _History of New France_; Le Sueur, _Count Frontenac_; De Brumath, _Bishop Laval_; Scott, _Bishop Laval_. =Trade.= During the French period, domestic trade was encouraged, trade with France permitted but under restrictions, and trade with foreign countries rigidly forbidden. Talon attempted to build up trade with the French West Indies, but with indifferent success though in 1686 three vessels sailed from Canada loaded with wheat. Non-resident merchants, and particularly the Huguenots, were held under severe restraints. Merchants from France were held to a definite tariff of prices, and if they sold above these prices were condemned to heavy penalties. Vessels attempting to engage in foreign trade were treated as pirates. Nevertheless a considerable amount of traffic was carried on between New France and New England. Shipments from the colony to France, of lumber, fish, whale oil and other commodities were encouraged, the king sending vessels for the purpose and assisting the merchants in other ways. The fur trade was, however, from beginning to end, the main resource of the colony. In the early days of the British régime, the fur trade remained the most considerable branch of Canadian commerce. Outside that, commerce was pretty well restricted to the Mother Country. Up to 1787 the importation of commodities of any kind from foreign countries was strictly forbidden. In that year an Ordinance was passed regulating trade to a limited extent with the United States. Goods or manufactures of foreign European or Asiatic countries were, however, still forbidden, unless imported through Great Britain, and in British ships. Trade gradually developed with Newfoundland and the West Indies. In 1774 three hundred thousand bushels of wheat, besides considerable quantities of flour, were shipped to these colonies from Canada. Up to the time of the repeal of the corn laws and the adoption of free trade in England, Canada enjoyed a considerable commerce with the Mother Country. The withdrawal of the preference to Canadian commodities, together with the operation of the old navigation laws which closed the St. Lawrence to foreign shipping, bore very heavily on Canadian trade. The navigation laws were repealed in 1849, and trade gradually developed with the United States and other foreign countries, helped very materially, so far as the former was concerned, by the adoption of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854. With the final concession of responsible government, Canada and the other colonies were free to adopt trade policies designed to meet their economic conditions, and to build up both internal and external commerce. In more recent years, trade treaties have been made by Canada not only with France, Belgium and other foreign countries, but also with other parts of the empire. The total trade of the Dominion has grown since Confederation from $119,791,879 in 1868 to $1,951,920,164 in 1924. _See also_ Fur Trade; Reciprocity; Commercial Union; Transportation; Free Trade; Protection; National Policy. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Old Régime in Canada_; Shortt and Doughty, _Documents Relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Skelton, _General Economic History of the Dominion_ (_Canada and its Provinces_). =Traill, Catherine Parr= (1802-1899). Born in England; daughter of Thomas Strickland of Reydon Hall, Suffolk, and sister of Agnes Strickland and Susanna Moodie. Educated at home. Began to write at an early age, her first volume of stories for children being published in 1818. In 1832 married Lieutenant Thomas Traill of the Royal Scotch Fusileers, and some months later they removed to Canada. Most of her books were written in Canada, and embody her experiences in the backwoods, and her intimate studies of plant life. =Bib.=: Works: _Plant Life in Canada_; _Canadian Wild Flowers_; _Canadian Crusoe_s; _Pearls and Pebbles_, with biog. sketch by Mary Agnes FitzGibbon. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Cel. Can._; MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =Transcontinental Railways.= _See_ Canadian Pacific Railway; Canadian Northern Railway; Grand Trunk Pacific Railway; National Transcontinental Railway; Canadian National Railways. =Transportation.= Pioneer transportation in Canada was very largely water transportation. Long before even primitive roads were available, and long before railroads were dreamed of, the sparse population of the country made its way about by means of the rivers and lakes. Canada is extraordinarily well-favoured in this respect. It is not merely theoretically true, but has been established in practice, that a man starting in a canoe from such a central reservoir as Lake Winnipeg, can make his way, with no other impediment than an occasional portage, to the Atlantic or Pacific or Arctic, to Hudson Bay or to the Gulf of Mexico. As time went on, the canoe or York boat gave place to the sailing vessel on the Great Lakes and other waterways. Meanwhile, at shipyards in the Maritime Provinces and on the St. Lawrence, ships were being built to carry the commerce of the country to the seven seas. In time, steam took the place of sails, and iron of timber. Pioneer transportation by land, up to the advent of the railway, was for the most part a painful experience, as the available roads were few and very primitive. Benjamin Franklin stated before a committee of the House of Commons in 1766 that the only post-road then in Canada was between Montreal and Quebec, and this was a relic of the French period, having been completed in 1734. Before the close of that century, however, fairly good roads were available between Nova Scotia and Quebec, and westward to Toronto and the site of London, later extended to the Detroit river. Stages operated between Quebec and Montreal in the French period. In 1816 a stage was put on the route from Montreal to Kingston, and the following year from Kingston to York. In 1842 a daily line was in operation throughout the settled districts of what was then Canada. The principal towns of the Maritime Provinces were, about the same time, connected by roads and stages. The railway era in Canada dates from the building of the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railway in 1835-1836. _See also_ Railways; Canals; Roads; Ocean Steamships; Shipping; Portage Routes. =Bib.=: Skelton, _The Railway Builders_; Wood, _All Afloat_; Smith, _History of the Post Office_; Burpee, _Pioneer Transportation in Canada_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_; Lewis, _George Brown_. =Treaties.= _See_ Aix-la-Chapelle; Ashburton; Jay’s; Paris; St. Germain-en-Laye; Ryswick; Breda; Utrecht; Suze; Versailles, 1783; Versailles, 1919; Oregon; Washington. =Treaty-Making Power.= While Sir Alexander Galt was in England in 1878 he obtained the concession that in the negotiation of trade treaties the settlement of the details would be left to the Canadian representative. When he was high commissioner, about 1880, the intervention of the colonial office was done away with so far as foreign treaties were concerned, and the high commissioner was put into direct communication with the foreign office. In a letter from the foreign office to the colonial office, July 26th, 1884, when Sir Charles Tupper was high commissioner, it said: “If the Spanish government are favourably disposed, a full power for these negotiations will be given to Sir Robert Morier and Sir Charles Tupper jointly. The actual negotiation would probably be conducted by Sir Charles Tupper; but the convention, if concluded, must be signed by both plenipotentiaries, and be entered into between Her Majesty and the king of Spain, with the special object of regulating Canadian trade with the Spanish territories specified in the convention.” In 1893 Tupper signed a commercial treaty with France. Since that time, Canada has negotiated a number of trade treaties with foreign nations, and in 1925 her representative signed, alone, a convention with the United States. She cannot, however, make a political treaty with a foreign country, except through the Imperial government. On the other hand, her own representatives signed on behalf of Canada the treaties of peace with Germany and her allies. It may also be noted that in 1878 Canada was granted the right to decide whether or not she should be included in any treaty entered into by Great Britain with a foreign power. =Bib.=: Kennedy, _The Constitution of Canada_; Borden, _Canadian Constitutional Studies_. =Trent Affair.= Took place in November, 1861, when Captain C. Wilkes of the United States navy intercepted the British mail steamer _Trent_ sailing from Havana, and arrested two commissioners from the Confederate States who were passengers, and who were accredited to France. They were conveyed to the United States and imprisoned in Boston. The affair caused great excitement; war between Great Britain and the United States seemed imminent, and was averted only by the release of the two commissioners, on the demand of Great Britain, in January, 1862. There seemed the possibility at one time that it might lead to another invasion of Canada by the United States, and it was, therefore, instrumental in bringing about the reorganization of the Canadian militia as a precautionary measure. In a footnote to his _Memories of Confederation_, Sir Richard Cartwright says: “There is no doubt that at the time of the Trent difficulty Mr. Lincoln was strongly urged to come to terms with the South and to seize Canada. Many years later, in Washington, the writer was assured by a very eminent American statesman that this proposition had been seriously debated. According to his informant the deciding factor in the case was the alarm felt at the threatened invasion of Mexico by an Anglo-French and Spanish force and the well-grounded apprehension felt by the United States authorities of the ulterior designs of the emperor of the French. This, coupled with the conviction that the recognition of the South meant the loss of all effective control over Central America and the possible Isthmian Canal, turned the scale decidedly in favour of peace. As for Canada, the six weeks’ suspense during which no man knew from day to day whether we would find ourselves at war, produced a most profound impression. A witty friend of the author was wont to maintain that the true father of Confederation was neither Brown, Cartier nor Macdonald, but Captain Wilkes, U.S.N.” Certainly, it did much to make the scattered British North American colonies realize their need of mutual support, and incidentally helped along the Intercolonial project. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Harris, _The Trent Affair_; King, _Turning on the Light_; Roberts, _History of Canada_. =Trent Canal.= A system of navigation extending from Trenton on the Bay of Quinte to Georgian Bay. Follows the Trent river to Rice lake, thence by the Otonabee river to Peterborough, thence by a series of rivers, lakes and artificial channels to Lake Simcoe, Lake Couchiching and Sparrow lake, and by the Severn river to Georgian Bay. The first proposals for the improvement of this water route were made in 1827, and between 1833 and 1835 a wooden lock was built at Bobcaygeon which made possible the continuous navigation of lakes Chemong, Buckhorn, Pigeon and Sturgeon and thence by the Scugog river to Lindsay. In 1837 work was commenced on the Trent river, and by 1844 continuous navigation had been established between Healey falls and Peterborough. Additional work was done between 1869 and 1872 west of Peterborough, and continued between 1883 and 1887. By the construction of locks and other works between Peterborough and Stoney lake and between Balsam lake and Lake Simcoe, between 1895 and 1907, a continuous route became established from Healey falls to Lake Couchiching which, with the Scugog route, opened over two hundred miles of inland navigation. The completion of all the works necessary for through navigation between Trenton and Rice lake was accomplished between 1908 and 1918. The minimum depth of the canals and locks is six feet. =Trinity College.= College with university powers, established at Toronto. Now affiliated with the University of Toronto. Founded by Bishop Strachan in 1851, after King’s College had been transformed into a non-sectarian provincial university. _See also_ Strachan. =Bib.=: Clark, _The University of Trinity College_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. iv; Bethune, _Memoir of Bishop Strachan_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_. =Tripe de roche= (_Umbilicaria Dillenti_). A more or less edible species of lichen growing on rocks in northern Canada. Constantly referred to by explorers, and, in some cases, saved them from starvation. Perrot describes it as a “sort of gray moss, dry, which has no flavour of its own, tasting only of the soil, and of the soup in which it is cooked.” He adds that in many cases without it the Indians would die of hunger. Father André says: “It is necessary to close one’s eyes when one begins to eat it.” Charlevoix mentions it in similarly uncomplimentary terms. Robert Campbell, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in describing his experiences at Dease lake in 1839, says they were reduced to _tripe de roche_, the parchment windows of the trading post, and the leather lacing of their snowshoes. =Troyes, Chevalier Pierre de.= Born in France. Entered the army, and came to Canada as an officer of the Carignan Regiment. In 1686 he commanded an expedition of one hundred men against the forts of the Hudson’s Bay Company on Hudson Bay. With him went three members of the famous Le Moyne family—Iberville, St. Hélène, and Maricourt. They were successful in surprising and capturing Moose Factory, Fort Rupert, and Albany. Took part in Denonville’s campaign of 1687; left at Niagara with a hundred men to rebuild the fort erected by La Salle nine years before, and died there of some malignant disease. =Bib.=: Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Parkman, _Old Régime_. =Truro.= Town in Nova Scotia. Named after the town of the same name in Cornwall, England. At one time known as “Cobequid.” In 1912 the Nova Scotia Historical Society put up a tablet in the court-house with the following inscription: “This Tablet commemorates the British settlement of Truro, Onslow and Londonderry, 1760-1762, partly by a colony of English stock from New England, chiefly of Scots-Irish from New Hampshire and Ireland under the leadership of Colonel Alexander McNutt.” Incorporated as a town in 1875. =Bib.=: Campbell, _Place Names of Nova Scotia_. =Tupper, Charles= (1794-1881). Born in Cornwallis, Nova Scotia. At the age of twenty-one entered the ministry of the Baptist church. Held charges at various places in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. Settled at Amherst, where he became principal of the Grammar School, 1834. Appointed principal of the Baptist Seminary at Fredericton, New Brunswick, 1838. Returned to Amherst, 1840. Settled at Aylesford, 1851, where he remained until his death. =Bib.=: Hill, _Forty Years with the Baptist Ministers and Churches of the Maritime Provinces of Canada_. =Tupper, Sir Charles, Bart.= (1821-1915). Born at Amherst, Nova Scotia. Educated at Acadia College and at Edinburgh. In 1843 graduated M. D. and won the diploma of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. For some years he practised medicine at Amherst. In 1855 he entered public life, in a spectacular way, by defeating the redoubtable Joseph Howe in Cumberland; his success being all the more marked because Howe’s party was otherwise successful throughout Nova Scotia. Howe announced on his return to Halifax that he had been beaten by the future leader of the Conservative party. In 1856, when the Conservatives came back to power, he became provincial secretary in the Johnstone government. In 1860 the government was defeated, though Tupper held his own seat, and for the next three years he was the virtual leader of the Opposition, and both in the Assembly and through the columns of the _British Colonist_, of which he had become editor, fought for his political principles with that dogged persistence and invincible optimism that were characteristic of the man. In 1863 the Howe government was defeated, Johnstone came back to power, and the following year, when he was elevated to the bench, Tupper succeeded to the premiership. Despite the eminent services he was to give in the future to the as yet unborn Confederation, Tupper’s biographer, J. W. Longley, is of opinion that “history will record the four years of his administration of the affairs of Nova Scotia as the greatest era in Tupper’s life—an era in which he displayed the highest qualities and achieved the most striking personal success.” He carried out an aggressive railway policy; had the courage and the driving force to establish a system of free schools for Nova Scotia—and it is not easy to realize the antipathy at that time of the average citizen to being taxed for education; also he insisted that they should be non-sectarian schools, which brought against him another strong body of opposition; and he showed once more, in defending certain unpopular grants to Dalhousie College, that, whatever his faults, he was no opportunist. But a much more momentous problem was to tax his powers, his enthusiasm, his leadership, his magnetism, to the utmost. He became the apostle of Confederation, and, in spite of the fierce opposition of Joseph Howe and other anti-Confederation leaders, and the widespread sentiment throughout Nova Scotia against union with the other provinces, he carried his province into the new Dominion and kept it there. He attended the Charlottetown Conference as one of the delegates from Nova Scotia; also the Quebec Conference; and the Westminster Conference. In London he successfully fought Howe’s strenuous opposition to the passage of the British North America Act. But perhaps his most extraordinary achievement was the conversion of Howe to Confederation, and bringing him into the Dominion government. That Tupper was a man who could put the larger interests of the public before his own personal ambitions is evidenced by the fact that he set aside his own very natural desire for, and his obvious claim to, a seat in the first Dominion ministry in order to make room for Howe, realizing the tremendous importance in the interests of Confederation of securing the adhesion of the former opponent of Union. In 1867 he had been elected member for Cumberland in the first House of Commons of the Dominion; and in 1870 he became a colleague of Sir John Macdonald as President of the Council. In succeeding years held the offices of minister of inland revenue, 1872-1873; minister of customs, 1873; minister of public works, 1878; minister of railways and canals, 1879-1884. In the general elections of 1872 he had the satisfaction of seeing an overwhelming anti-Confederate majority transformed into an equally overwhelming majority for the Dominion government, and that result was undoubtedly due very largely to his own powers of leadership and talent as a political organizer. Although he was not in any way implicated in the Pacific Scandal, Tupper remained absolutely loyal to his leader, and in the dark days of Opposition that followed, when Macdonald felt keenly the circumstances of his defeat and the blow to his party, Tupper alone maintained, and in time made his colleagues feel, that boundless optimism that had carried him through many a past crisis and would in the future serve him equally well. During his tenure of office, after Macdonald’s return to power in 1878, he took an active part in such large questions as the development of the National Policy, and the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1884 he succeeded Sir Alexander Galt as high commissioner in England; was a member of the Fisheries Commission in 1887; and the same year returned to Canada as minister of finance. He was created a baronet the following year. Again sent to London as high commissioner in 1888 and held the office until 1896. In that year, at the urgent request of the Conservative party, which was going to pieces for lack of leadership, he returned to Canada, became prime minister, and, although a man of seventy-five, he carried out in the succeeding general election such a strenuous campaign of organization, travel and public speeches as would have broken many a man of half his age. The government was defeated, but it was no fault of Tupper’s. As Sir John Willison has said: “No braver man ever led a party into battle, and no more gallant fight was ever made to save a field than his in 1896.” From 1896 to 1900 he led the Opposition in the House of Commons. At last, and for the first time, in 1900 he went down to defeat, having been beaten in Cape Breton. He retired from the leadership of the Conservative party, and from public life, in January, 1901, in his eightieth year. He died in England. =Bib.=: _Recollections of Sixty Years_; _Political Reminiscences of Sir Charles Tupper_; Longley, _Sir Charles Tupper_; Saunders, _Life and Letters of Sir Charles Tupper_; Thibault, _Biography of Sir Charles Tupper_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_; Bourinot, _Builders of Nova Scotia_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John Macdonald_; Skelton, _Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =Tupper, Sir Charles Hibbert= (1855-). Born at Amherst, Nova Scotia. Son of preceding. Educated at McGill and Harvard. Studied law, and called to the bar, 1878. Q. C., 1890. Elected for Pictou to the House of Commons, 1882; re-elected, 1887, 1891, 1896, 1900. Minister of marine and fisheries, 1888; minister of justice, 1894. Resigned, 1896. Solicitor-general, 1896. Took part in the negotiations in connection with the Bering Sea Fisheries, and in 1892 was appointed British agent in the arbitration of that question at Paris, 1893. Attended Newfoundland Conference at Halifax, 1892. Afterwards made his home in British Columbia. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Turner, Sir Richard Ernest William.= Born, 1871, at Quebec. He served through the South African War. Won the _Victoria Cross_ by conspicuous bravery during the action at Komati river, November 7th, 1900, when the Boers seriously threatened to capture the guns. Although already wounded, he dismounted and deployed his men at close quarters, driving off the Boers and saving the guns. Given command of 10th Queen’s Own Canadian Hussars in 1905. Appointed to command of Eastern Townships Cavalry Brigade, 1907. Went overseas in 1914 as commander of the 3rd Infantry Brigade. Promoted brigadier-general, 1915; and the same year major-general in command of 2nd Division, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Appointed general officer commanding Canadian troops in British Isles, 1916. K. C. M. G., 1917. Promoted to lieutenant-general, 1917. K. C. B., 1918. =Bib.=: Greene, _Who’s Who and Why_. =Turnor, Philip.= Entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company about 1779, and carried out important surveys for the Company. Stationed at Cumberland House in 1789, and while there gave David Thompson instruction in practical astronomy. Between 1790 and 1792 made a survey of Lake Athabaska, and of the canoe route from Cumberland House to Great Slave lake. Dr. J. G. Kohl says that his manuscript journal of a _Journey from Cumberland House towards the Athapiscow Country and back to York Factory, 1790-1792_, is preserved in the archives of the Hudson’s Bay Company at London. His map of this region, the original of which is also in the Hudson’s Bay Archives, is reproduced in Burpee’s _Search for the Western Sea_. His careful survey of Lake Athabaska was important in that it corrected Peter Pond’s crude map, which placed the western end of the lake as far west as 131°, and so gave rise to the impression that the lake was within easy reach of the Pacific ocean. =Bib.=: Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_. =Tuscarora Indians.= A tribe of the Iroquois family, dwelling chiefly in North Carolina. In 1722 they were adopted into the league of the Iroquois in New York, forming the sixth nation. There are now a few hundreds living on the Six Nations Reserve, Grand River, Ontario. =Bib.=: _See_ Iroquois. =Twelve Apostles.= A group of islands on the south side of Lake Superior. So named, it is said, by Charlevoix, on whose maps it first appears in 1744. Madelaine Island is the largest of the group. It had been known during the French period as St. Michel, and a French fort stood upon its shores. Cadotte, the fur trader, built a fort on the same island many years afterwards. =Bib.=: McKenney, _Sketches of a Tour to the Lakes_. =Twelve Resolutions.= Presented by Joseph Howe before the Assembly of Nova Scotia in 1837. They embodied those principles of constitutional government for which he so long and strenuously contended. Passed by the Assembly, they met with opposition in the Legislative Council. Were embodied in an address to the crown, and brought about the partial concession of responsible government. _See also_ Howe. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Tyng, William= (1737-1807). United Empire Loyalist. Born in Boston. His father, Commodore Tyng (1703-1775), commanded the colonial fleet sent against Louisbourg in 1745; and his grandfather, Edward Tyng, was governor of Annapolis, Nova Scotia. William represented Falmouth in the General Court, 1772-1773. After the battle of Lexington, he went to Halifax, and from there to New York. In 1778 he was proscribed and banished by the American government. After the war he removed to St. John, New Brunswick, and became chief-justice of the Court of Judicature of New Brunswick. In 1793 he returned to the United States, and settled at Gorham, Maine, where he spent the rest of his life. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Ungava.= From an Eskimo word meaning “far away.” May be roughly described as the Labrador peninsula. Originally comprised, for the most part, within the region claimed by the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1869 became part of the North-West Territories of Canada. It was created a separate district in 1895, with the Eastmain and Hamilton rivers as its southern boundaries, and north to Hudson strait and Ungava bay, bounded on the west by Hudson and James bays, and on the east by the Labrador strip belonging to Newfoundland. The boundaries of the district were defined in 1897 and 1898, and in 1912 the district was added to the province of Quebec. =Uniacke, James Boyle.= Son of Richard John Uniacke. Practised law in Nova Scotia. Entered the Legislature some time before 1837. Appointed to the Executive Council, 1840, by Lord Falkland, and in 1848 formed an administration in which he took the office of attorney-general. This administration, in which he was associated with Joseph Howe, is notable as the first in Nova Scotia to function under a full measure of responsible government. The entire resources of the colony were placed at the disposal of the Legislature, and the post office system, as well as customs, roads and education. Uniacke also took an active part in the convention in Halifax, 1849, of representatives of the various provinces, which discussed commercial questions and recommended reciprocity with the United States. Appointed commissioner of crown lands, 1853. Died soon after. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_; Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Uniacke, Richard John= (1753-1830). Born at Castletown, County Cork, Ireland. Emigrated to the West Indies, 1773; went from there to Philadelphia the following year; and was induced by Moses Delesdernier, who was interested in the settlement of certain lands near Fort Cumberland, to come to Nova Scotia. In 1776 he was arrested as a sympathizer with the rebellious colonists; pardoned, and returned to Ireland, where he studied law. Returned to Nova Scotia in 1781, and admitted to the bar the same year; appointed solicitor-general, 1782. Entered the House of Assembly as member for Sackville, 1783, and from the beginning took an active part in public affairs. Chosen Speaker, 1789. Appointed attorney-general, 1797, and held the office until the time of his death. Again Speaker, 1799. Appointed to the Council, 1808. Died at Mount Uniacke. =Bib.=: Power, _Richard John Uniacke_ (N. S. Hist. Soc. _Coll._, vol. ix); Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; Trotter, _Early Proposal_ (by Uniacke) _for the Federation of British North America_ (_Can. Hist. Review_, June, 1925); Longley, _Joseph Howe_. =Union of 1841=. Grew out of Lord Durham’s insistence that the establishment of constitutional government and the opening of the gate to prosperity in Canada must be based upon the reunion of Upper and Lower Canada. There were difficulties in the way, in both provinces, and Poulett Thomson, afterwards Lord Sydenham, was sent out to smooth them over. Gifted with skill, patience, tact and determination, he did smooth them over; made the situation clear to his friend and associate Lord John Russell; and the Union Act was passed through the Imperial Parliament in 1840. The Union was brought into force by proclamation in February, 1841. It provided one Legislative Council and one Assembly for the united province of Canada, the members of the former holding office for life and of the latter elected in equal numbers from each of the old provinces. A consolidated fund was provided for, from which the expenses of the judiciary, government, and pensions might be paid. The Legislature was to control the rest of the revenue. The original records were to be in English, but might be translated into French, and the latter could be used in debate. It was a large, though not a final, step towards complete self-government. Appropriation and taxation measures still originated with the governor, though the Assembly was free to deal with them afterward. Nor did Sydenham see eye to eye with Baldwin in the matter of Cabinet responsibility. It remained for Confederation to bring in complete measure government by and for the people as we understand it to-day. =Bib.=: Kennedy, _The Constitution of Canada_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Bourinot, _Constitutional History of Canada_; Egerton and Grant, _Canadian Constitutional Documents_; Turcotte, _Canada sous l’Union_; Robinson, _Canada and the Canada Bill_; Bonnycastle, _Canada in 1841_; Shortt, _Lord Sydenham_; Bourinot, _Lord Elgin_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_. =United Church of Canada.= In 1924 and 1925, as the result of a widespread agitation to unite the Methodist, Presbyterian and Congregational churches of Canada, bills were put through both the Dominion Parliament and the several provincial Legislatures, creating the United Church of Canada. Broadly speaking, the arguments of the proponents of the measure were that it would be economically beneficial to the denominations involved; that it would save an enormous duplication of effort in small places and new settlements, as well as in the mission field; that it would bring people closer together; and that it would be productive of all the advantages of united, cooperative effort. The opposition argued that, so far at least as the Presbyterian Church was concerned, the concensus of opinion was very far from unanimous; that the proposed measure would be confiscatory, as well as coercive and unconstitutional; that it would invade the religious freedom of tens of thousands of people in Canada and put out of existence the Church to which they owed allegiance. The Union Bill passed its third reading in the Senate, July 14th, 1924; action in the provinces was taken in some cases before, in others after, the action of the Dominion. Provision was made for the continuance of the Presbyterian church, and for an equitable distribution of property. The United church was officially established on June 10th, 1925. =Bib.=: _Canadian Annual Review, 1924-1925_. =United Empire Loyalists.= _See_ Loyalists. =United Farmers.= Organizations of farmers in all the western provinces, as well as in Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick, established in the first instance as an economic movement to improve agricultural conditions in the various provinces, but which ultimately developed, in most of the provinces, into a political movement. In Ontario, the United Farmers were the logical successors of the Patrons of Industry, and of the Grange. They were organized in 1914, and four years later put candidates in the field in the provincial elections and swept the province. E. C. Drury, their leader, became premier, and the U. F. O. government remained in power until 1923, when their defeat was as decisive as their victory had been in 1918. Three years later the United Farmers of Alberta, who had also gone into politics, were successful in the provincial elections, and their leader, Herbert Greenfield, became premier of Alberta. For the federal political activities of the Canadian organized farmers, _see_ Progressive Party. =Bib.=: Wood, _History of Farmers’ Movements in Canada_; MacKintosh, _Agricultural Cooperation in Western Canada_. =United States and Canada.= The interests of the United States and Canada touch and have touched at so many points in war and peace, in matters political, social, economic and intellectual, that it is not possible to do more than refer to the more outstanding topics. _See_ Alabama Claims; Alaska Boundary; American Invasion; Annexation; Commercial Union; Extradition; Fenian Raids; Fisheries Question; International Boundary Commission; International Joint Commission; International Joint High Commission; International Waterways Commission; King William’s War; Maine Boundary; North West Angle; Oregon Boundary; Pontiac’s War; Queen Anne’s War; Rebellion of 1837-1838; Reciprocity; Revolutionary War; St. Alban’s Raid; Seven Years’ War; Treaties; Trent Affair; United Empire Loyalists; War of 1812-1814. _See also Canadian Annual Review_ (founded, 1901) under _United States_. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; _Canada and its Provinces_; Wrong, _United States and Canada_; Macdonald, _North American Idea_; Falconer, _United States as a Neighbour_. =Universities.= Laval University, in its earliest form, dates back to 1668, and is, therefore, the oldest institution of its kind in Canada. King’s College, Nova Scotia, dates from 1788; and the University of New Brunswick from 1800. _See also_ Acadia; Alberta; British Columbia; Dalhousie; King’s; Knox; Laval; McGill; McMaster; Manitoba; Montreal; New Brunswick; Ottawa; Queen’s; St. Francis Xavier; Saskatchewan; Trinity; Toronto; Victoria. Also Prince of Wales College, and Upper Canada College. =University of British Columbia.= Its establishment undertaken before the war, and Dr. F. F. Wesbrook appointed as president, but work on the permanent buildings at Point Grey, near Vancouver, had to be postponed until after the war. The university opened in 1915 in temporary quarters, making use of the buildings of the McGill University College of Vancouver, which formed the nucleus of the new university. It began with seven departments—chemistry, civil engineering, classics, English, geology and mineralogy, history, mathematics and mechanical engineering; as well as colleges of agriculture and applied science. The university is supported by the province. =Unrestricted Reciprocity.= Commercial union with the United States having been brought forward as an alternative to the Conservative National Policy of Protection, and proving unpopular because of the suggestion it contained of political union, the idea of Unrestricted Reciprocity was substituted—practically the same thing under another name. Between 1887 and 1891 it was urged with skill and energy by Goldwin Smith, Erastus Wiman and Sir Richard Cartwright, and by such influential newspapers as the Toronto _Globe_ and _Mail_. It was also endorsed by the interprovincial conference of 1887; and resolutions advocating the exchange free of duty of “all articles manufactured in, or the natural product of, either country” were introduced by Sir Richard Cartwright in 1888, and, in a slightly modified form, in 1889. Rightly or wrongly, there was a widespread feeling throughout the country that the proposed policy menaced British connection, and in the general election of 1891 Sir John Macdonald made a very effective appeal to this sentiment in his famous denunciation of “veiled treason,” and his appeal for the “unity of the Empire and the preservation of our commercial and political freedom.” This, and the spectacular denunciation of Unrestricted Reciprocity by Edward Blake, together with the return to power of the Conservatives largely on the trade issue, served to permanently discredit the policy. _See also_ Cartwright; Wiman; Goldwin Smith; Macdonald; Blake; Laurier; Commercial Union; Reciprocity. =Bib.=: Parkin, _Sir John Macdonald_; Cartwright, _Reminiscences_; Adam; _Handbook of Commercial Union_; Skelton, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_. =Upper Canada.= The name originally applied by General Murray to the Montreal district, in 1760. Under the terms of the Constitutional Act of 1791, Quebec was divided into two provinces, and the name Upper Canada applied to the western province. The population at that time was made up chiefly of United Empire Loyalists from the United States. In 1841 Upper and Lower Canada were reunited; and in 1867 Upper Canada again became a separate province, under the name of Ontario (_q.v._). The first settlers in what afterwards became Upper Canada were the French at Cataraqui (Kingston), Rouille (Toronto), Niagara, and on the east side of the Detroit river opposite Detroit, if we except the still earlier missionary settlement of Huronia on Georgian Bay. The United Empire Loyalists settled for the most part on the upper St. Lawrence, the north shore of Lake Ontario, particularly about the Bay of Quinte, the Niagara peninsula, and parts of the north shore of Lake Erie. Later, the Canada Company brought many settlers to that part of the province lying between Lakes Erie and Huron; sturdy Pennsylvania Dutch laid the foundations of Waterloo county; land was taken up north of Toronto along Yonge Street to Lake Simcoe, and over to Georgian Bay; in the back districts north of Lake Ontario; and up the Ottawa river. The capital of Upper Canada, first established at Newark, was soon moved to York (Toronto), where it remained. Roads were built from Montreal to Kingston and Toronto, and from there branching north to Lake Simcoe, west to the Detroit river, and south to Niagara. The early railways of the province followed roughly the same general lines. The population was about 10,000 in 1791; in 1811 about 77,000; in 1826 about 120,000; in 1841, 455,688. With the history of Upper Canada are particularly associated the names of Simcoe, Brock, Strachan, Ryerson, Baldwin, Mackenzie, Head, MacNab, Hincks, and Sydenham. _See also_ Ontario. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Boulton, _Short Sketch of Upper Canada_; Haight, _Country Life in Canada_; Ryerson, _Loyalists of America_; Moodie, _Roughing it in the Bush_; Cumberland, _Pioneer Problem in Upper Canada_; Strickland, _Twenty-Seven Years in Canada West_; Mrs. Jameson, _Rambles in Canada_; _Canada and its Provinces_, vols, iii and iv. =Upper Canada College, Toronto.= May be said to date from 1807 when the Home District Grammar School of York was established, the first principal of which was Dr. G. O. Stuart, who was succeeded by Dr. Strachan in 1813. In 1816 a new building was erected, popularly known as the “Old Blue School.” Upper Canada College proper dates from 1829, when provision was made by the government for its establishment. In 1891 the college was moved to Deer Park and enlarged. It has been reorganized under the direction of W. L. Grant. =Bib.=: Adam and Dickson, _Upper Canada College_; _Canada: An Ency._, vol. iv. =Upper Canada Gazette.= Founded by Louis Roy in 1793. Subsequently edited by Charles Fothergill, who was also king’s printer. It had first been published at Newark, Upper Canada, and in his announcement Roy described it as “the vehicle of intelligence in this growing province of whatever may tend to its interest, benefit and common advantage.” Gideon Tiffany continued the publication until 1799, when it was transferred to York and taken over by Fothergill. Like some other newspapers of the period, it had both an official and non-official side—published government announcements, and also commented upon public affairs. In 1813 the Americans scattered the type and broke up the press. In 1817 Dr. Home revived it for a time. =Bib.=: Wallis, _Historical Sketch of Canadian Journalism_ in _Canada: An Ency._ =Ursulines.= A religious order of women, in the Roman Catholic church, founded, in 1535, at Brescia by Angela Merici. The order was established in France in 1684, and spread to Germany and other European countries. In 1639 four members of the order, Madame de la Peltrie, Marie de l’Incarnation, Marie de St. Bernard, and another not named, sailed from Dieppe for Quebec, where they were lodged at first in wooden huts, in what is now the Lower Town. Three years later, they took possession of the massive stone convent still occupied by the order. Quebec owes much to the Ursulines and their fine work in the cause of education. =Bib.=: _Les Ursulines de Québec_. =Utrecht, Treaty of.= Between France and Great Britain, signed in 1713. Provided for the restoration and full surrender of all claims to the Hudson Bay Territory, to Acadia, and to Newfoundland, by France; for compensation to the Hudson’s Bay Company; for the retention by France of certain fishing rights on the coast of Newfoundland; and the possession of Cape Breton and Anticosti by France. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_. =Vail, Edwin Arnold= (1817-1885). Born in Sussex, New Brunswick. Studied medicine at Edinburgh and Glasgow Universities. Elected to the New Brunswick Assembly, 1857; Speaker, 1865, and again in 1870; a member of the government, 1883. A strong opponent of Confederation. =Valdes, Cayetano.= Accompanied Maurelle and Galiano to the north-west coast of America in 1792. The previous year he had been with Malaspina in the _Descubierta_. In 1792 assisted in examining the channels between Vancouver Island and the mainland. Promoted to captain, 1795. He afterwards commanded the Spanish line-of-battleship _Neptuno_ at the battle of Trafalgar. The journal of Galiano and Valdes was published at Madrid in 1802 by order of the king. In an introduction an historical sketch is given of the earlier voyages of the Spaniards to the coast of America north of Mexico. Valdes Island, British Columbia, was named after the explorer. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Valenciennes, Battle of.= The greater part of October, 1918, had been spent in rearguard actions on a large scale, the Germans evacuating village after village and town after town, as they retreated before the victorious allies. For the purpose of gaining time, the enemy made a determined stand behind the flooded area of the Canal de l’Escaut in front of Valenciennes. South-west and north-west of the city the ground was considered impossible by reason of flooded areas and irrigation ditches. Mount Houy, south of Valenciennes, commanded the situation, and the Canadian Corps was entrusted with its capture. On November 1st, with the aid of splendid artillery support, the infantry crossed the inundated territory and stormed Mount Houy. Meanwhile, the engineers had built bridges over which part of the 3rd and 4th Divisions forced their way into the town, driving the Germans back through the streets until they fled in disorder out over the eastern roads. This was the last of the great French cities to be liberated, and a few days later President Poincaré made his state entry into the place. =Bib.=: Hill, _Cambrai to Valenciennes_ (_Canada in the Great World War_, vol. v.) =Valleyfield.= A city in Beauharnois county, province of Quebec. Dates from the establishment of paper mills there in 1853-1854. They were operated for forty-six years, and the site and power were then utilized for large cotton factories. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Vallières de St. Real, Joseph-Remi= (1787-1847). Born in Markham, Upper Canada. Called to the bar, 1812, and practised in Quebec. In 1813 he was elected member for the county of Chambly in the Assembly of Lower Canada, and later chosen Speaker in the absence of Papineau in England. He opposed Papineau in the Assembly, and a strong rivalry grew up between the two. In 1828 he was appointed judge of the district of Three Rivers, and in 1842 chief-justice of Montreal. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Vancouver.= Largest city of British Columbia. Consisted in 1886, before the transcontinental line of the Canadian Pacific Railway reached it, of a small collection of houses named Granville. In that year the city was incorporated under the name of Vancouver, after Captain George Vancouver (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Douglas, _Canadian City Names_. =Vancouver, George= (1757-1798). Born at King’s Lynn, Norfolk, England. Entered British navy, 1771; sailed in the _Resolution_ with Captain Cook on his second voyage, 1772-1775, and in the _Discovery_ on his third voyage, 1776-1780. Lieutenant on the _Martin_, 1780; and served in the West Indies with Rodney, taking part in the battle of 1782. Appointed to the _Europe_, 1784; and to the _Courageux_, 1790, and promoted commander. In 1791 he was sent out in command of the _Discovery_, to survey the west coast of North America from lat. 30° N. to Cook’s river, and to carry out the terms of the Nootka Convention. Through differences of opinion with the Spanish representative, Quadra, the latter part of his instructions could not be carried out, but the survey of the north-west coast was conducted with such zeal and accuracy as to make it a permanent and very important addition to geographical knowledge. Returned to England in 1795, and spent the rest of his life preparing his journals for publication. The underlying purpose of Vancouver’s exploration was to find, if possible, the long-sought North-West Passage through the continent of North America. With this was the establishment of Great Britain’s claim to the coast between the Spanish territories in the south and the Russian territories in the north. The seasons of 1792, 1793 and 1794 were devoted to comprehensive surveys of the coast, in which every important bay, cape and channel was examined, practically from San Francisco to Bering Sea. The only serious omission was his failure to discover the mouth of the Columbia. Vancouver’s work remains “the most extensive nautical survey ever completed in one expedition.” It should be noted that, while Vancouver and Quadra failed to agree officially in the Nootka matter, they personally learned to have the highest respect for one another, and became warm friends. Many of the geographical features of the north-west coast still bear the names given to them by Vancouver. The memory of the great explorer has also been preserved in the naming of Vancouver Island, the city of Vancouver, Vancouver Bay in Jervis Inlet, named by Captain Richards in 1860, and Vancouver Rock in Millbank Sound, named by Captain Pender in 1866. _See also_ Quadra; Cook; Broughton; Gray; Vancouver Island; Nootka. =Bib.=: Works: _Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean, 1790-1795_. _See also_ Bancroft, _History of North-West Coast_; Scholefield and Howay, _British Columbia_; Begg, _History of British Columbia_; Laut, _Vikings of the Pacific_; Meany, _Vancouver’s Discovery of Puget Sound_; _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_; _Menzies’ Journal of Vancouver’s Voyage, 1792_, ed. by C. F. Newcombe. =Vancouver Island.= The largest island on the west coast of North America. Named after Captain George Vancouver, who explored this coast in the years 1792-1794. The island was first named “Quadra and Vancouver” to commemorate the meeting of the two naval officers at Nootka in 1792 to carry out the provisions of the Nootka Convention. The first authentic landing on the coast of the island is that of Captain James Cook in 1787. Captain James Hanna landed at Nootka in 1785; and Captain John Meares in 1788. From this time trading and exploring expeditions spent more or less time at Nootka. In 1843 the Hudson’s Bay Company made their first establishment on the island, Fort Victoria, at first known as Camosun. The island remained under the control of the Company until 1859, when it became a crown colony. Representative government was introduced, 1856; and in 1866 the island and mainland were united under one government. It should, perhaps, be explained that, from 1849 to 1859 Vancouver Island was in the peculiar position of being under lease to the Hudson’s Bay Company, and, at the same time, controlled by a royal governor, Douglas, who was also an official of the Company, and who in 1856 called together the first representative Assembly. The Company was required by the terms of its lease to colonize the island, an obligation which they did not take very seriously. The first settler is said to have been a cavalry officer, W. Colquhoun Grant, who brought out a party of Highlanders, took up land at the head of Sooke Inlet, but soon tired of the venture. In 1852 Victoria was laid out in streets; and at the end of the following year there were said to be on the island, exclusive of natives, a population of four hundred and fifty people. _See also_ Blanshard; British Columbia; Cook; Douglas; Hanna; Meares; Nootka; Quadra; Vancouver; Victoria. =Bib.=: Begg, _History of British Columbia_; Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_; Macdonald, _British Columbia and Vancouver’s Island_; MacFie, _Vancouver Island and British Columbia_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_; Scholefield and Howay, _British Columbia_. =Van Egmond, Anthony.= Commander of the Upper Canadian rebels in 1837; a native of Holland; had been a colonel in Napoleon’s army, and had seen much active service. In 1819 he emigrated with his family to America, settling first in Indiana county, Pennsylvania, where he had a farm and a store. In 1827 he moved to Upper Canada, and rented a farm near Waterloo; in 1832 he possessed a mill at Egmondville, near Seaforth, and a farm within five miles. Invited by William Lyon Mackenzie to command the forces of the insurgents. In this capacity he took part in the fight on December 7th, 1837, with the Loyalist troops, near Montgomery’s tavern, on Yonge Street, Toronto, when the rebels were badly defeated. Later was captured, and placed in jail; afterwards removed to the hospital, but died early in 1838 from disease and exposure. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Read, _Rebellion of 1837_. =Van Horne, Sir William Cornelius= (1843-1915). Born in Will county, Illinois. Entered the railway service in 1857 as a telegraph operator on the Illinois Central Railway. Served in various capacities on the Michigan Central Railway, 1858-1864. Became division superintendent on the Chicago and Alton Railway, 1869-1872. General superintendent St. Louis, Kansas City and Northern Railway, 1872-1874. General manager Southern Minnesota Railway, 1874-1878; and president, 1877-1879. General superintendent Chicago and Alton Railway, 1878-1879. General superintendent Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, 1880-1882. General manager Canadian Pacific Railway, 1882-1884; vice-president, 1884-1888; president, 1888-1899; chairman, board of directors, 1899-1910. Made K. C. M. G., 1894. Although essentially a man of affairs, he enjoyed a wide reputation as an art critic and as something of an authority on certain phases of oriental art, and had got together a very fine private art gallery. His great service to Canada was, however, in connection with the building and operation of the Canadian Pacific Railway, in which his extraordinary physical and mental energy, driving power, initiative, and faith in the future of the road were of incalculable value. It is, indeed, questionable if the railway would, lacking his firm, guiding hand, have pulled through the exceedingly difficult early years of its history. It was mainly due to his masterful methods that the railway, which had hitherto been moving forward at a pace that would have taken several decades to complete, was pushed to completion at a hitherto unprecedented rate. Until one has read a detailed account of the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway it is difficult to realize the magnitude and intricacy of the task, particularly at a period when every one of the innumerable items needed had to be brought great distances to the scene of construction. Yet “the longest railway in the world was open from coast to coast, five years before the end of the time required by the original contract.” One of Van Horne’s most spectacular achievements was the transportation of the troops sent to suppress the second Riel Rebellion, from Kingston to Winnipeg in four days; carried out, it must be remembered, over a railway that was as yet far from complete. One of the results of this feat of Van Horne’s was to demonstrate the practical value of the Canadian Pacific Railway and eliminate most of the public opposition. _See also_ Canadian Pacific Railway; Mount Stephen; Shaughnessy; Strathcona. =Bib.=: Skelton, _The Railway Builders_; McLean, _National Highways Overland_ (_Canada and its Provinces_, vol. x); Vaughan, _Sir William Van Horne_. =Vankoughnet, Philip Michael Scott= (1823-1869). Born in Cornwall, Ontario. Studied law and called to the bar, 1843; practised in Toronto; appointed Q. C., 1850. In May, 1856, president of the Executive Council, and minister of agriculture in the Taché administration, and in November, 1856, first member of the Legislative Council for Rideau. He was a delegate to England in connection with the Intercolonial Railway matter. From 1858 to 1862 chief commissioner of crown lands in the Cartier-Macdonald government; amongst his important measures was the system of selling townships _en bloc_ and the opening up and improvement of roads. In 1862 he was appointed chancellor of Upper Canada. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Van Rensselaer, Rensselaer= (1802-1850). Son of General S. Van Rensselaer of Albany, New York. For some time employed as a clerk in the post office, Albany. In November, 1837, while on a trip through the west for the Albany _Daily Advertiser_, came in contact with the Canadian revolutionists and was offered and accepted the position of commander-in-chief of the rebel forces. After a few months’ desultory fighting, he was arrested on February 28th, 1838, at Syracuse, by the American authorities, for violating the neutrality laws. Tried on October 18th, 1839, and convicted; sentenced to six months’ imprisonment and fined $250. After serving the six months, the fine was remitted. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_. =Van Rensselaer, Solomon= (1774-1852). Born in Rensselaer county, New York. Entered the army in 1792 as a cornet of cavalry, later becoming captain. In 1794, while commanding a company of volunteers, severely wounded at the battle of Maumee Rapids. In 1812 adjutant-general of New York militia, and arranged the armistice which enabled the Americans to make use of Lake Ontario as a highway for the transportation of troops and stores. In 1812 commanded an attacking party at Queenston Heights and seriously wounded. Member of Congress, 1819-1822; and postmaster of Albany, 1822-1839. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Van Rensselaer, Stephen= (1764-1839). Born in New York. Graduated at Harvard, 1782. In 1786 major of militia, and in 1788 colonel. In 1789 elected to the Assembly as a member of the Federal party, of which he soon afterwards became leader; state Senator in 1790-1795; lieutenant-governor in 1795, and returned to the Assembly in 1798 and 1808-1810. In 1801 promoted major-general. In 1812, on the outbreak of war with Great Britain, commanded the United States forces on the Niagara frontier. Resigned his command, October 24th, 1812, and left the service. In 1816 elected to the New York Assembly, and from 1823 to 1829 served in Congress. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Vaudreuil, Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de= (1643-1725). Born in France. Came to Canada, 1687, in command of eight hundred troops, and, leaving his men behind, pushed on alone to join Denonville in his expedition against the Iroquois. In 1696 commanded a division of Frontenac’s army against the Iroquois, and led a detachment to destroy the Oneida town. Chevalier de St. Louis, 1698. Appointed governor of Montreal, 1699; administrator of the colony, 1703-1705; and governor of New France, 1705-1724. He and Cadillac carried on a bitter controversy, and bombarded the court with charges and counter-charges, until the king was constrained to send out a special officer to the western posts to examine into the situation and ascertain whether on the one hand, Vaudreuil was as Cadillac alleged, refusing to send him supplies and appointing his own creatures to positions in connection with the posts, and if, on the other, as Vaudreuil charged, Cadillac was carrying on trade with the English and selling brandy to the Indians, both of which practices Louis XIV had strictly forbidden. The paternalism of French rule in Canada is well illustrated in one of the letters of the colonial minister, Pontchartrain, to Vaudreuil, June, 1706, in which, after outlining various charges brought against the governor, he reprimands him as though he were a schoolboy: “I will believe that all this is done without your participation, but it is not allowable in you, occupying the post you do, to be ignorant of it; still less, not to punish it when you are cognizant of it. I will tell you plainly, that if you are not more absolute in the execution of the king’s orders, and more severe in the punishment of acts of disobedience, I shall not guarantee to you that his majesty would be willing to allow you to occupy for any length of time your present post.” Vaudreuil visited France in 1714-1715. In 1722 he sent a small expedition to Lake Superior to explore for copper, but France was at that time more interested in exploiting Louisiana and turned a deaf ear to the governor’s representations. Died at Quebec, 1725. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_ and _Half-Century of Conflict_; _Wis. Hist. Coll._, xvi. =Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de= (1698-1778). Born at Quebec, son of Philippe de Vaudreuil (_q.v._). Entered the army at an early age becoming ensign, 1706; lieutenant, 1709; captain, 1715; and major, 1726. In 1729 he gained the coveted honour of chevalier of the Order of St. Louis. Appointed governor of Three Rivers, 1732-1742; and of Louisiana, 1743-1753; governor of Canada, 1755-1760. Continually at odds with Montcalm, and hampered him in his defence of Quebec. After the battle of the Plains he retired with the army to Jacques Carrier, and took no part in the subsequent operations before Quebec. On his return to France, he was arrested and thrown into the Bastile on charges connected with the government of Canada, but released after trial before the Châtelet de Paris. Abbé Casgrain, in his _Wolfe and Montcalm_, says that Vaudreuil was tall and as proud of his stature as of his origin. He was “gentle, affable, and completely devoted to the colonists, whom he treated as his children, and who rightly regarded him as their father; but his character was feeble, and he was irresolute, unenlightened, jealous of his authority, and was taken advantage of by a corrupt _entourage_ which he was incapable of dominating.” He detested Montcalm, and tried unsuccessfully to despise the vehement and irascible little general, but was no match for him either in ability or will power. Nevertheless, as the court had fatuously put Montcalm more or less under his authority, the governor was in a position to thwart his plans, and lost few opportunities of doing so. It was the misfortune of France that, at the supreme crisis of her career in the new world, all the efforts of a brilliant general should have been rendered useless by the parsimony of the court, the gigantic peculations of Bigot, and the weakness and vanity of Vaudreuil, the last governor of New France. Died in Paris in 1778. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _The Fight for Canada_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Bradley, _The Fight with France_. =Vauquelin, Jean= (1726-1763). Born in Caen, France. Entered the navy, and in 1745 successfully engaged a British frigate off Martinique. In 1754 he did good service in reconnoitring the English ports, and subsequently was given command of the _Arethuse_. In 1758 he was despatched to Louisbourg with reinforcements and stores for the French troops, and got into the harbour, although many of his crew were killed and wounded. In 1759, with three frigates, he sailed to the relief of Quebec. After the capitulation he endeavoured to escape with his ships, but they were destroyed or captured by the British, and Vauquelin was taken prisoner. On his release returned to France. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_. =Ventadour, Henri de Lévis, Due de= (1596-1680). Viceroy of Canada, 1625-1631. Served for a time in the army, and is said to have taken holy orders. In any event, he took a deep interest in the spiritual welfare of Canada, and after acquiring the viceroyalty, was instrumental in sending out the first Jesuit missionaries in 1625. In 1631 he gave up his titles in favour of his brother Charles de Lévis, Marquis d’Annonay. He became canon of Notre Dame of Paris, and director-general of the Seminaries. Pointe Lévy, or Lévis, opposite Quebec, was named after him. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Pioneers of France_. =Verchères, Marie-Madeleine Jarret.= Born in 1678 in the fort on her father’s seigniory on the St. Lawrence river, twenty miles below Montreal. In 1692 she heroically defended this fort, with the assistance of her two young brothers, two soldiers, and an old man of eighty. While the settlers were working in the fields, a band of Iroquois suddenly appeared, and began their work of slaughter. Madeleine had barely time to reach the fort. She found everyone, including the two soldiers, demoralized, and, taking command, ordered the little band to keep up constant firing. The Iroquois besieged the fort for two days, but finally retired discomfited; and relief came from Montreal in another week. In 1706 she married Thomas Tarieu de la Naudière de la Perade. In her later years she received a pension for life. The date of her death is not known. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Frontenac_; Richard, _Supplement to Report on Canadian Archives_, 1899; Doughty, _A Daughter of New France_. =Vergor, Louis Dupont du Chambon de.= Born in Acadia, 1710. In command of Fort Beauséjour, 1755. A confederate of the intendant Bigot; used his opportunities to plunder both the people and the government. Betrayed by Thomas Pichon, he was compelled to surrender the fort to Monckton. Returned to Quebec and censured for his actions. Bougainville placed him in command at Le Foulon, near Quebec, at the siege by Wolfe, 1759. He was surprised, and his command cut to pieces. _See also_ Siege of Quebec, 1759. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Murdoch, _History of Nova Scotia_; _Selections from the Public Archives of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins; Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_. =Verrazano, Giovanni du.= Born near Florence, Italy, in 1470. Entered French marine service, 1495. Credited with visiting the coast of America, 1508. In 1523 he was sent by Francis I to explore to the westward. The following year arrived with La Dauphine off the coast of North America, and explored from Florida to Newfoundland, taking possession of the latter island in the name of the king of France. Landed at a point near Cape Fear, and discovered the bays of Narragansett and New York. Nothing is known of his latter years, beyond the fact that he was in Paris, at least as late as December 24th, 1527, fitting out an expedition of five ships to sail the following March. Verranzo’s claim to the discovery of the mouth of the Hudson, questioned by Murphy, has been re-established by the discovery in Rome of a hitherto unknown version of the explorer’s report of his voyage. _See_ Bacchiani’s article, with facsimile, in the _Bollettiano_ of the Italian Geographical Society, November, 1909. =Bib.=: Murphy, _Voyage of Verrazano_; De Costa, _Verrazano, the Explorer_; Biggar, _Precursors of Jacques Cartier_; Leacock, _Dawn of Canadian History_. =Verreau, Hospice-Anthelme Jean Baptiste= (1828-1901). Born at L’Islet, Quebec. Educated at Quebec Seminary, and a teacher there in 1847-1848. In 1848-1856 principal of Ste. Thérèse College. In 1851 ordained priest. In 1857 first principal of the Jacques Cartier Normal School in Montreal. Sent by the Quebec provincial government in 1873 to Europe to make investigations respecting Canadian history, the results of which were published in 1875. In 1887 appointed to the chair of Canadian history in Laval University. One of the charter fellows of the Royal Society of Canada; a member of the Société des Antiquaires de Normandie; and the Société des Arcadem of Rome. =Bib.=: _L’Invasion du Canada_; _Les Fondateurs de Montréal_ (R. S. C., 1882); _Samuel de Champlain_ (R. S. C., 1899); Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Versailles, Treaty of, 1783.= Signed between Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies. Acknowledged the independence of the Thirteen Colonies; settled the boundaries between the latter and British North America; dealt with the fisheries question; and provided for amnesty to Loyalists and the restoration of their property. The Colonies repudiating the last obligation, provision was made by the British government for compensation to the Loyalists, many of whom were given grants of land in Upper Canada, Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. =Bib.=: Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_. =Versailles, Treaty of, 1919.= The World Peace Conference met in Paris, January 18th, 1919, Canada being represented by Sir Robert Borden, Arthur L. Sifton, Sir George E. Foster and Charles J. Doherty. Sir Robert Borden had been offered the fifth place in the British Delegation, but stood aside in favour of Sir W. Lloyd of Newfoundland. The Canadian delegates, and particularly Sir Robert Borden, took a very active part in the negotiations leading up to the treaty, and in the framing of the clauses in regard to the League of Nations. After some discussion it was decided that the representatives of Canada and the other Dominions should sign the peace treaties. The Canadian representatives who actually signed the treaty of Versailles were Sir George E. Foster and C. J. Doherty. For a summary of the principal clauses of the treaty, _see Canadian Annual Review_, 1919. =Vessels, Canadian.= The first sailing ship built in what is now Canada is said to have been constructed at Port Royal, in Acadia, in 1606. The following year, Pont-Gravé built a barque and a pinnace at the same place. The first sea-going vessels built on the St. Lawrence date from 1668, under the direction of the intendant Talon. Sailing vessels were built by the French on Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, and Lake Superior, the most important being La Salle’s _Griffon_ (_q.v._). In 1705 a large frigate was built in Nova Scotia. The earliest vessel in New Brunswick was built in 1770; another was destroyed on the stocks at St. John in 1775 by a raiding party from Maine. In 1786 Captain Meares launched a forty-ton vessel at Nootka on the Pacific coast. In 1826 a large ship, the _Columbus_, was built on Isle Orleans. She was a four-master, three hundred feet long, fifty foot beam, and thirty foot hold, with a measurement of 4,000 tons. On her arrival in the Thames, this lumber ship excited much interest, and the Duke of Cumberland, afterwards William IV, with a distinguished company of guests, was entertained on board. The _Columbus_ and another big ship the _Baron of Renfrew_ were built in such a way as to enable their owners to get the timber into England duty free, ships being then free and timber dutiable. In 1848 the schooner _Lily_, built on Lake Erie, sailed to Europe, making use of the Welland and St. Lawrence canals. =Bib.=: Johnson, _First Things in Canada_. =Viceroys of New France.= The first was Charles de Bourbon, Comte de Soissons, 1612. He was followed by Henri de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, 1612-1620; Henri de Montmorency, 1620-1624; Henri de Lévis, Due de Ventadour, 1625-1631; Isaac de Launay de Rasilly, 1632-1644; François de Lévis, Due de Damville, 1644-1660; Isaac de Pas, Marquis de Feuquières, 1660-1661; Godefroy, Comte d’Estrades, 1662-1686; Jean, Comte d’Estrées, 1686-1707; and Victor Marie, Comte d’Estrées, 1707-1737. =Victoria= (1819-1901). Grand-daughter of George III, and only child of George III’s fourth son, Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent, by Mary Louisa Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Cobourg-Saalfield; born at Kensington Palace, May 24th, 1819. Succeeded to the throne on the death of her uncle, William IV, 1837. Married to Prince Albert of Saxe-Cobourg, 1840. Selected Ottawa as the capital of Canada. =Bib.=: Works: _Leaves from a Journal of our Life in the Highlands_; _Letters of Queen Victoria_; _Royal Correspondence_. For biog., _see_ Fawcett, _Life of Queen Victoria_; Gurney, _Childhood of Queen Victoria_; Holmes, _Queen Victoria_; Lee, _Queen Victoria: a Biography_; Oliphant, _Queen Victoria: a Personal Sketch_. =Victoria.= Capital of British Columbia, and formerly capital of the colony of Vancouver Island. Founded in 1843 by James Douglas, on the site of an Indian village, as Fort Camosun, afterwards Fort Victoria, the latter name in honour of the queen. The city was incorporated in 1862, and the old fort finally demolished, 1864. Its early history associated with exploration, the picturesque sea-otter trade, the gold rush. As was many years later the case with the city of Dawson, in the Yukon, the fortunes of Victoria and its population for some years rose and fell with the fortunes of the gold-fields on the mainland. _See also_ Vancouver Island; British Columbia; Douglas; Ross; Helmcken; Begbie. =Bib.=: Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_; Begg, _History of British Columbia_; Coats and Gosnell, _Sir James Douglas_. =Victoria Bridge.= At Montreal, over the St. Lawrence. Built by Robert Stephenson, for the Grand Trunk Railway, 1854-1859, at a total cost of $6,300,000. Opened by the Prince of Wales (afterwards King Edward VII), May 25th, 1860. It was enlarged and remodelled in 1897. =Victoria Cross.= _See_ Wallace Lloyd Algie; William George Barker; Colin Barron; Edward Donald Bellew; William Avery Bishop; Alexander Brererton; John Brillant; Harry Brown; Hugh Cairns; Frederick William Campbell; Leonard Clarke; W. H. Clark-Kennedy; Robert Grierson Combe; Frederick George Coppins; John Bernard Croak; Thomas Dinesen; Lieutenant Dunn; Frederick Fisher; Gordon Muriel Flowerdew; Herman James Good; Milton Fowler Gregg; Frederick William Hall; Robert Hanna; Frederick Maurice Watson Harvey; Frederick Hobson; Thomas William Holmes; Samuel Lewis Honey; Bellenden Seymour Hutcheson; Joseph Kaeble; George Fraser Kerr; John Chipman Kerr; Cecil John Kinross; Arthur George Knight; Filip Konowal; O’Kill Massey Learmonth; Graham Thompson Lyall; Thain Wendell MacDowell; John MacGregor; George Burton McKean; Hugh McKenzie; Alan Arnett McLeod; William Merrifield; William Henry Metcalf; William Johnstone Milne; Harry Garnet Bedford Miner; Coulson Norman Mitchell; George Harry Mullin; Claude Joseph Patrick Nunney; Christopher Patrick John O’Kelly; Michael James O’Rourke; John George Pattison; George Randolph Pearkes; Cyrus Wesley Peck; Walter Leigh Rayneld; A. H. L. Richardson; George Richardson; James Richardson; James Peter Robertson; Charles Smith Rutherford; Francis Alexander Caron Scrimger; Robert Shankland; Ellis Welwood Sifton; Robert Spall; Harcus Strachan; James Edward Tait; Richard Ernest William Turner; John Francis Young; Raphael Lewis Zengel. =Bib.=: Roberts, _Thirty Canadian V.C.’s_; _Canada in the Great World War_, vol. vi. =Victoria Island.= A large island in the Arctic archipelago, north of Coronation Gulf. Sir John Franklin died off the east coast in 1847. Rae explored part of the south coast in 1851. Named, like many other geographical features of the Arctic, after Queen Victoria. =Victoria University.= Originally founded in 1836 at Cobourg, Upper Canada, as Upper Canada Academy. Established by the Methodists. Rev. Matthew Richey first principal. Egerton Ryerson, who had been instrumental in raising funds for the college in England, had obtained a royal charter, and had secured authority from the Upper Canada Legislature to extend the charter so as to confer university powers, became the first president of the university now known as Victoria College, 1841. Afterwards affiliated with the University of Toronto. _See also_ Ryerson; Burwash; Methodist Church. =Bib.=: Burwash, _Historical Sketch of Victoria University_ in _Canada: An Ency._, vol. iv; Burwash, _Egerton Ryerson_. =Vidal, Alexander= (1819-1906). Born at Brocknell, Berkshire, England. Educated at Christ’s Hospital, London, and in 1834 came to Canada with his parents. Served in the militia during the Rebellion of 1837; and afterwards lieutenant-colonel of the Lambton Reserve militia; member of the Legislative Council for the St. Clair division, 1863-1867; in 1873 appointed to the Senate. President of the Dominion Alliance for the Suppression of the Liquor Traffic. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Viger, Denis Benjamin= (1774-1861). Born in Montreal. Educated for the legal profession. Practised in Montreal for some years; and in 1808 elected to the Legislative Assembly. Took an active part in the discussion of the grievances of the French Canadians, and in 1828 and 1831 sent as a delegate to London to represent their views to the Imperial authorities. Attended meeting of the Constitutional Committee in 1834. In 1837, when the Rebellion broke out, he attended the rebel meeting at St. Charles, was arrested and charged with sedition, but soon afterwards released. In 1843, on the resignation of the LaFontaine-Baldwin government, became associated with Baldwin in the Baldwin-Viger ministry. In 1844 published a pamphlet, _La Crise Ministerielle_, attacking LaFontaine and Baldwin. =Bib.=: Bibaud, _Pan. Can._; Dent, _Last Forty Years_; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_; Leacock, _Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks_. =Vignau, Nicolas du.= Accompanied Champlain up the Ottawa river in 1613. Had pretended to have knowledge of a route to the North Sea. Exposed by the Algonquin chief Tessouat at Allumette Island. _See also_ Champlain. =Bib.=: Sulte, _Valley of the Grand River_ (R. S. C., 1898). =Vikings.= _See_ Norse Voyages. =Ville Marie.= _See_ Montreal. =Villebon, Joseph Robineau, Chevalier de= (1655-1700). Took part in the expedition against the Iroquois in 1684. Captain, 1689. Arrived at Port Royal, June 14th, 1690, being commissioned to inquire into the condition of the colony. In June, 1691, received from the French king a commission as governor of Acadia, with promises of assistance in supplies, funds, and men. Sailed to Quebec, and from thence to Port Royal, capturing on the way an English vessel, with the newly appointed English governor of Acadia. Met with no opposition on arriving at Port Royal, and, in the name of the French king took formal possession of Acadia. In 1692, while in command of a fort on the river St. John, the English sent an abortive expedition to capture him. In 1695-1696 was stationed at Nachouac Fort, engaging in organizing French stations. Several encounters between English and French vessels took place with varying success. On September 3rd, 1696, was captured by an English ship on the river St. John, but released soon afterwards. Died at Nashouat, July 5th, 1700. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of Acadia_; Parkman, _Frontenac_. =Vimont, Barthelemy.= Born in France. Came to Canada in 1639 as superior of missions. With him were the Jesuits, Chaumonot and Poncet, and the Ursulines, Madame de la Peltrie and Marie de l’Incarnation. He was for a time in charge of the Cape Breton missions. When Maisonneuve came in 1642 to establish a religious colony at Montreal, Vimont accompanied him from Quebec and gave his blessing to the project. His prophecy is not without interest: “You are a grain of mustard-seed,” he said to the little group of enthusiasts, “that shall rise and grow till its branches over-shadow the earth. You are few, but your work is the work of God. His smile is on you, and your children shall fill the land.” =Bib.=: _Jesuit Relations_, 1640-1645; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_. =Vimy Ridge, Battle of.= In April, 1917, elaborate preparations were made for the capture of this very important position. “On its northern flank it dominated the Loos salient; to the south it commanded the even larger Arras salient and the Arras-Cambrai road.” The military situation had changed materially in the last few months. Guns and ammunition were pouring into France from English and Canadian factories, and in both artillery and infantry the earlier ascendency of the enemy was rapidly being reversed. The air service, both British and Canadian, had also vastly improved. The battle proper was preceded by a long series of trench raids, and towards the end of March the powerful Canadian artillery commenced the long preliminary bombardment of the enemy’s positions. Easter Monday, at 5.30 a.m., every gun on the twelve-mile front opened up. Simultaneously a series of heavy mines were exploded, and the Canadians moved forward under cover of a “veritable curtain of steel.” Early in the afternoon they were masters of the Ridge. An incident of the battle was the heroic feat of Captain McDowell (_q.v._) for which he was awarded the _Victoria Cross_. The Canadians captured over four thousand prisoners, as well as thirty guns, scores of machine-guns and trench-mortars, and great quantities of war material. =Bib.=: Donnell, _The Canadians at Vimy Ridge_ (_Canada in the Great World War_, vol. iv.) =Vincennes, François Marie Bissot, Sieur de= (1700-1736). Cadet, 1718; junior ensign, 1726; lieutenant, 1730; in charge on the Wabash, 1733. Founded Fort Vincennes. Burnt at the stake by the Chicachas on the Mississippi, March 25th, 1736. =Bib.=: Roy, _Le Sieur de Vincennes_. =Vincent, John= (1765-1818). Born in England. In 1781 entered the army as ensign, and promoted lieutenant the same year. In 1786 captain; in 1795 major; in 1800 lieutenant-colonel; and in 1810 colonel. Served with distinction during the War of 1812-1814 in Canada, and in 1813 promoted major-general. Took part in the capture of St. Domingo in the West Indies, and in the expedition to Copenhagen under Sir Hyde Parker. In 1841 reached the grade of general. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Vindicator.= Newspaper published at Montreal. Edited by Dr. O’Callaghan, Papineau’s lieutenant. It supported the cause of the _Patriotes_ in Lower Canada. The office was sacked by members of the Doric Club. =Bib.=: Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Von Schoultz.= A Polish gentleman, settled in the United States. During the Rebellion of 1837-1838, led a party of American sympathizers over the border. They seized a windmill near Prescott, and held it for eight days, but were finally dislodged and captured. Von Schoultz and ten others were tried by court-martial and hanged. John A. Macdonald acted as his counsel at the court-martial. =Bib.=: Dent, _Upper Canadian Rebellion_; Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_. =Voyageurs.= A company of, raised by the North West Company from its own employees, took part in the capture of Michilimackinac in the War of 1812-1814. _See also_ Coureurs de bois. =Wadsworth, William= (1732-1833). Born in Durham, Connecticut. In the War of 1822, he was brigadier-general in the New York militia. Commanded United States troops on Niagara frontier in War of 1812-1814. Took part in the battle of Queenston Heights on October 13th, 1812, and, when the Americans were defeated, surrendered to Sir Roger Sheaffe. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =Wakefield, Edward Gibbon= (1796-1862). Born in London, England. Educated at Westminster and at Edinburgh. One of the founders of the National Colonization Society in 1830. In 1838 accompanied Lord Durham (_q.v._) to Canada as unofficial adviser. Assisted Durham in drawing up the _Report on the Affairs of British North America_. In 1843 elected to the Canadian Parliament for Beauharnois; at the same time secret adviser to Sir Charles Metcalfe. Attacked Baldwin and LaFontaine and defended Metcalfe. Founded the Colonial Reform Society, 1850. In 1853 removed to New Zealand and became adviser to the acting governor, Colonel Robert Wynyard. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Garnett, _Edward Gibbon Wakefield_; Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Walker, Sir Hovenden= (1660-1726). Born in Somersetshire, England. Entered the navy; in 1691-1692 captain of the _Vulture_ fireship; in 1695 in command of the _Foresight_, and in 1696, when in charge of convoy, had a successful action with two French frigates when off the Lizard; in 1710 rear-admiral, and in 1711 knighted. In command of the fleet which, in August, 1711, sailed up the St. Lawrence river for the conquest of Canada. Stormy weather and fog combined to wreck the greater part of the fleet, and the ships returned to England without meeting the French. In 1715, either on account of the failure of the Canadian expedition or on suspicion of being a Jacobite, dismissed from the British navy. In 1720 published a pamphlet in defence of the abortive expedition to Canada. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Walker, Thomas.= An English merchant in Montreal. Came there from Boston. He was “a notoriously sour and bad-tempered person and deeply imbued with those feelings of dislike towards everything monarchial or military then gathering strength in the province he had come from.” In 1764 trouble had arisen in Montreal over a billeting order, which led to bad feeling between the military and the townsfolk. Walker, who was a magistrate, had taken sides against the garrison. One night a number of masked men attacked him and cut off part of his ear. The incident caused tremendous excitement not only in Montreal but throughout the colony. Two years later the matter was revived by a discharged soldier, who charged certain officers with having committed the outrage. They were arrested and taken to Quebec, tried and acquitted. The soldier was convicted of perjury and sent to prison. Walker afterwards agitated against the Quebec Act; carried on a treasonable correspondence with Benedict Arnold; and entertained Benjamin Franklin when he came to Montreal to sound the Canadian attitude toward the Republic. Franklin noted in his diary that in whatever place Walker and his wife might set up house, he opined that it would soon become too hot to hold them. =Bib.=: Bradley, _Lord Dorchester_. =Wallace, Michael= (1747-1831). Born at Norfolk, Virginia. United Empire Loyalist. His property was confiscated after the war, and he removed to Nova Scotia, where he became treasurer of the province, judge of admiralty and acting provincial treasurer. At that period there were no banks in Nova Scotia or New Brunswick, and the treasury notes, or “Michael Wallace money,” formed the only paper currency in both provinces, passing current also along the border in Maine. Wallace is described as a gentleman of the old school, who to the last wore a queue and used hair-powder. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Wallace, Nathaniel Clarke= (1844-1901). Born at Woodbridge, Ontario. Educated at the public schools and Weston Grammar School; taught school for some years. Subsequently engaged in mercantile life. Elected to the House of Commons for West York, 1878; continued as representative of that constituency until his death. Voted for the disallowance of the Jesuits’ Estates Act, 1888; appointed controller of customs in the ministry of Sir John Thompson, 1892; resigned, 1895, owing to a disagreement with his colleagues in regard to the Manitoba school question. Grand master of the Orange Order in British America for over twenty years. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Men_. =Walley, John= (1644-1712). Born in London, England. Commanded expedition against the French and their Indian allies in Canada, 1689. In 1690 sailed under Sir William Phipps to Quebec, but the siege was a failure. Published an account of the expedition on his return to Boston. In 1687, being one of the chief founders of the town of Bristol, elected a member of the Council. Also captain of the Ancient and Honourable Artillery Company of Boston. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Wampum.= From the Algonquian word _wampumpeak_. Shell, glass or porcelain beads, used as money and ornaments by the Indians. The French in Canada sometimes called them _porcelaine_. The round beads were also called _rassade_, and the long, tubular kind _canons_. When used for ceremonial purposes, or in connection with a treaty, the French spoke of _collier de porcelaine_, and the English called them Belts. The Indians made belts and strings of beads turned out of the heart and other hard parts of the clam and other shells—white for peace, and blue carrying a figure of the tomahawk signifying war. One large war-belt is said to have consisted of 12,000 beads of wampum. The western tribes used shells obtained from the Pacific coast tribes, dentalium, the abalone, etc. =Bib.=: Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =War of 1812-1814.= Declared by the United States against Great Britain in June, 1812. The president in his message to Congress specified the grounds for war as follows: Non-revocation of the orders-in-council; interference with American trade; practical blockade of American ports; impressment of American seamen, and the instigation of Indian hostilities against the United States. The original intention of the American government was the conquest of the British provinces on the northern border, and several of the most important engagements were fought on Canadian soil. After severe fighting with varying success, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent on December 24th, 1814. By this treaty all territory taken by either country was to be restored. All the American claims that led to the war, were left unsettled by the treaty, denial of the right of search, etc. The situation that led up to the war has been admirably summarized by William Wood. “The British were fighting for life and liberty against Napoleon. Napoleon was fighting to master the whole of Europe. The United States wished to make as much as possible out of unrestricted trade with both belligerents.” That wish was interfered with by Napoleon’s Berlin Decree and by the British orders-in-council, but circumstances made the latter bear much more heavily on American shipping than the former. The American tendency to take sides with the French was strengthened by their irritation over the British enforcement of the long-established right of search, otherwise, the right to search American vessels for British subjects evading service in their own navy. The obvious retort was the seizure of the British provinces to the north, and that seemed a simple enough matter to the United States. As Jefferson put it, “the acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighbourhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching.” The War of 1812 has been called a “sprawling and sporadic war.” It was fought on both land and sea, throughout the better part of three years, and ranged from the Richelieu river to Michilimackinac, without taking into account such remote affairs as the attack on Washington and the battle of New Orleans. As to the results of the war, in the words of Sir Charles Lucas, it “did more than any other event could have done to demonstrate that colonial liberty and colonial patriotism did not leave the British Empire when the United States left it. The same spirit which had inspired and carried to success the American War of Independence was now enlisted on the side of Great Britain, and the successful defence of Canada by regiments from Great Britain and Canadian colonists combined, meant that a new British Empire was coming into being _pari passu_ with the growth of a young nation within its limits. The War of 1812 determined that North America should not exclusively belong to the American Republic, that Great Britain should keep her place on the continent, but that she should keep it through this new community already on the high-road to legislative independence.” _See also_ Beaver Dam; Châteauguay; Cook’s Mills; Crysler’s Farm; Frenchman’s Creek; Lundy’s Lane; Queenston Heights; Stoney Creek; Thames; Brock; Tecumseh; Prevost; Dearborn; Sheaffe; FitzGibbon; Hull; Van Rensselaer; Secord; De Salaberry; Drummond; Hampton; Procter; Perry. =Bib.=: Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_; Richardson, _War of 1812_; Cruikshank, _Documentary History of the Campaigns upon the Niagara Frontier_ and _Record of the Services of Canadian Regiments in the War of 1812_; Roosevelt, _Naval War of 1812_; Auchinleck, _War between Great Britain and the United States_; Coffin, _1812: the War and its Moral_; Lossing, _Pictorial Field Book of the War of 1812_; Irving, _Officers of the British Forces in Canada during the War of 1812-1814_; Mahan, _Naval War of 1812_; Hannay, _War of 1812-1814_; Wood, _The War with the United States_; Wood, _Select British Documents of the Canadian War of 1812_; Upton, _Military Policy of the United States_. _See also_ other references in _Lit. Am. Hist._ =War of 1914-1918.= This, quite obviously, is not the place to describe, however briefly, the War of 1914-1918 as a whole. What we are concerned with here is the part played by Canadians in that most colossal of all wars. From this limited point of view, an attempt has been made to describe the more important battles in which Canadians took an important part. The point of view must be kept in mind, as an explanation of what would otherwise seem an altogether disproportionate amount of space given to Canadians. In describing the work of the latter there is no thought either of minimizing the achievements of other elements of the Allied Armies, or of suggesting that what they accomplished was in any way less important than the deeds of the Canadians. What follows is a very brief epitome of Canada’s part in the Great War: Canadian government cabled offering troops, August 1st, 1914; mobilization of Canadian Expeditionary Force began August 4th; offer of troops accepted, August 6th; special War Session of Canadian Parliament opened, August 18th; Canadian war credit of $50,000,000 passed, August 20th; Princess Patricia Regiment sailed from Montreal, August 29th; Canadian Expeditionary Force reaches Plymouth, October 14th; first Canadian unit, No. 2 Stationary Hospital, reached France, November 11th; First Canadian Division landed in France, February 14th, 1915, and went into action in the trenches near Armentières, February 24th; Canadian War Loan, $50,000,000, November 22nd; increased to $100,000,000, November 30th; Canadian government authorizes increase of Expeditionary Force to 500,000, January 12th, 1916; second war loan of $100,000,000, September; third war loan, $150,000,000, March, 1917; adoption of Military Service Act, August 29th; fourth war loan, Victory Bonds, November 12th; fifth war loan, $300,000,000, October 28th, 1918; sixth war loan, $300,000,000, October, 1919; total men enlisted in Canada for service in the Great War, 595,441; total number who went overseas, 418,052; total casualties, 218,433, including 35,684 killed in action, 12,437 died of wounds, 155,839 wounded. _See also_ Amiens; Bourlon Wood; Cambrai; Drocourt-Quéant; Festubert; Givenchy; Hill Seventy; Lens; Loos; Passchendaele; St. Eloi; St. Julien; Sanctuary Wood; Somme; Vimy Ridge; Ypres; Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry; Sir Arthur Currie; Sir A. C. Macdonell; Sir S. B. Steele; Sir R. E. W. Turner; Sir H. E. Burstall; Sir David Watson; Sir F. O. W. Loomis; M. S. Mercer; L. J. Lipsett; Sir Sam Hughes. =Bib.=: _Canada in the Great World War_. =War of the Austrian Succession.= Between the years 1741 and 1748. Renewed the struggle in America between Great Britain and France. In 1745 a colonial expedition from New England, under William Pepperell, with the assistance of a British fleet, captured Louisbourg. The war was brought to a close by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, by the terms of which Louisbourg was restored to France and the boundaries left as before. =Wark, David= (1804-1905). Born near Londonderry, Ireland. Came to New Brunswick, 1825; engaged in mercantile life. Elected to the Legislative Assembly, 1843; appointed to the Legislative Council, 1851; member of the ministry, at first without portfolio and afterwards as receiver-general, 1858-1862; called to the Senate, 1867. Attended the session of the Senate in his hundredth year. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Warner, Seth= (1743-1784). Born in Roxbury, Connecticut. At the outbreak of the American Revolution, joined the ranks of the patriots, and as second in command took part in the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In 1775 ordered to Canada to serve under General Montgomery. Present at the siege of St. Johns, and repulsed the British troops under Sir Guy Carleton, who attempted its relief. Served in the American army until 1782, when he retired. _Bib._: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Wars and Rebellions.= _See_ King William’s War; Pontiac’s War; Revolutionary War; Queen Anne’s War; South African War; Soudan War; Seven Years’ War; War of 1812-1814; War of 1914-1918; War of the Austrian Succession; Rebellion of 1837-1838; American Invasion of 1775-1776; Fenian Raids; St. Alban’s Raid; Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870; Riel Rebellion, 1885. =Washington Conference.= Called by President Harding for the purpose of discussing, and if possible finding some solution for, the question of the limitation of armaments. Met in Washington, November 12th, 1921. As the Pacific problem, which would come before the Conference, was one which directly concerned Canada, her government felt that she should be directly represented. Difficulties having arisen, it was finally decided that Sir Robert Borden should attend the Conference as a member of the British Empire delegation. The treaty that resulted was signed by Sir Robert Borden for the Dominion of Canada. =Washington, George= (1732-1799). First president of the United States. In 1753, when he was adjutant-general of the Virginia militia with the rank of major, he was sent by Governor Dinwiddie to summon the French to withdraw from the Ohio country. He met Joncaire at Venango, and Legardeur de Saint-Pierre at Fort le Bœuf. Saint-Pierre was polite, but non-committal. On the way back Washington was nearly drowned in the Alleghany. The following year he crossed the Alleghanies and surprised and captured a party of French under Coulon de Jumonville. “Judge it as we may,” says Parkman, “this obscure skirmish began the war that set the world on fire.” Washington built Fort Necessity at a place called Great Meadows, near the Monongahela, where he was attacked by the French under Coulon de Villiers and forced to capitulate. Served as aide-de-camp to Braddock in his expedition against Fort Duquesne, 1755, and was present at the disastrous battle of the Monongahela. In 1778, after he had become president of the new republic, he refused to sanction any invasion of Canada in which the French would take a leading part, wisely avoiding the possibility of the French re-establishing themselves on his northern border. In 1781 he was suspicious of the intentions of Vermont, and threatened that if they attempted to join Canada he would lead his entire force against them; and was indignant at their carrying on trade with Canada. His attitude toward the United Empire Loyalists has been described as unworthy of an otherwise high-minded and chivalrous character. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._, which _see_ for list of lives. =Washington Treaty=, 1871. Dealt with the Alabama claims; arbitration of the San Juan boundary; North Atlantic fisheries; navigation of certain rivers and canals and of Lake Michigan; system of bonded transit; exemption from duty of United States logs floated down the St. John river. An attempt was made by Sir John A. Macdonald, who represented Canadian interests in the negotiation of the treaty, to revive the provisions of the Reciprocity treaty of 1854, but without success. It was also suggested that the Fenian Raids should be considered, but the Americans, who claimed and obtained compensation in the _Alabama_ matter, would not admit any responsibility for the Raids or even consent to discuss them. The other British commissioners were Earl de Grey, Sir Edward Thornton, Sir Stafford Northcote, and Professor Montague Bernard. The United States representatives were Hamilton Fish, General Schenck, Judge Nelson, Judge Hoar, and Senator Williams. The treaty was duly ratified, and brought into operation by proclamation, July 4th, 1871. It was terminated at the instance of the United States, July, 1885. The fisheries question was afterwards dealt with by the Halifax Commission. George Brown’s mission to Washington in 1874, and the abortive reciprocity treaty of that year, were a direct result of the 1871 negotiations. =Bib.=: Pope, _Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald_; Houston, _Constitutional Documents_; Hertslet, _Treaties and Conventions_; _Messages, Despatches, and Minutes of the Privy Council Relative to the Treaty of Washington_, Ottawa, 1872; Cushing, _The Treaty of Washington_; Adams, _Before and after the Treaty of Washington_. =Water-Powers.= Canada is unusually rich in this exceedingly valuable natural resource, and it is a curious circumstance that, with the exception of British Columbia which has both, the provinces that lack coal are generously endowed with water-power, while those that are deficient in water-powers have vast deposits of coal. It is estimated that the total available water-powers exceed 40,000,000 commercial horse-power at ordinary minimum flow. In 1926 there were actually developed or under construction, nearly 4,000,000 horse-power, involving a capital investment of about $700,000,000. The Canadian water-power industry dates from about 1895, and has grown steadily and rapidly since that year. It is difficult to give any dates for the earliest use of water-powers in the various provinces. Here, as in other countries, the power of running water was applied directly to grist-mills, saw-mills, etc., for many years before modern discoveries made possible the transmission of electricity generated from water-power to considerable distances. It was so used in the days of New France, and throughout the pioneer period of the British provinces. Among the more important of the modern developments are those at Niagara Falls, on the upper St. Lawrence, the St. Maurice, the upper Saguenay, the Winnipeg, and those of the British Columbia Electric Company. In five of the provinces power development is in the hands of private companies. In Ontario it is controlled by the Hydro-Electric Power Commission; in New Brunswick by the New Brunswick Electric Power Commission; in Nova Scotia by the Nova Scotia Power Commission; and in Manitoba by the Manitoba Power Commission. =Bib.=: Challies, _Water-Powers of Canada_ (World Power Conference number of _Engineering Journal_, July, 1924). =Waterways.= Canada is unusually rich in her waterways, both from the point of view of transportation and water-power. Extensive improvements have been carried out from time to time, both in deepening river channels and building canals. The International Waterways Commission (_q.v._) reported upon various problems connected with the development and use of waterways along the international boundary, and the International Joint Commission (_q.v._) has jurisdiction over questions relating to the use of such waterways. _See also_ Canals; Transportation; Water-Powers; and under names of individual rivers and lakes. =Watkin, Sir Edwin William, Bart.= (1819-1901). Born in Manchester, England. Educated there. In 1845 secretary of the Trent Valley Railway, and at various times connected with the London and North-Western Railway, the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln Railway, Great Western Railway, and South-Eastern Railway. In 1857 elected member of Parliament for Yarmouth. From 1862 to 1868 president of the Grand Trunk Railway. He was a friend of Sir Georges E. Cartier. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Watson, Sir David= (1871-1922). Born at Quebec. Joined the staff of the Quebec _Chronicle_ in 1891. Became managing director in 1906. Delegate to Imperial Press Conference in 1909. Entered the militia, and rose to the command of the 8th Royal Rifles, Quebec. Went overseas in 1914 as commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. Promoted to command of the 5th Brigade, 1915; and 4th Division, 1916. Major-general. Knighted, 1918. =Bib.=: Greene, _Who’s Who and Why_. =Wayne, Anthony= (1745-1796). Born in Pennsylvania. Sent in 1765, on the recommendation of Benjamin Franklin, to Nova Scotia, as financial agent and land surveyor. One of the provincial deputies chosen in 1774 to consider the relations between the American colonies and Great Britain. In 1775 raised a regiment of troops, and in 1776 made colonel; defeated and wounded at Three Rivers in an attack on the British. Promoted brigadier-general, 1777; major-general, 1783; and general-in-chief, 1792. Defeated the Indians at Fort Recovery, and demanded the evacuation of the British fort on the Miami. He was instructed, however, to avoid anything that might lead to war with Great Britain. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Weatherbe, Sir Robert Linton= (1836-1915). Born in Prince Edward Island. Educated at Prince of Wales College, Charlottetown, and Acadia College, Wolfville. Edited the _Acadian Recorder_. Called to the bar, 1863; judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1878; chief-justice, 1905-1907; knighted, 1906. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Weir, Lieutenant George.= Came to Canada with the 32nd Regiment; served in the Rebellion of 1837 in Lower Canada; sent with despatches to the officer in command at Sorel; captured by Wolfred Nelson and sent prisoner to St. Charles; attempted to escape at St. Denis, and was killed by his rebel guards. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _History of Canada_; Christie, _History of Lower Canada_. =Weldon, John Wesley= (1804-1885). For many years a member of the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick, and 1843-1851 Speaker of the House. In 1865 appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, and held the position until his death, 1885. =Bib.=: Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Welland Canal.= Projected as a result of the War of 1812. Connects Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. A commission was appointed in 1816 to report upon the practicability of such a canal and the best route. Great difficulty was experienced in financing the undertaking, and it was not until 1829 that the first canal was completed. Much of the credit for putting the project through was due to William Hamilton Merritt. The original canal extended from Port Dalhousie on Lake Ontario to the town of Port Robinson where a connection was made with the Welland river, which was used to the Niagara river and thence to Lake Erie. This circuitous route not proving satisfactory, the canal was extended between 1831 and 1833 from Port Robinson to Port Colborne on Lake Erie. The canal was improved and deepened to nine feet in 1846. The second canal, with locks of the same dimensions as the St. Lawrence canals, was completed in 1867, and like them subsequently deepened to fourteen feet. Its length is twenty-six and three-quarter miles. The Welland Canal was originally commenced by a private company, but was afterwards taken over by the government and made part of the national system. In 1913 work was commenced on the Welland Ship Canal. When completed this will have a length of twenty-five miles with seven lift locks, each 800 feet long by 80 feet wide and 30 feet deep. The eastern portion of the canal follows an entirely new route; the western end adheres pretty closely to the line of the present canal. =Bib.=: Kingsford, _Canadian Canals_; Merritt, _Biography of W. H. Merritt_; Matheson, _Welland Canal_ (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. Ottawa, _Trans._, vol. ii). =Welsh in Canada.= Books have been written about the Scotch in Canada, and the Irish in Canada, and the United Empire Loyalist in Canada, but no one seems to have thought of telling the story of the Welsh in Canada. Even the _Canada Year Book_, in giving the racial origin of the people, classifies those of British origin as English, Scotch, Irish, and Other. Of the latter, there were 41,953 in Canada in 1921, but how many of them were of Welsh stock there is no means of telling. Nevertheless, from the immigration tables it appears that 943 Welsh came to Canada in 1921, 627 in 1922, 581 in 1923, and 1,113 in 1924. There do not seem to have been any distinctively Welsh settlements, such as the Scotch in Cape Breton and on the Red river, the Germans in Waterloo county and Lunenburg, the United Empire Loyalists on the Bay of Quinte and the St. John river, etc. =Wentworth, Benning.= United Empire Loyalist. Left Boston for Halifax after the Revolutionary War. He was proscribed in 1778 and his estate confiscated. In 1795 he was appointed a member of the Executive Council of Nova Scotia, and the following year became secretary of Nova Scotia. He also filled the office of treasurer of the province, which he resigned in 1797. In 1800 he was commissioned master of the rolls, and registrar in chancery. Died at Halifax in 1808. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Wentworth, Sir John= (1737-1820). Born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Educated at Harvard. In 1765 went to England as agent of the province of New Hampshire, and in 1776 appointed governor of the province; in the same year made surveyor-general of the king’s woods in North America. While governor of New Hampshire opposed the imposition of the taxes by Great Britain, but still supported British connection; compelled in 1775 to take refuge on board a British ship, on which he sailed for England. Went to Nova Scotia where he became surveyor of woods and forests. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia. Retired, 1808. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =West India Company.= Established by royal edict in 1664, under the usual conditions, that it should further the cause of colonization and religion in New France, and in return should possess a monopoly of the fur trade. The charter was revoked in 1674. In 1721, a similar charter was granted to a new West India Company. =Bib.=: Biggar, _Early Trading Companies of New France_. =Westminster Conference=, 1866. To settle finally the plan on which the Confederation of the provinces was to be carried out, the delegates from Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia met in the Westminster Palace Hotel, London. The Conference lasted from the 4th to the 24th of December, and passed a series of sixty-nine resolutions based on those of the Quebec Conference. The Conference resumed again in January, 1867, with the result that the British North America Act was adopted in its final form March 29th, and passed by the Imperial Parliament. The delegates to the Conference were—Canada: John A. Macdonald, G. E. Cartier, A. T. Galt, William McDougall, H. L. Langevin, W. P. Howland; Nova Scotia: Charles Tupper, W. A. Henry, Jonathan McCully, Adams G. Archibald, J. W. Ritchie; New Brunswick: S. L. Tilley, John Johnson, Peter Mitchell, Charles Fisher, R. D. Wilmot. For details as to the terms of the Resolutions, the several draft bills, and the final draft of February 9th, 1867, which went before the Imperial Parliament, _see_ Pope, _Confederation Documents_. =Bib.=: _See also_ British North America Act; Confederation. =Wetherall, Sir George Augustus= (1788-1868). Born in Hampshire, England. Educated at Winchester and the Military College, Farnham. In 1803 joined the regiment of Nova Scotia Fencibles formed by his father, General Sir Fred A. Wetherall. During the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in Canada, he was in command of the troops at Montreal, defeating the rebels at St. Charles and Point Oliver. In 1838 promoted brevet-colonel; from 1843 to 1850 deputy-adjutant-general in Canada; adjutant-general, 1854; lieutenant-general, 1857, and in 1860 commanded the northern district in Great Britain. In 1865 appointed governor of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Waymouth, George.= Arctic explorer. Sailed up Hudson Strait in 1602 for about a hundred leagues, his farthest point to the westward being probably somewhere in the neighbourhood of Charles Island, on the south side of the Strait. Undertaken at the entire charge of the East India Fellowship. Waymouth sailed with two ships, the _Discovery_ and the _Godspeede_. He returned to England in August, 1602. The explanation of his unexpectedly quick return, without having obtained any information as to the North-West Passage, was that his men had mutinied, incited thereto by one Cartwright, a preacher, who seems to have been attached to the expedition because he had travelled in Persia. There was some talk of sending Waymouth out again in 1603, but the project came to nothing. =Bib.=: Rundall, _Narrative of Voyages toward the North-West_. =Wheat.= The history of wheat-growing in Canada goes back to the early days of the French régime. Johnson (_First Things in Canada_) says that the first field of wheat ever sown in Canada by the hand of white men was in Annapolis Royal in 1605. He quotes Poutrincourt as saying that “it grew under the snow.” The first wheat mill was built in 1606 at the same place. Roberval seems to have brought wheat to Canada in 1542; Champlain planted both wheat and rye at Quebec in 1608; and in 1616 took samples of wheat, Indian corn and other agricultural products to France as proof of the fertility of the soil. During Talon’s second administration as intendant, wheat was raised in excess of home consumption, and a quantity was exported. Vaudreuil notes in 1709 the export of 958,955 pounds of flour from New France. In 1788 Quebec exported 200,358 bushels of wheat. Pierre Boucher in 1662 gives the price of wheat as 100 sous a bushel of sixty pounds, though it sometimes rose to 120 sous. In 1668 there was even a corner in wheat. It was so scarce that year that 190 bushels brought down from Three Rivers to Quebec were held at seven livres, or francs, a bushel, till the Jesuits, who had a stock on hand, broke the market by selling theirs at five francs. Without attempting to trace the history of wheat and wheat-growing in Upper and Lower Canada and the Maritime Provinces, it may be noted that the history of wheat-growing in western Canada goes back to 1733, when La Vérendrye sowed it at Fort St. Charles on the Lake of the Woods. There is evidence in the narratives of the fur traders that it was also grown around some of the forts on the Saskatchewan and elsewhere early in the next century. The Red river settlers raised their first crop in 1813, and in 1877 the first shipment was exported to Europe from Manitoba. The first train-load of wheat left Portage la Prairie for Montreal in 1885. In 1923 the total yield of wheat in Canada was 474,199,000 bushels, from an area of 22,671,864 acres. _See also_ Agriculture. =Bib.=: Douglas, _Old France in the New World_; Skelton, _General Economic History of the Dominion_ (_Canada and its Provinces_, vol. viii); Dafoe, _Economic History of the Prairie Provinces_ (_Canada and its Provinces_, vol. xx); Fair, _Transportation of Canadian Wheat_; Mackintosh, _Canadian Wheat Pools_. =Whelan, Edward= (1824-1867). Born in County Mayo, Ireland. Emigrated to Nova Scotia, and employed in the office of the _Nova Scotian_, under Joseph Howe. Moved to Prince Edward Island, 1843, where he published first _The Palladium_, then _The Examiner_, and immediately threw himself into the struggle for popular rights; elected to the Assembly, 1847; a member of the Council, 1864, when he represented his province at the Quebec Conference. Died at Charlottetown. =Bib.=: Davin, _The Irishman in Canada_; McCourt, _Edward Whelan_. =White, John.= An English barrister who came out to Canada with Chief-Justice Osgoode in 1792. First attorney-general of Upper Canada. Represented Leeds and Addington in the Assembly. In 1800 he was killed in a duel by Major John Small, clerk of the Executive Council. =Bib.=: Riddell, _Legal Profession in Upper Canada_. =White, Gideon= (1751-1833). Born in Plymouth, Massachusetts. United Empire Loyalist. Served as a volunteer on the British side in the battle of Bunker Hill. His father sent him to Nova Scotia. Captured by a Plymouth vessel, brought back and put in prison. Released, he served in the loyal army until the close of hostilities. In 1783 he went with his regiment to Jamaica. Subsequently settled in Shelburne, Nova Scotia; became a member of the House of Assembly, and a judge of the Court of Common Pleas. Died at Shelburne. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =White, Thomas= (1830-1888). Born in Montreal. Educated at the high school there. Joined the editorial staff of the _Quebec Gazette_; and in 1853 founded the _Peterborough Review_, which he edited for seven years. In 1860 went to Cobourg to study law, and in 1864 with his brother founded the _Hamilton Spectator_. Elected to the Dominion Parliament for Cardwell, 1878, and again in 1882 and 1887. A member of Sir John A. Macdonald’s Cabinet in 1885 as minister of the interior, and carried out the political organization of the North-West Territories. =Bib.=: Rose, _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Whiteman’s Pass.= Leads from the source of the Spray river over into British Columbia, or in broader terms, from the Bow to the Columbia. Name is supposed to have originated from the passage through the pass of a party of emigrants in 1841, or the journey of Father De Smet in 1845. Cross river, which flows down from the pass to Kootenay river, is said to derive its name from the fact that De Smet set up a cross near the summit of the pass. According to Dr. G. M. Dawson, the Stoney Indians call it _Tsha-kooap-te-ha-wap-ta_ in allusion to this incident. =Bib.=: _Report of Commission on Alberta-British Columbia Boundary_. =Whitney, Caspar.= Born in Boston, 1862. Spent ten years in travel and exploration in North and South America and Asia. On Harper’s staff, 1888-1900. Editor _Outing Magazine_, 1900-1909; Collier’s _Outdoor Magazine_ after 1909. Travelled through the barren grounds of northern Canada. =Bib.=: _On Snow Shoes to the Barren Grounds_; _Jungle Trails and Jungle People_; _A Sporting Pilgrimage_. =Whitney, Sir James Pliny= (1843-1914). Born at Williamsburg, Ontario. Educated at the Cornwall Grammar School. Served for some years in the militia, and on active service during the Fenian raid, 1866. In 1876 called to the bar and practised at Morrisburg, Ontario. Elected for Dundas to the Ontario Assembly, 1888. In 1896 leader of the Conservative party in Ontario; and in 1905 premier, on the defeat of the Liberal government. Knighted, 1908. =Bib.=: _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Wild Rice= (_Zizania aquatica_). Constantly referred to in narratives of western exploration and the fur trade. It formed an important article of food to the north-western Algonquian tribes, the Ojibwas, Winnebagoes, Pottawattomies, etc., who harvested it by beating it into their canoes. =Bib.=: Jenks, _Wild-Rice Gatherers of the Upper Lakes_; Carr, _Food for American Indians_ (Amer. Antiq. Soc. _Proc._ 1895); Stickney, _Indian Use of Wild Rice_ (_Amer. Anthropologist_, ix). =Wilkins, Isaac= (1741-1830). Born in Jamaica. Educated at King’s College (Columbia) New York, graduating, 1760. Sat in the New York Assembly for several years. Became obnoxious to the Whigs because of his strong loyalist sentiments. Several essays that he published were tarred and feathered and publicly burned, their author not then being available, having gone to England in 1775. The following year he returned to Long Island, where he remained until the end of the war, when he emigrated to Nova Scotia, making his home for several years in Shelburne and later in Lunenburg. In 1800 he returned to New York, where he continued up to his death. He married a sister of Gouverneur Morris. His son, Lewis Morris Wilkins, became a member of the House of Assembly of Nova Scotia and Speaker; and a judge of the Supreme Court of the province. Died at Windsor in 1847. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_. =Wilkins, Lewis Morris= (1801-1885). Born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, son of Lewis Morris Wilkins, judge of the Supreme Court. Educated at King’s College, Windsor, graduating in 1819. Called to the bar and practised at Windsor from 1823 to 1856. In 1856 appointed judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, resigning in 1876. For several years a member of the Nova Scotia Legislature, and provincial secretary in the Young ministry, 1854-1856. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =William IV= (1765-1837). Third son of George III and Queen Charlotte; born in Buckingham Palace. On June 26th, 1830, succeeded George IV. Visited Canada as Prince William Henry in 1787. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._ =Williams, Sir William Fenwick= (1800-1883). Born in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia. Graduated at Woolwich, England, in 1821; entered the army, 1825; and served with distinction in the Crimean War, 1854-1855. On his return to England created a baronet, received the Order of the Bath, and granted a pension of £1,000 a year. Nova Scotia presented him with a sword of honour. In 1860-1866 commander of the forces in Canada; during the absence of the governor-general, Sir Edmund Head, administrator of Canada, from October 2nd, 1860, to January 22nd, 1861; and in 1865 governor of Nova Scotia. In 1868 full general; and in 1870 governor-general of Gibraltar. He coöperated with Tupper in the Confederation movement. In 1877 he retired from the army; and in 1881 was appointed constable of the Tower. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Taylor, _Brit. Am._; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Williamsburg Canals.= On the upper St. Lawrence. Consists of three canals—Farran’s Point, Rapide Plat and Galops. They extend, including the river reaches between, from the town of Cardinal for twenty-six and a quarter miles almost down to the Cornwall canal. The three canals were all built between the years 1843 and 1847 with a depth of nine feet, and were enlarged between 1897 and 1901 to a depth of fourteen feet, with locks 270 feet long and 45 feet wide. They are used for the most part by vessels ascending the river, down-bound vessels being able, except at low stages of the river, to run the rapids. =Willis, John Walpole= (1792-1877). Born in England. A voluminous writer on legal subjects. In 1827 appointed a puisne judge of the King’s Bench in Upper Canada. A capable judge, but in constant conflict with Sir Peregrine Maitland, the lieutenant-governor of the province. On the ground that he had refused to conduct the business of the court alone, in the absence of the two other judges, the governor dismissed him from the bench in June, 1828. Subsequently judge in Demerara, and judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales; dismissed from the latter appointment, 1743. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Cel. Can._; Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Willis, Michael= (1799-1879). Born in Greenock, Scotland. Educated at the University of Glasgow. A minister in Glasgow for a number of years, and professor of divinity for the secession branch of the Presbyterian church. In 1843, at the disruption, joined the Free church, and afterwards invited to Canada in connection with the colonial board of that religious body. In 1845 appointed professor of theology in Knox College, and later principal of that institution, resigning in 1870. President of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada. =Willison, Sir John Stephen= (1856-). Born at Hill’s Green, Ontario. Began his journalistic career with the London _Advertiser_, 1882; joined the staff of the Toronto _Globe_, 1883. Represented the _Globe_ in Ottawa for some years; editor-in-chief of the _Globe_, 1890; subsequently editor of the Toronto _News_. Founded _Willison’s Monthly_. =Bib.=: _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_; _Canadian Who’s Who_. =Wilmot, Lemuel Allan= (1809-1878). Born in Sunbury county, New Brunswick, of United Empire Loyalist stock. His father, William Wilmot, represented Sunbury county in the provincial Assembly, 1816-1819. Educated at the College of New Brunswick, the son studied law, and was called to the bar in 1832. Entered public life in 1834 as member for York county in the New Brunswick Assembly. Re-elected the following year. He obtained a good deal of local eminence as a stump orator. In 1836 took an active part in the drafting of a series of twenty-six resolutions condemning the management of the crown lands department, the composition of the Executive Council and of the Legislative Council, and demanding that the control of the casual and territorial revenues be placed in the hands of the Legislature. Wilmot and William Crane were appointed a delegation to carry the resolutions to England. Owing to the procrastination of the colonial minister, Lord Glenelg, they were kept four months in England, but were able to bring home with them the promise of a Civil List bill which conceded most of the demands of the Assembly. As the governor Sir Archibald Campbell, showed reluctance to carry out the promises of the Home government, Wilmot was again sent to England in 1837, and the Civil List bill was finally passed in July. Between 1838 and 1845 Wilmot busied himself with the status of King’s College (now the University of New Brunswick). He introduced, session after session, a bill designed to put the college on a more liberal basis, and enable students of other denominations than the Church of England to make use of its facilities. In each case the bill passed the Assembly, but was thrown out by the Council. Finally, it went through both Houses. In 1843 he became a member of the provincial government, but two years later resigned in protest against what he considered an improper appointment by the governor. Strongly advocated an efficient system of public schools. In 1847 he again entered the government as attorney-general; and three years later was appointed to the Supreme Court. Between 1868 and 1873 he was lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. Hannay says of him: “With heavy odds against him, he contended for the rights of the people and the improvement of the constitution, and he lived to see the principles for which he had fought so firmly established in his native province that they can never be disturbed.” =Bib.=: Hannay, _Wilmot and Tilley_; Roberts, _History of Canada_; Bourinot, _Canada during Victorian Era_ (R. S. C., 1897); Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_. =Wilmot, Montagu.= Lieutenant-colonel in the army, 1755; commanded an expedition against Fort Cumberland, 1756. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1763; governor, 1764. Died, 1766. =Bib.=: _Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia_, ed. by Akins. =Wilmot, Robert Duncan= (1809-1891). Born at Fredericton, New Brunswick. Member of the provincial Parliament, 1846-1861 and in 1865-1867; and surveyor-general, 1851-1854. Provincial secretary in the Wilmot-Gray ministry, and in 1867 called to the Senate, of which he was a member for thirteen years. In 1878-1891 a member of the Privy Council; in 1878-1880 a member of the Cabinet without portfolio, and Speaker of the Senate; lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1880-1885. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._; Hannay, _History of New Brunswick_; _Parliamentary Companion_, 1885. =Wilson, Sir Adam= (1814-1891). Born in Edinburgh. Educated in that city. In 1830 came to Canada; studied law under Robert Baldwin Sullivan, and in 1839 called to the bar of Upper Canada. In 1840 partner of Robert Baldwin, the Reform leader, and built up a successful practice. Elected to the Assembly for the north riding of York; in 1862-1863 solicitor-general in John Sandfield Macdonald’s government; resigned on being appointed a judge of the Queen’s Bench. Chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas, 1878; and of Queen’s Bench, 1884. Knighted, 1888. =Bib.=: _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._ and _Last Forty Years_. =Wilson, Sir Daniel= (1816-1892). Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh University. In 1845 appointed honorary secretary of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries. In 1853 came to Canada as professor of history and English literature in Toronto University, becoming president of the university in 1881. Elected president of the Royal Society of Canada, 1885. Knighted, 1888. =Bib.=: Works: _Prehistoric Man_; _The Missing Link_; _Archæology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_; _Chatterton: A Biographical Study_; _The Lost Atlantis and other Ethnographic Studies_. For biog., _see Dict. Nat. Biog._; Dent, _Can. Por._; Kingsford, _Sir Daniel Wilson_ (R. S. C., 1893); MacMurchy, _Canadian Literature_. =Wilson, John= (1809-1869). Born in Paisley, Scotland. Came to Canada, 1823; for some years worked on a farm near Perth. Studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1835. Practised his profession at London. Served as a volunteer during the Rebellion of 1837. Represented London in the Assembly, 1847-1851; defeated, 1851, but again elected, 1854; elected to the Legislative Council, 1863; appointed judge of the Court of Common Pleas, 1863. =Bib.=: Read, _Lives of the Judges_. =Wiman, Erastus= (1834-1904). Born at Churchville, Ontario. Educated in Toronto; early became engaged in newspaper work; joined the staff of the Toronto _Globe_, 1856; edited Montreal _Trade Review_, 1864-1865; entered the service of R. G. Dun & Co., 1865; removed to the United States, 1866, and connected with many large commercial enterprises. A strong advocate of reciprocity between Canada and the United States. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Windmill Point.= Situated in Grenville county, Ontario, and the scene of an engagement between filibusters from the United States, under Colonel Von Schoultz (_q.v._), and Canadian troops, in November, 1838, when the former were defeated. _See also_ Schoultz. =Bib.=: Lindsey, _William Lyon Mackenzie_. =Windsor.= City of Ontario. Laid out in 1834. Incorporated as a town in 1858, and as a city in 1892. Takes its name from Windsor, England. Connected by a tunnel with Detroit on the opposite side of the Detroit river. =Windsor.= Town of Nova Scotia. The township was organized in 1764, but the original Acadian settlement dates back to 1710. Incorporated as a town in 1878. Before 1764 it was known as _Pessequid_, meaning to flow split-wise, as the tide does there. The old Indian name was _Setunook_. The University of King’s College was situated at Windsor for many years, until removed to Halifax. =Bib.=: Brown, _Place Names, Nova Scotia_. =Winnebago Indians.= Of Siouan stock. Their home had been for a long time before the coming of the whites in what is now the state of Wisconsin. First seen and described by Nicolet in 1634. Champlain had heard of them as early as 1629. On his map of 1632 is found the legend “la Nation des Puans.” Winnebago was the name given them by their Algonquian neighbours. They were known to the French as Puans. Kellogg describes them as “a people more barbaric, more fiercely proud and independent than the Algonquian, so intractable and so hostile that they have by some historians been designated as the “Iroquois of the West.” French missionaries did not reach this tribe for many years. The French posts on Green Bay traded with them as well as with other surrounding tribes. The relations of the Winnebago with the whites were never very cordial, and sometimes ended in war, as in 1827. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_; Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_. =Winnipeg.= Capital of the province of Manitoba. Founded about 1862. In the summer of that year “the first attempt was made to establish a place of business on the highway at the spot where the Assiniboine and Red river tracks meet close to the boundary of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s land reserve” (Hargrave’s _Red River_). Incorporated in 1873. Its early growth was very slow and the city suffered for years from the effects of an ill-timed boom. The first decade of the twentieth century, however, brought rapid and substantial growth. _See also_ Fort Garry; Red River Colony; Manitoba. =Bib.=: Hargrave, _Red River_; Bryce, _Manitoba_; _Ency. Brit._; _Ency. Amer._; Lovell, _Gazetteer of Canada_. =Winnipeg, Lake.= Area, 9,460 square miles. The lake was known both to the English on Hudson Bay and to the French in Canada, long before its actual discovery, and is represented on a number of early maps, though sometimes very far from its actual position. The lake was actually discovered by La Vérendrye about 1733. The name is derived from the Cree word _Wi-nipi_, turbid water. It has had a host of variants, from Ouinipigon and Ouinipique to Winnipeck and Winipic, not to mention the name given in Coats’ _Hudson Bay_, Winnipeg-gon-e-sepe. =Winnipeg River.= Flows from the Lake of the Woods to Lake Winnipeg. Its principal tributary is English river, which rises in the country west of Lake Nipigon and empties into the Winnipeg after a course of 330 miles. The ultimate source of the Winnipeg is Firesteel river, on the international boundary, not far from the western shore of Lake Superior. Total length, 475 miles. It was first discovered by the eldest son of La Vérendrye and his nephew La Jemeraye about 1733. Fort Maurepas was built near its mouth by La Vérendrye, and many years later the North West Company had a trading post about the same place. This was for many years the thoroughfare for explorers and fur traders from Lake Superior to the west. Its numerous rapids, which made navigation difficult and dangerous, are now being harnessed for the development of water-power. =Bib.=: _Atlas of Canada_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Winnipegosis, Lake.= In Manitoba, west of Lake Winnipeg, with which it is connected by Dauphin river and Lake St. Martin. La Vérendrye’s posts, Forts Bourbon and Dauphin, stood at its northern and southern ends. A fur traders’ route from the Assiniboine to the Saskatchewan, in both the French and British periods, lay through lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis. A branch of the Canadian National Railways reaches the lake at the town of Winnipegosis. Area, 2,086 square miles. =Winslow, John= (1702-1774). Grandson of the second, and great-grandson of the first governor Winslow, of the colony of Plymouth. In 1740 he was a captain in the expedition to Cuba. Served subsequently in the enterprises against Crown Point and the Kennebec in the two French wars. Remembered principally because of his connection with the expulsion of the Acadians in 1755. Shirley sent Monckton in charge of one battalion and Winslow of the other. Winslow was, of course, in no sense responsible for the deportation, as he was merely an officer acting under definite instructions. In 1756 he commanded six thousand troops in operations against the French, with the rank of major-general. In 1762 he was one of the commissioners to fix the Maine boundary. The town of Winslow, on the Kennebec, was named after him, in 1771. Became a member of the Legislature of Massachusetts. Died at Hingham. His brother Edward (1712-1784) went to Halifax from Boston in 1776, and took a prominent part in the public affairs of Nova Scotia. Edward’s son, of the same name (1745-1815), graduated at Harvard in 1765. Joined the royal army at Boston in 1775, and became colonel. In 1778 he was proscribed and banished. In 1782 he was muster-master-general of the Loyalist forces. After the war he settled in New Brunswick, where he became a member of the first Council, surrogate-general, judge of the Supreme Court, and administrator of the government. Died at Fredericton. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_; Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Winthrop, Fitz-John= (1639-1707). Born in Boston, Massachusetts. Educated at Harvard. Going to England, he served in the parliamentary army there and in Scotland. Took part in the march of General Monk’s army to London. In 1663 returned to New England and employed in both military and civil capacities. In 1690 major-general in command of the army which unsuccessfully invaded Canada. Agent for Connecticut in London, 1693-1697; and governor of the colony, 1698-1707. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Wisconsin River.= Flows through Wisconsin, and empties into the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien. One of the most famous of the early portage routes led from Green Bay up the Fox, over to the Wisconsin, and down to the Mississippi. This was the route of Radisson, Marquette, and many other explorers, missionaries and fur traders. Marquette was told by his guides that the name of the river was _Meskousing_. This was transformed to _Miskonsing_ by Jolliet, and to _Ouisconsin_ by Hennepin. =Bib.=: Kellogg, _French Régime in Wisconsin_. =Witness.= Newspaper published in Montreal. Established by John Dougall in 1846. Edited by him and afterwards by his son John Redpath Dougall. A rival Canadian newspaper said of the _Witness_: “One hardly goes too far in saying that no other newspaper in this country, even, it may be, on this continent, has been conducted from the beginning with more resolute honesty, independence, and desire to be just and right.” =Wolfe, James= (1729-1759). Born at Westerham, Kent, England. His father came originally from Limerick. His father had risen to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the armies of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. Throughout his short life he was seriously handicapped by a very delicate constitution. At the age of sixteen he took part in his first campaign in Flanders. Took part in the battle of Dettingen, where he distinguished himself by his bravery and coolness, was made lieutenant and adjutant, and shortly afterwards promoted to captain. Fought in the battle of Culloden, and at the age of twenty-three was a lieutenant-colonel. Spent five years at Inverness in the Highlands with the garrison where, in spite of ill health, he won popularity by his tact and good spirits. Spent the winter of 1753 in Paris. Recalled to England on the opening of the Seven Years’ War, and sent to Rochefort, where he won golden opinions from his military chiefs. Sent by Pitt with the expedition against Louisbourg, he received the appointment with mixed feelings. His military genius and ambition drew him forward, while his wretched health, dread of the sea, and longing for that home life which he had never known, pulled him the other way. “Impetuous and irascible,” says Casgrain, “his weak constitution often allowed him to be carried away by outbursts of passion. His temperament was Celtic rather than Saxon. He was liberal in his ideas, more devoted to his country than to his ambition, and a model of filial piety. Friendships, which he readily formed, he knew how to retain. He was ever a slave to duty, a stern disciplinarian, and a soldier before all else, and consequently beloved both by officers and by rank and file.” Of the capture of Louisbourg in 1758, in which he took a notable part, Wolfe had no very high opinion. “Our force,” he wrote, “was so superior to the enemy’s that we might hope for greater success... Amongst ourselves be it said that our attempt to land where we did was rash and injudicious, our success unexpected (by me) and undeserved. There was no prodigious exertion of courage in the affair... Our proceedings in other respects were as slow and tedious as this undertaking was ill-advised and desperate.” He returned to England for a short rest, was promoted to brigadier-general, and entrusted by Pitt with the command of the expedition against Quebec, with the rank of major-general. His three brigadiers were Monckton, Townshend and Murray. Saunders commanded the fleet, with Holmes and Durell. Thanks to Durell’s chart, the great fleet—one hundred and forty-one ships—made its way safely up the river to Quebec. Wolfe’s army was only nine thousand, much less than the strength of the fleet. Montcalm had seventeen thousand, but most of them were militia, badly armed and half-starved. Nevertheless, his was the easier task. He had only to sit tight and hold Quebec until the approach of winter would force the fleet to withdraw. Wolfe had to find some way into the fortress, seemingly impossible, not by reason of its artificial defences but because of its natural position. Having taken possession of the Island of Orleans, he established siege batteries at Lévis, and landed a strong force at the mouth of the Montmorency. On July 8th he reconnoitred the north shore above Quebec, some of his ships having succeeded in forcing their way up past the French batteries. The last day of that month he suffered a severe defeat at Montmorency. Convinced that nothing could be done below the town, he began to study the possibilities above, and slowly and with complete secrecy worked out the details of what, finally, became the plan of attack. Even his brigadiers were kept in ignorance of the fact that the army was to reach the Plains of Abraham by way of the Anse du Foulon, about two miles above Quebec. August 29th he had put three alternatives before the brigadiers, none of them involving an attack above the town. In their reply they recommended an attack above Quebec, but contemplated a point about twelve miles up-stream. Wolfe was no doubt influenced by their advice, but the daring selection of Anse du Foulon, together with the brilliant plan of attack, and the minute working out of the details, were entirely his own. If the success of his plan was partly good luck, it was at least equally due to his very complete knowledge of the situation and his fine strategy. As he wrote the brigadiers on September 12th: “To the best of my knowledge and abilities I have fixed upon that spot where we can act with the most force, and are most likely to succeed. If I am mistaken I am sorry for it, and must be answerable to his majesty and the public for the consequences.” Wolfe realized that the burden of decision rested, in the last analysis, on his own shoulders. He gambled greatly, but not blindly, and won. He died, as he would have wished to die, in the hour of victory, on the Plains of Abraham. _See also_ Montcalm; Monckton; Townshend; Murray; Saunders; Holmes; Durell; Lévis; Vaudreuil; Bougainville; Plains of Abraham; Montmorency; Louisbourg; Quebec. =Bib.=: Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_; Wood, _Fight for Canada_; Willson, _Life and Letters of James Wolfe_; Wright, _Life of Wolfe_; Salmon, _Life of Wolfe_; Bradley, _Life of Wolfe_; Bradley, _Fight with France_; Casgrain, _Wolfe, Montcalm_; Waddington, _La Guerre de Sept Ans_; Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Wood, _Winning of Canada_. =Wolfe’s Cove.= Formerly the Anse au Foulon. A mile and a half above the city of Quebec. In 1759 the French had a post here, commanded by de Vergor. Early on the morning of September 13th Wolfe landed with his army at the foot of the cliffs; a small party of volunteers climbed the steep path and surprised and overpowered de Vergor’s handful of men; the army followed—“In the gray of the morning the long file of red-coated soldiers moved quickly upward, and formed in order on the plateau above;” the first step had been successfully taken in the movement that led to the Battle of the Plains and the cession of Canada to Great Britain. =Bib.=: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Casgrain, _Wolfe, Montcalm_. =Wolseley, Garnet Joseph, Viscount= (1833-1913). Born in Golden Bridge House, Dublin county, Ireland. In 1852 entered the army as ensign; served in the Burmese War, 1852-1853; in the Crimean War, 1854-1856; and in India, 1857; in 1861 sent to Canada in connection with the _Trent_ incident; in 1867 deputy-quartermaster-general of Canada; and in 1869-1870 commanded the Red River Expedition during the Riel Rebellion. Commanded the British army in the Ashantee War of 1873-1874; and in Egypt, 1882, and 1884-1885; field-marshal in 1894; and commander-in-chief of the army, 1895-1900. =Bib.=: _Story of a Soldier’s Life_. For biog., _see_ Chambers _Biog. Dict._ =Wood, Edmund Burke= (1820-1882). Born near Fort Erie, Ontario. Educated at Overton College, Ohio. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1848, and appointed clerk of the County Court of Brant, 1853. Represented West Brant in the Canadian Assembly, 1863-1867. After Confederation he was returned for both the Ontario Assembly and the Dominion House of Commons, but resigned the latter seat, 1872. Held office as provincial treasurer in the Sandfield-Macdonald ministry, 1867-1871. Elected to the House of Commons for West Durham, 1873. Appointed chief-justice of Manitoba, 1874. Died in Winnipeg. =Bib.=: Dent, _Can. Por._ =Wooster, David= (1710-1777). Born in Stratford, Connecticut. Graduated at Yale University. Took part in the expedition against Louisbourg, 1745; in 1776 served as brigadier-general of the American forces in Canada, succeeding to the command after the death of Montgomery. Criticized by Benjamin Franklin and recalled. =Bib.=: _Cyc. Am. Biog._ =Work, or Wark, John= (1792-1861). Born in Ireland. Entered service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1814; employed east of the mountains until 1822, when he was transferred to the Columbia; led expedition into the wilds of Oregon and the Upper Missouri in 1834; in charge of Fort Simpson, 1835-1849; appointed chief factor, 1846; removed to Victoria, 1849, as one of the managers of the Company’s affairs on the Pacific slope. In 1857 a member of the Legislative Council of Vancouver Island. Died at Victoria. =Bib.=: Bancroft, _History of British Columbia_; Walbran, _British Columbia Coast Names_. =Worrell, Clarendon Lamb= (1854-). Born at Smith’s Falls, Ontario. Educated at Trinity University, Toronto. Ordained deacon in the Church of England, 1881; priest, 1884. Professor of English at the Royal Military College, 1891-1904. Archdeacon of Ontario, 1901. Bishop of Nova Scotia, 1904. Elected archbishop and metropolitan of Eastern Canada, 1915. =Bib.=: Morgan, _Can. Men_. =Wrangel, Ferdinand Petrovitch, Baron von= (1796-1870). In 1817 took part in a scientific expedition to Siberia and Kamchatka; and in 1820 commanded an expedition to explore the Russian polar seas, which reached 72° 2´ north latitude. In 1827 appointed governor of Russian America (Alaska), and during his administration made surveys of the country, opened roads, built bridges, and instituted various other reforms and improvements. Strongly opposed to the cession of Alaska to the United States. =Wrangel Island.= In the Arctic, about a hundred miles off the eastern extremity of Asia. Named after Baron Wrangel, Russian Arctic explorer (_q.v._). Sighted by Sir Henry Kellatt in 1849; rediscovered by the American captain De Long in 1867, who named it; explored by an American expedition in 1881; and explored and temporarily occupied by Stefansson, the Canadian Arctic explorer, about forty years afterward. Subsequently taken possession of on behalf of the Russian Soviet government. =Bib.=: Stefansson, _The Adventure of Wrangel Island_. =Wright, Philemon= (1760-1839). Born in Woburn, Massachusetts. In 1800 he emigrated to Canada, and ascended the river Ottawa sixty miles beyond any previous known settler, with the object of selecting a suitable tract of land for a settlement. Eventually he chose the site of the present town of Hull, Quebec, and received a grant from the government. Imported several of the best breeds of cattle from Great Britain, and, introducing other improvements, the agricultural settlement grew into an important and thriving township. =Bib.=: Sabine, _Loyalists_; Carr-Harris, _White Chief of the Ottawa_. =Wrong, George McKinnon= (1860-). Born Grovesend, Ontario. Educated at University College, Toronto, Oxford and Berlin. Lecturer on history and dean of Wycliffe College, 1883-1892. Lecturer in history and ethnology, Toronto University, 1892-1894. Professor of history, Toronto University since 1894. Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, 1908. A member of the Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1907. Established the _Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada_, 1897; and largely responsible for the organization of the Champlain Society. =Bib.=: _The Crusade of 1383_; _Letter of a French Inhabitant of Louisbourg in 1745_; _The British Nation: A History_; _The Earl of Elgin_; _A Canadian Manor and its Seigneurs_; _The Fall of Canada_; _The Conquest of New France_; _Washington and His Comrades in Arms_. For biog., _see_ Morgan, _Can. Men_. =X Y Company.= Founded at Montreal in 1798 by several partners of the North West Company, who had become dissatisfied with the administration of the old company, and particularly resented the autocratic ways of its chief, Simon McTavish, popularly known among the fur traders, because of his domineering manner, as “Le Premier” and “Le Marquis.” The backbone of the new concern was the powerful Montreal firm of Forsyth, Richardson & Co. Alexander Mackenzie left the North West Company in 1798, but did not join the X Y Company until 1802. As a matter of fact he had been in England during the intervening period. When he did join, he became the controlling spirit in the organization. Meanwhile, the X Y Company had built a post at Grand Portage, and followed their rivals to the Assiniboine, the Saskatchewan, the Athabaska, and even into the remote Peace river country. On the death of McTavish, in 1804, the two companies were united as the North West Company. =Bib.=: Masson, _Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest_; Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Davidson, _The North West Company_. =Yarmouth.= City of Nova Scotia. The site was named Fourchu by Champlain in 1604, because of its resemblance to a “forked or cloven cape.” The Indians called the place _Keespongwitk_, meaning “Land’s End.” The township was named Yarmouth in 1759. The first settlers were Acadian French and refugees from New England. Town incorporated in 1890. =Bib.=: Brown, _Nova Scotia Place Names_. =Yellowhead Pass.= Through the Rocky mountains. Elevation, 3,733 feet above sea level. The summit of the pass is eighteen miles in a straight line from the Athabaska river. Yellowhead lake, a little west of the summit, discharges its waters into the Fraser river. Because of its easy gradients, this pass was favoured by (Sir) Sandford Fleming as the route for the Canadian Pacific Railway, but political and economic considerations forced the selection of the southern route and the much more difficult Kicking Horse pass. =Yonge Street.= Originally an Indian trail leading from Lake Ontario at Toronto to Lake Simcoe. Built as a bush road by Simcoe in 1794. Named after Sir George Yonge, then secretary for war. =Bib.=: Robertson, _Landmarks of Toronto_. =York.= Town in Upper Canada, selected by Simcoe as the provincial capital in 1793, the declaration of war with France and the possibility of American aggression having made it expedient to move the capital away from the boundary. Named by Simcoe in compliment to Prince Frederick Henry, Duke of York. The town was laid out on an ambitious scale. Simcoe’s first quarters in the new town were in the canvas house he had bought from Captain James Cook in 1791. Fortifications were begun during the winter of 1811-1812. The town destroyed by the Americans in 1813. It had then, according to Beverley Robinson, scarcely seven hundred inhabitants. Joseph Bouchette says it had 2,500 two years later. _See also_ Toronto. =Bib.=: Scott, _John Graves Simcoe_; Lucas, _Canadian War of 1812_. =York Factory.= One of the principal establishments of the Hudson’s Bay Company, near the mouth of Hayes river, north bank. The first trading post here, or near here, was Fort Nelson, built in 1669. Throughout the eighteenth century, this was the principal post of the Company, in charge of a governor, with a considerable staff. It was the starting-point of the explorations of Henry Kellsey in 1692, of Anthony Hendry in 1754, and of Matthew Cocking in 1772, and was the gateway to the vast interior country, the recognized route being the Hayes river. _See also_ Port Nelson. =Bib.=: Bryce, _Hudson’s Bay Company_; Laut, _Conquest of the Great North-West_. =Young, George= (1821-1910). Born in Upper Canada, of United Empire Loyalist stock. Entered the Methodist ministry in 1842, and in 1868 left Toronto for Fort Garry to serve as a missionary. Having established a church there, he spread his ministrations out into the surrounding country. He lived through the disastrous grasshopper plague of 1865 and the Rebellion of 1869-1870; saw Winnipeg grow from a hamlet to a great city; and the Red River Settlement develop into the province of Manitoba; helped to found Wesley College, and to establish missions throughout the north-west. In 1882 he was made superintendent of missions for the north-west, and spent the next two years in organization work throughout what are now the prairie provinces. Retired in 1884. =Bib.=: Maclean, _Vanguards of Canada_. =Young, George Paxton= (1819-1889). Born at Berwick-upon-Tweed. Educated at the University of Edinburgh; came to Canada, 1847; minister of Knox Church, Hamilton, 1850-1853. Joined the faculty of Knox College the latter year, where he filled various chairs in succession until 1864. Employed by Dr. Ryerson for several years in reorganizing the grammar schools of Ontario. In 1871 succeeded Dr. Beaven as professor of logic, metaphysics, and ethics in Toronto University, holding the position up to the time of his death. =Bib.=: Duncan, _George Paxton Young_ in _Univ. of Tor. Monthly_; Dent, _Can. Por._ =Young, George Renny= (1800?-1847). Born in Scotland; son of John Young, author of _Letters of Agricola_, and a brother of Sir William Young (_q.v._). Founded the _Nova Scotian_ newspaper in 1824, and edited it until 1828. For several years a member of the Legislative Assembly, of Nova Scotia, of which he became Speaker; also a member of the Executive Council. He was associated with the organization of a company to build the Intercolonial. Offered a seat in the Council of Sir John Harvey, but declined. Became a member of the Uniacke administration. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Young, John= (1773-1837). Born in Falkirk, Scotland. Educated at Glasgow University; emigrated to Canada, 1814. In 1818 published a series of letters under the _nom de plume_ of “Agricola,” in the _Halifax Recorder_. These letters drew attention to the backward state of agriculture in Nova Scotia and led to the establishment of a Board of Agriculture, of which he was appointed secretary. In 1822 the letters were published in book form with the title _Letters of Agricola on the Principles of Vegetation and Tillage_. From 1825 to 1837 he represented Sydney in the Nova Scotia Assembly. Took an active part in the formation of agricultural societies. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_. =Young, John= (1811-1878). Born at Ayr, Scotland. Came to Canada, 1826. In 1837 he raised a regiment of volunteers and served during the Rebellion. In 1841 he was partner of the firm of Stephens, Young & Company of Montreal; connected with the construction in 1845 of the railway line to Portland, Maine, through which Montreal secured a winter port. It was largely by his efforts that the railway from Montreal to Kingston was built; and the Victoria bridge, the deepening of Lake St. Peter, and the enlargement of the Welland, St. Lawrence, and Lachine canals were also due to a considerable extent to his broad policy. In 1851 he was commissioner of public works in the Hincks-Morin Cabinet. During his brief administration he organized the Canadian exhibit at London, 1851, and subsidized steamships between Montreal and Liverpool. =Bib.=: Dent, _Last Forty Years_. =Young, Sir John.= _See_ Lisgar. =Young, John Francis.= Private, 87th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ When acting as stretcher-bearer in an attack at Dury-Arras sector, on September 2nd, 1918, he went out unhesitatingly over ground completely devoid of cover and swept by shell and machine-gun fire, and dressed the wounded. He returned repeatedly, under intense fire, to renew his stock of dressings, and continued his work for over an hour. Later, when the fire had somewhat slackened, he organized and led stretcher parties to bring in the wounded whom he had dressed. =Young, Sir William= (1799-1887). Born at Falkirk, Scotland. Educated at Glasgow University. Came to Nova Scotia; studied law, and called to the bar of that province, 1826. In 1832 he was elected to the Assembly for Cape Breton. In 1832 he was called to the bar of Prince Edward Island. In 1838-1839 he took part in the negotiations that followed the Rebellion in Lower Canada, and his report on the alleged grievances was included in that of Lord Durham. In 1842 he was appointed a member of the Executive Council, and Speaker of the Assembly, 1843-1854; premier of the province, 1854-1857; and again in 1860. In 1860 he was appointed chief-justice of Nova Scotia, retiring after twenty-one years’ service. Knighted, 1868. =Bib.=: Campbell, _History of Nova Scotia_; Saunders, _Three Premiers of Nova Scotia_. =Young, Sir William A. G.= (1827-1885). Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1856; colonial secretary and auditor of British Columbia, 1859; colonial secretary of Vancouver Island, 1864; administrator of the government there, 1866. Subsequently appointed governor of the Gold Coast =Youville, Marie-Marguerite Dufrost de la Jemeraye d’= (1701-1771). Born at Varennes, on the St. Lawrence. Her mother a sister of Pierre de la Vérendrye. Married M. d’Youville in 1722. He died in 1730. Thereafter she devoted her life to good works. Gathering about her a number of young women she organized a nursing service in connection with the Montreal General Hospital, but through local jealousies, came into conflict with the Sulpicians. Her services in caring for wounded British soldiers taken prisoner during the war earned the warm recognition of General Amherst. She founded the Order of Grey Nuns or Sisters of Charity of Montreal. =Bib.=: Faillon, _Vie de Mme. d’Youville_. =Yukon River.= Rises at the headwaters of the Nisutlin and empties into Bering Sea, after a course of 1,765 miles. Alexander Mackenzie heard of the river from the Indians on his way down the Mackenzie in 1789. The lower waters of the river were explored by Glazunof in 1836 or 1837; and a Russian post was built at Nulato, about four hundred miles above the mouth, in 1838. In 1843, Zagoskin carried the exploration up to the mouth of the Nowikakat. In 1846, John Bell, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, reached the Yukon by way of the Porcupine; and in 1847 Alexander H. Murray, of the same Company, built Fort Yukon, at the mouth of the Porcupine. Robert Campbell explored the Pelly and Yukon, down to the mouth of the Porcupine, in 1842-1843. =Bib.=: Dall, _Alaska_; Bancroft, _History of Alaska_; Campbell, _Discovery of the Youcon_; Whymper, _Travel and Adventure in Alaska_; Murray, _Journal of the Yukon_ (Archives, Pub. iv); Dawson, _Report on the Yukon_ (Geol. Survey Report, 1887-1888). =Yukon Territory.= Area, 207,076 square miles. In 1897 the Klondike gold rush began, but three years before that the Canadian government had sent a detachment of Mounted Police into the Yukon, under Superintendent Constantine, to maintain order. They went in by the Yukon river from Bering Strait. As a result of the gold rush reinforcements of men were sent in, and the government appointed Major Walsh as commissioner of the Yukon, with a staff of legal and other officers. The miners made their way in by the White pass and Chilkoot pass, under conditions that were sometimes appalling. Dawson City had its beginning at the opening of the gold rush. In 1898 William Ogilvie succeeded Major Walsh as commissioner; and Colonel (afterwards Major-General Sir S. B.) Steele succeeded Constantine in command of the Police. The commissioner was assisted by a Legislative Council of ten elected members. The principal river of the Yukon is the Yukon, with its two great branches the Lewes and Pelly. Its upper waters were discovered and explored by Robert Campbell, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1842-1843. The Yukon also contains within its borders the highest mountain in North America, Mount Logan, 19,880 feet, with five others ranging from 13,860 to 17,978 feet. The Yukon has produced over $200,000,000 worth of gold. The population which amounted to 27,219 in 1901, had dropped to 4,157 in 1921. See also Yukon River; Dawson City; William Ogilvie; Robert Campbell; Sir S. B. Steele; Fort Yukon; Fort Selkirk. =Bib.=: Ogilvie, _The Yukon Territory_; _Early Days on the Yukon_; Steele, _Forty Years in Canada_; Spurr, _Through the Yukon Gold Diggings_; Admy, _The Klondyke Stampede_; Ami, _Canada and Newfoundland_. =Ypres, Battle of.= What was known as the Second Battle of Ypres lasted from April 22nd to May 13th, 1915. It was brought about by the fixed determination of the Germans to break through the Allied lines to Calais. It was made memorable by the first use of poison gasses by the Germans. The Canadian share of the greater contest was confined mainly to the first six days, and is known as the battle of St. Julien (_q.v._). =Bib.=: Buchan, _History of the Great War_. =Zengel, Raphael Lewis.= Sergeant, 5th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. _Victoria Cross._ Leading his platoon to the attack, on August 9th, 1918, east of Warvillers, he realized that an enemy machine-gun was firing at close range into the advancing line. He rushed forward ahead of the platoon, killed the officer and operator of the gun and dispersed the crew. Later, when the battalion was held up by very heavy machine-gun fire, he displayed much tactical skill in directing his fire. He was rendered unconscious by an enemy shell, but on recovering consciousness he at once continued to direct harassing fire on the enemy. His bravery and devotion to duty inspired confidence in all ranks. =Zollverein.= Formerly a trade-league or customs-union formed by twenty-six of the states of the German empire. The name came to be applied to a union of states for adjusting a common tariff. In the eighties, during the discussion of commercial union between the United States and Canada, a bill was introduced into the United States House of Representatives by Mr. Butterworth, proposing to settle all existing differences between the two countries by the adoption of a _zollverein_. _See also_ Commercial Union; Unrestricted Reciprocity. =Bib.=: Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_. TRANSCRIBER NOTES Mis-spelled words and printer errors have been corrected. Where multiple spellings occur, majority use has been employed. Inconsistency in hyphenation has been retained. Inconsistency in accents has been corrected or standardised. Some photographs have been enhanced to be more legible. A cover was created for this ebook which is placed in the public domain. A letter search bar was added to the first page to facilitate dictionary use. [The end of _The Oxford Encyclopedia of Canadian History_ by Various [Lawrence J. Burpee (editor)]]