=* A Distributed Proofreaders Canada eBook *= This ebook is made available at no cost and with very few restrictions. These restrictions apply only if (1) you make a change in the ebook (other than alteration for different display devices), or (2) you are making commercial use of the ebook. If either of these conditions applies, please contact a FP administrator before proceeding. This work is in the Canadian public domain, but may be under copyright in some countries. If you live outside Canada, check your country's copyright laws. IF THE BOOK IS UNDER COPYRIGHT IN YOUR COUNTRY, DO NOT DOWNLOAD OR REDISTRIBUTE THIS FILE. _Title:_ How to Parse _Date of first publication:_ 1878 _Author:_ Edwin A. Abbott (1838-1926) _Date first posted:_ Aug. 21, 2017 _Date last updated:_ Aug. 21, 2017 Faded Page eBook #20170817 This ebook was produced by: Alex White & the online Distributed Proofreaders Canada team at http://www.pgdpcanada.net HOW TO PARSE. An Attempt to Apply the Principles of Scholarship TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. _WITH APPENDIXES_ ON _ANALYSIS, SPELLING, AND PUNCTUATION_. BY THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, D.D., _Head Master of the City of London School_. _FIFTH THOUSAND._ JAMES CAMPBELL & SON, TORONTO. Entered according to the Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and seventy-six, by JAMES CAMPBELL & SON, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. PRINTED AND BOUND BY HUNTER, ROSE AND CO., TORONTO. PREFACE. The First Part of this book is intended for pupils so far advanced as to be able to distinguish the _Parts of Speech_. The author’s object has been to teach elementary English Grammar as simply as is consistent with the honest recognition of difficulties, and not to accumulate masses of information that might be of use to foreigners, but must be useless to English boys. I have been accused, by a very friendly and favourable reviewer, of “unkindness” in completely ignoring the “Article” in my introductory treatise _How to Tell the Parts of Speech_. It has occurred to me, in consequence, to prefix to this work a _Glossary of Grammatical Terms_—many of them, let us hope, obsolete or obsolescent. Here the pupil may now and then refresh his memory as to the meaning of _Article_, _Genitive_, _Nominative_, _Accusative_, _Case_, _Proper Noun_, _Conjugation_, _Decline_, and the like; and by this means he will be able in satisfy himself that many of these terms, when applied to the Grammar of his native tongue, are absolutely superfluous or erroneous. It is also probable that ready access to a Glossary, explaining etymologically _Cardinal_, _Inflection_, _Apostrophe_, _Climax_, _Bathos_, _Verse_, &c., may in many cases be of positive as well as negative benefit. The Exercises are specially written to illustrate the rules. This has involved some labour; but I am convinced that the labour was well spent. A pupil cannot be regarded as thoroughly tested in his knowledge of grammatical rules till he has applied them to _connected_ narrative. As long as he is tested in nothing but short sentences, you can never feel sure that his accuracy is not merely mechanical. Paragraphs 1—82 are of a much simpler character than those that follow; and the pupil should be well drilled in them before passing onward. The grammar-lessons of three or four months may be very well spent in teaching boys how to select the Subjects and Objects of the different Verbs in a Sentence, and a month or two more may well be given to Relative Sentences. Indeed, if the majority of a class of boys, between 11 and 12 years old, can, after six months’ training in grammar, parse “jay” in:— “The jay that robbed the other birds of their feathers was afterwards punished for robbing them”— I should, myself, think the six months spent to very good purpose. Paragraphs 82—162 are decidedly more difficult, and constitute work for a higher class. The chapter on the Subjunctive Mood is put last, out of its place, owing to the extreme difficulty of the subject. The chapter on Irregularities, Paragraphs 191—230, is of a different nature from the former part of the book. It is intended to prepare the pupil for Part II., and is an attempt to apply the principles of scholarship to the explanation of the irregularities of English Grammar. These principles are few, and capable of brief enunciation, viz., (1) that every _irregularity_ is a deviation from a “_regula_” or rule; (2) that there must be some _attracting force_ to produce this deviation; (3) that this attracting force is generally one of _three_ causes, of which the “_confusion of two constructions_” is by far the most common. Simple and brief though they are, these principles require, as every teacher knows, careful and constant inculcation before the pupil is imbued with them. But when the pupil has once mastered them, he has the key to unlock any idiomatic irregularity, in any language—always provided that he is well acquainted with the particular language in its _regular_ expressions. Not much space is given to Analysis; but perhaps as much as the subject deserves. If this subject is to be taught at all—and there is much in it that constitutes a useful mental exercise—it ought, in the opinion of the author, to be disencumbered of its present technicalities, and to be taught more logically. For example, in most treatises on Analysis, it is assumed that, in such a sentence as:— “Feeling the man’s hand in my pocket I turned suddenly round,” —the words “feeling the man’s hand” are an Adjective Phrase, or “Enlargement of the Subject.” But nothing surely ought to be more obvious than that (whatever the grammatical construction may be) “feeling” here _means_ “_when_, or _because_ I felt,” and is nearly the same as “_on_ feeling;” so that the words in question form _really_ an Adverbial, and not an Adjectival Phrase. It is almost startling that this Adjectival error should have been gravely inculcated for a generation in the best, as in the worst, treatises on English Grammar. Possibly the servile imitation of Latin Grammar—the ruin of all good English teaching—has been at work here, as in so many other cases, assimilating the English to the Latin Active Participle, and ignoring the extent to which the English Participle has been merged in the English Verbal Noun.[1] For these reasons, in the Chapter on Analysis, several changes have been introduced with the view of discarding technicalities: and the terms _Phrase_, _Clause_ and _Sentence_, are rigidly used according to their definitions. (See Glossary and also Par. 239.)[2] In the “Hints on Spelling,” Paragraphs 266—291, an attempt has been made to give explanations, or suggestions of possible explanations, of a few among the thousand anomalies that strew this wilderness and despair of teachers. The author has at least succeeded (Par. 283) in impressing upon himself, what he never could remember before, the right spelling of “succeed,” “proceed,” and “exceed.” Whether others will derive the same benefit from the explanation is perhaps doubtful; but the mere fact that an explanation exists is a just cause for thanksgiving. Mr. Laurie’s useful _Manual of Spelling_ has been of great service in the composition of this chapter. Part II. Chapter I., is explained by its title, “Difficulties and Irregularities in Modern English.” It is intended for the higher (not for the highest) classes in our first-grade schools. Here I must acknowledge very large obligations to Mätzner’s two volumes on English Syntax. Adopting his arrangement, I have selected from these two volumes every difficulty that appeared _likely to be a difficulty to an English boy_—I believe I may add, in many cases, to an English man—_as distinct from a foreigner_. A few examples from Campbell, Scott, and Byron have been quoted from Mätzner, unverified; but in such cases, the reader is always warned by a foot-note. The vast majority of the examples have been modified or re-written to illustrate the difficulty under consideration, or they are the fruits of my own reading. In this part of the work it has been of course necessary to illustrate modern English by older English of different periods: and here, while again acknowledging my obligations to Mätzner, I must also add the name of Dr. Morris, whose elaborate _Historical Outlines of English Accidence_—a book that, the more you study it, impresses you the more with the feeling that much is left to study—have been laid under large contributions for this part of my work, and more especially for the Appendix on the “Growth of the English language.” Here I have also to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of Mr. Skeat, who was kind enough to correct the proof-sheets of the Appendix, and from whose edition of the Gospel of St. Mark[3] I derived great help in obtaining an insight into the “Period of Confusion” in early English. I have had the less hesitation in occasionally referring to statements and examples about early English found in the _Shakespearian Grammar_, because all of these were supervised and many of them originated by Mr. Skeat, but for whose kindness and learning I should scarcely have ventured on ground of which it may be said, no less than of the field of criticism, that— “Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.” The chapter on Poetical Constructions will, I hope, be found as useful as any in the book. It is an attempt to draw out in grammatical detail the principles of poetry as laid down by Professor Seeley and myself in _English Lessons for English People_, and to lead the pupil to see the reason and the beauty of “poetical irregularities.” In the Appendix on the “Growth of the English Language,” I have ventured so far to differ from Dr. Morris, in his account of the “Periods of the English Language,” as to assign a separate period to the sixteenth century, and also to give names to the several periods. I do not think boys will find it easy to remember the periods without epithets of a rather more picturesque nature than ordinal numbers. I have also added some remarks on the Elizabethan period. A few tables of the Early Forms are added in the Appendix with the view of illustrating remarks scattered through the book. But no attempt has been made to give any complete system of _Accidence_. To try to do this completely, in the face of Dr. Morris’s _Accidence_, would have been superfluous: and to do it imperfectly, in the way in which it has been done in many Grammars, under the title of “Etymology,” would have been worse than superfluous, mystifying English children by telling them _what_, when they know _what_ well enough already, and need only to be told _why_. But to tell the _why_ of English Accidence requires—and it is useless disguising the fact—a great deal of knowledge in the teacher and not a little in the pupil. If it is to be done at all, it should be done thoroughly, with the aid of such a book as Dr. Morris’s, and by pupils old enough to appreciate it. Consequently, though the pupil will find “strong” and “weak” verbs defined in the Glossary, he will see no lists of them in the book. Lists of irregular plurals will also be missing; the teacher will look in vain for _focus_, _foci_; _datum_, _data_; _nebula_, _nebulæ_. The only apparent sacrifice to the mania for “learning something by heart” is this, that the modern verb will be found “conjugated” in the Appendix to Part II. But this has been done, not to give the pupil something to learn by heart, but to enable him to compare the old verb with the new at a glance. Throughout the book, the author has endeavoured to keep in view the main object of a teacher teaching English grammar to English children, viz., to teach, not so much _what_ as _why_. The division of the book into parts, the first of which is differently arranged from the second, might cause some difficulty in referring, were it not that a full Alphabetical Index is inserted at the end—an appendage that, in the Author’s opinion, may fairly claim to be accepted as a compensation, in a book of this kind, for many faults of non-arrangement or mis-arrangement. In passing the book through the press I have derived most valuable assistance from the two gentlemen whose names I had occasion to mention in the preface to _How to Tell the Parts of Speech_, viz., Mr. G. S. Brockington, one of the Assistant Masters of King Edward’s School, Birmingham, and Mr. T. W. Chambers, B.A., Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, one of the Assistant Masters of the City of London School, whose sound judgment and practical experience have frequently induced me to modify or even re-cast large portions of the First Part. I must also mention two others among my colleagues, Mr. T. Todd, and Mr. James Pirie, M.A., whose criticism and corrections have been of very great service. Lastly, while expressing my obligations to the admirable “Shakespeare Lexicon,” compiled by Dr. Schmidt, and published by Messrs. Williams & Norgate, I may be also permitted, coming nearer home, to say that I have gained much help and many apt examples from the inspection of the proof-sheets of a _Complete Concordance to the Poetical Works of Pope_, compiled by my father, and now in course of publication. ----- [1] See Paragraphs 585—595. [2] I gladly acknowledge my obligation to Mr. Mason for his excellent method of indicating the Subordination of Sentences by underlining. [3] The Gospel according to St. Mark, in Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian Versions, Synoptically Arranged. Edited for the Syndics of the University Press by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M.A. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, & Co. 1871. CONTENTS.[1] PART I. ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS xvii RULES AND DEFINITIONS xxviii CHAPTER I. SUBJECT AND OBJECT 1 CHAPTER II. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 17 CHAPTERS III. and IV. USES AND INFLECTIONS: I. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, &c. 28 II. Verbs 45 CHAPTER V. THE INDIRECT OBJECT, &C. 88 CHAPTER VI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 112 CHAPTER VII. IRREGULARITIES 127 APPENDIX I. THE ANOMALIES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 148 APPENDIX II. THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 153 SCHEME OF ANALYSIS 172 APPENDIX III. HINTS ON SPELLING 174 APPENDIX IV. HINTS ON PUNCTUATION 185 SCHEME OF PARSING 195 PART II. DIFFICULTIES AND IRREGULARITIES IN MODERN ENGLISH. CHAPTER I. PROSE 199 CHAPTER II. POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS 281 APPENDIX. ON THE GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 293 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 327 ----- [1] For all detailed reference the reader is referred to the Alphabetical Index at the end of the book. ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. Few of the terms explained below are used by the author, and many of them are misused or badly constructed, _e.g._ “article,” “accusative.” But, as they are used in many grammatical treatises, it has been thought desirable to explain them, especially as an explanation is sometimes the best means of proving them to be superfluous or erroneous, when applied to English Grammar. The References, when not otherwise stated, are to the _Paragraphs_ in _How to Parse_. The meaning given opposite to each word is the _Etymological_ meaning. For a fuller or more accurate definition the pupil is referred to the Paragraph mentioned in each case. =Ablative= (Case) [L. _ab._, “from;” _latus_, “carried”]. The name for a Latin case denoting, among other things, _ablation_, or _carrying away from_. =Absolute= (Construction) [L. _ab_, “from;” _solut-_, “loosed”]. A construction in which a Noun, Participle, &c., is used apart, _i.e. loosed from_, its ordinary Grammatical adjuncts (Par. 135). =Abstract= (Noun) [L. _abs_, “from;” _tract-_, “drawn”]. The name of an _abstraction_, _i.e._ of something considered by itself, apart from (_drawn_ away _from_) the circumstances in which it exists. =Accent= [L. _ad_, “to;” _cantus_, “song”]. Perhaps originally a sing-_song_, or modulation of the voice, added _to_ a syllable. Now used of stress laid on a syllable. =Accidence= [L. _accident_—“befall”]. That part of grammar which treats of the changes that _befall_ words.[1] =Accusative= (Case).[2] The Latin name for the Direct Objective Inflexion. Possibly the Romans regarded the object as being in front of the agent, like an _accused_ person confronted with the prosecutor. =Active= (Voice). The form of a Verb that usually denotes _acting_ or doing. =Adjective= [L. _ad_, “to;” _jact_, “cast or put”]. A word _put to_ a Noun. =Aphæresis= [Gr. _ap_, “from;” _hairesis_, “taking”]. _Taking_ a letter or syllable _from_ the beginning of a word. =Adjunct= [L. _ad_, “to;” _junct_, “joined”]. A word grammatically _joined to_ another word. =Adverb= [L. _ad_, “to;” _verb_, “word” or “Verb”]. A word generally joined _to_ a Verb (45). =Adversative= [L. _adversus_, “opposite”]. An epithet applied to Conjunctions that (like “but”) express _opposition_. =Affix= [L. _ad_, “to;” _fix_, “fixed”]. A syllable or letter _fixed to_ the end of a word. =Agreement.= The change made in the inflections of words so that they may suit or _agree_ with one another in a sentence. (78). =Alexandrine.= A rhyming verse of twelve Iambic syllables, said to be so called from its being used in an old French Poem on _Alexander_ the Great. =Alphabet= [Gr. _alpha_, _beta_; “a,” “b”]. The list of letters, so called from the names of the first two letters in Greek. =Anacolouthon= [Gr. _a-_, “not;” _acolouthon_, “following”]. A break in the Grammatical sequence, or _following_. =Analysis= [Gr. _ana_, “back;” _lusis_, “loosing”]. _Unloosing_ anything (_e.g._ a Sentence) _back_ into its constituent parts. Hence an _analytical_ period in a language. See Par. 556. =Anomaly.= A Greek-formed word meaning “unevenness,” “irregularity.” =Antecedent= [L. _ante_, “before;” _cedent_, “going”]. (_a_) That part of a sentence which expresses a condition (167). So called because the condition must _go before_ its consequence. See _consequent_ (2). (_b_) Also used for the Noun that _goes before_ a Relative Pronoun. =Anti-climax.= The opposite of a _climax_. A sentence in which the meaning sinks in importance, instead of rising at the close. =Antithesis= [Gr. _anti_, “against;” _thesis_, “placing”]. The _placing_ of word _against_ word, by way of contrast.[3] =Apodosis= [Gr. _apodosis_, “a paying back”]. A Greek name for the “Consequent.” The condition was regarded by the Greeks as demanding its consequence, as a sort of _debt_, to be _paid_ in return for the fulfilment of the condition. =Apostrophe= [Gr. _apo_, “from;” _strophe_, “turning”]. A mark shewing a vowel is omitted, so called because it is _turned away_ from the next consonant.[4] =Appellative= [L. _appella_, “call to.”] Another name for the _Vocative_ or _calling_ use of a noun. Paragraph 32. =Apposition= [L. _ad_, “near;” _posit_, “placed”]. The _placing_ of one noun or pronoun _near_ another, for the purpose of explanation (137). =Archaism= [Gr. _archaios_, “ancient”]. An _ancient_ word or expression. =Article= [L. _articulus_, “a little joint or limb”]. A name (_a_) correctly given by the Greeks to their “article” because it served as a _joint_ uniting several words together; (_b_) then loosely used by the Latins (as was natural seeing they had no “article”) of any short word whether Verb, Conjunction, or Pronoun; (_c_) foolishly introduced into English, and once used to denote “the” and “a.” =Aspirate= [L. _ad_, “to;” _spira-_, “breathe”]. The strongly _breathed_ letter, _h_. =Asyndeton= [Gr. _a_, “not;” _syndeton_, “bound together”]. The omission of Conjunctions, so that sentences are _not bound together_. =Attribute.= A quality _attributed_ to a person or thing. =Auxiliary= (Verbs) [L. _auxilia-_, “to help”]. Verbs that are used as _helpers_ or companions to other Verbs (95). =Bathos= [Gr. _bathos_, “depth”]. A ludicrous fall to a _depth_, _i.e._ a descent from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech.[5] =Cardinal= (Numbers) [L. _cardin-_, “hinge.”]. That on which anything _hinges_ or turns: hence, “important,” “principal.” A name given to those more _important_ forms of Numeral Adjectives from which the Ordinal forms are derived. =Case= [L. _Casus_, “falling”]. The Latin translation of the Greek term for the uses of a Noun. The Greeks regarded the subjective form as “erect” and the other forms as more or less _falling_ away from it. Hence the terms “oblique,” “decline” &c. =Clause= [L. _claus-_, “shut”]. A number of words _shut_ up within limits. In this book the word is used of a sentence preceded by a Conjunction, the _sentence and Conjunction together_ being called a Clause (239). =Climax= [Gr. _climax_, “ladder”]. The arrangement of a sentence like a _ladder_ so that the meaning rises in force to the last.[6] =Cognate= (Object) [L. _Co-_, “together;” _nat-_ “born”]. The name given to an object that denotes something _akin_ to (_born together_ with) the action denoted by the Verb (125). =Colon= [Gr. _colon_, “limb”]. The stop marking off a _limb_ or member of a sentence. =Comma= [Gr. _comma_, a “section”]. The stop marking off a _section_ of a sentence (294—308). =Common= (Noun). A name that is _common_ to a class and not _peculiar_ or _proper_ to an individual. =Comparative= (Degree). The form of an Adjective denoting that a quality exists in a greater degree in some one thing than in some other with which it is _compared_. =Complementary= [L. _comple-_, “fill up”]. That which completes or _fills up_ (97, 106). =Complete= (State). A name given to an action (whether Past, Present, or Future) that was, is, or will be _complete_ (72). =Complex= (Sentence) [L. _con-_ “together;” _plic-_, “fold”]. A sentence that is _folded together_, or involved. Hence a sentence containing one or more Subordinate sentences (250). =Compound= (Sentence) [L. _con_, or _com_, “together;” _pon-_ “place”]. A sentence made up of a number of Co-ordinate sentences _placed together_ (247). =Concord.= The name given to syntactical _agreement_ between words, _e.g._ between Verb and Subject. =Conjugation= [_con_, “together;” _jugatio_ “joining”]. A number of Verbs _joined_ together in one class.[7] =Conjunction= [L. _con_, “together;” _junct-_, “joined”]. A word that _joins_ two sentences _together_. =Consequent.= The name given to that part of a Sentence which expresses the _consequence_ of the fulfilment of a condition. See _Antecedent_, and Paragraph 167. =Consonant= [L. _con_, “together;” _sonant-_, “sounding”]. Letters (such as _p_) that can only be _sounded together with_ a vowel. =Continuous= (State). The name given to an action (whether Past, Present, or Future) that is, was, or will be _continuing_ or incomplete (72). =Copula= [L. _copula_, “bond”]. The word “is,” so called because it _binds_ or connects Subject and Predicate _in Logic_. =Correlatives=. Words that are _related together_ or mutually related, _e.g._, “either,” “or;” “both,” “and;” “when,” “then.” =Dative= [L. _dativ_[8] “that which has arisen from giving”]. The Latin name for the Indirect Objective case used after Verbs of _giving_ &c. (126). =Declension.= The bending or _declension_ of the Oblique (see _Oblique_ below) cases from the Subjective form, which was regarded as “erect.” Hence applied to the statement of the cases of a Noun. =Definite= (Article). A name given to the Adjective “the” from the fact that “the” _defines_ its Noun. See _Article_. =Definition= [L. _de_, “from:” _finit_-, “marked out,” “bounded”]. That which _marks out the boundaries_ of anything so as to distinguish it from all other things. N.B. _Not_ a mere “description.” =Degree= (of comparison) [L. _gradus_, Fr. _degré_, “step”]. The forms expressing the _steps_ or _degrees_ in which a quality can be expressed by an Adjective. =Dentals= [L. _dent_-, “tooth”]. Consonants pronounced with the aid of the _teeth_; _d_, _n_, _t_. =Dependent= (Sentence). Sometimes used for Subordinate. But generally applied to _Subordinate_ sentences that are the Subjects or Objects of Verbs. =Diæresis= [Gr. _diairesis_, “separation”]. The mark placed over one of two vowels to show that each is to be pronounced _separately e.g._ in “aërial.” =Diphthong= [Gr. _di_, “twice;” _phthongos_, “sound”]. _Two_ vowel sounds pronounced as one. =Direct= (Object). The Noun that denotes what is regarded as the _direct object_ of the action of a Verb.[9] =Ellipsis= [Gr. _elleipsis_, “omission”]. The _omission_ of words (said to be “understood” _i.e._ implied) in a Sentence. =Emphasis= [Gr. _emphaino_, “I make clear”]. Stress of the voice laid on particular words or syllables in order to make the meaning _clear_. =Epigram= [Gr. _epi_, “on;” _gramma_, “writing”]. A _writing on_ a monument. Hence a short poem. Hence a short _pointed_ poem or saying.[10] =Epithet= [Gr. _epithetos_, “placed to”]. An Adjective _placed to_ a Noun to describe some quality of the person or thing denoted by the Noun. =Etymology= [Gr. _etymon_, “true meaning;” _logia_, “science”]. The _science_ of the _true_ meaning of words, according to their derivation. =Euphony= [Gr. _eu_, “well;” _phone_, “sound”]. That which _sounds well_. =Flat= (Consonants). _B_, _d_, _g_. =Foot.= The metrical sub-division of a verse. A verse being supposed to _run_, its limbs or members might well be called _feet_. =Frequentative= (Verb). A Verb that expresses a _frequently_ repeated action, _e.g._ “pat-t-er.” =Gender= [L. _genus_, Fr. _genre_, “breed,” or “class”]. Forms to denote _class_ification according to sex. There are no inflexions for Genders in English (37). =Genitive= (Case) [L. _genitiv-_, “generating”]. The name for the Latin case denoting _generation_, origination, possession. Sometimes applied to the English Possessive Inflection.[11] =Gerund= [L. _gero_, “I carry on”]. Part of a Latin Verb denoting the _carrying on_ of the action of the Verb. There was once a gerundive form in English (551). =Grammar= [Gr. _gramma_, a “letter;” Fr. “_grammaire_”]. The science of _letters_; hence the science of using words correctly. =Gutturals= [L. _guttur_, “throat”]. _Throat_ letters, _k_, and hard _g_. =Heterogeneous= (Sentence) [Gr. _hetero_, “different;” _genos_, “kind”]. A Sentence combining a number of Sentences of so _different_ a _kind_ from each other that they ought not to be combined.[12] =Iambus= [Gr. _iambos_]. In English, a foot of two syllables, the first unaccented, the second accented. =Idiom= [Gr. _idioma_, “peculiarity”]. A mode of expression _peculiar_ to a language. =Imperative= (Mood). [L. _impera-_, “command”]. The _commanding_ Mood (70). =Impersonal= (Verbs). Verbs not used in the first or second _Person_ (328). =Incomplete= (State). The forms of the Verb denoting an action in an _Incomplete State_ (72). =Indefinite= (Article). A name given to “an,” “a,” because the Adjective leaves its Noun undefined, or _indefinite_. See _Article_; also _Definite_. =Indefinite= (State). The forms of the Verb denoting an action of which the _State_ is _not defined_ (72). =Indicative= (Mood), [L. _indica-_, “point out”]. The Mood that _points out_ or _indicates_ an action, &c., as a past, present, or future existence (70). =Indirect= (Object). The Noun or Pronoun denoting the person or thing regarded as not directly but only _indirectly_ influenced by the action of the Verb. But see Paragraph 118 for a more satisfactory test. =Infinitive= (Mood) [L. _in_, “not;” _finit-_, “limited”]. A Mood _not limited_ by any definition of Person or Number (70). =Inflection= [L. _inflecto_, “I bend”]. The _bending_ of a word from the simple form, by means of varying the termination. See _Oblique_ below. =Interjection= [L. _inter-ject-_, “thrown between”]. An utterance _thrown_ in _between_ words, to express emotion. Not a Part of Speech. =Intransitive= (Verb). [L. _in_, “not”; _transitiv-_, “passing across”]. A Verb whose action is not supposed to _pass across_ to any Object. But see _Transitive_ below. =Labials= [L. _labium_, “lip”]. _Lip_-letters: _f_, _v_, _p_, _b_, _m_, _hw_ (the real sound in _which_) and _w_. =Language= [L. _lingua_, Fr. _langue_; “tongue”]. The expression of meaning by the _tongue_. =Linguals= [Latin _lingua_, “the tongue”]. Letters whose sounds are produced by the _tongue_; _sh_, _s_ in plea_s_ure. =Liquids.= Letters of a flowing, _liquid_ sound, as _l_, _r_. =Metaphor= [Gr. _meta_, “from one to another”; _phora_, “carrying”]. The _carrying_ of a relation from one set of objects to another _e.g._ of the relation of ploughing from “plough” and “land,” to “ship” and “sea.”[13] =Metre= [Gr. _metron_, “measure”]. The _measuring_ of language out into verses. =Monosyllable= [Gr. _mono_, “only”]. A word of _only one_ syllable. =Mood= [L. _mod-_, “manner”.] The form of a Verb expressing the _manner_ of action (70). =Mutes= [L. _mut-_, “dumb”]. Letters that are _dumb_, without the aid of a vowel: k, _g_, _t_, _d_, _n_, _p_, _b_, _m_. =Nasal= [L. _nas-_, “nose”]. Consonants sounded through the _nose_; _n_, _m_. =Nominative= (Case) [L. _nomina-_, “to name”]. An old Latin term for the Subject, used because the Subject was regarded as a person or thing _named_. =Noun= [L. _nomen_, Fr. _nom_, “name”]. The _name_ of anything. =Object.= The word, or group of words, denoting that which is regarded as the object or mark aimed at by the action of a Verb or the motion of the Preposition.[14] (13). But see Definition in Paragraph 14. =Oblique= (Case). A name given to all Cases but the Subjective. By the Greeks the Subjective form of a Noun was regarded as _erect_, and all the other forms as _fallings_ or _oblique_ deviations from the Subjective. =Ordinal= (Adjective) [L. _ordin-_, “order”]. An Adjective, that answers to the question “in what order.” =Orthography= [Gr. _ortho_, “correct”; _grapho_, “I write”]. The _correct writing_ of words, _i.e._ correct spelling. N.B. _Not_ “calligraphy,” “pretty writing.” =Parenthesis= [Gr. _para_, “aside”; _enthesis_, “insertion”]. A word, phrase, or sentence, _inserted aside_, or by the way, in a sentence complete without it. =Participle= [L. _particip-_, “participating”]. A form of a Verb _participating_ of the nature of a Verb, and of the nature of an Adjective. =Partitive= [L. _part-_, “part”]. Denoting _partition_. =Passive= (Voice) [L. _pass-_, “suffering”]. The form of a Verb in which the Subject is supposed to _suffer_ an action[15] (60). =Palatals=. Letters whose sounds are produced by the _palate_: _ch_, _j_. =Perfect= (Tense) [L. _perfect-_, “complete”]. The Name for the Latin Tense that has to represent (owing to the paucity of their Tenses) the Indef. Past and Complete Present. =Period= [Gr. _peri_, “round”; _od-_, “path”]. (1) The full, _rounded path_ of a complex sentence, (2) a mark at the end of a sentence. =Person= [L. _per_, “through”; _son-_, “sound;” hence, _persona_ “a mask _through_ which an actor _sounds_;” “an actor’s _part_ in a play.”]. The _part played_ in conversation, whether (1) speaking; (2) spoken to; (3) spoken of (79). =Personification.= Endowing what is impersonal with a Personal Character.[16] =Phrase= [Gr. _phrasis_, a “saying”]. A group of words not expressing a statement, question, or command (239). =Pluperfect= (Tense) [L. _plu-_, “more;” _perfect-_, “complete”]. A _more than complete_ Tense. A Latin way of expressing the Complete Past. =Plural= (Number) [L. _plu-_, “more”]. The form of a Noun that denotes _more_ than one (34—36). =Poetry= [Gr. _poietes_, a “maker”]. Language that is artistically _made_, as distinguished from that which is ordinarily written or spoken. =Polysyllable= [Gr. _poly_, “many”]. A word of _many_ syllables. =Positive.= The simple form of an Adjective; so called because it expresses a quality not comparatively, but _positively_ (42). =Possessive= (Use) [L. _possess-_, “possessed”.] The name given to the use or case of a Noun denoting _possession_ (37). =Potential= (Mood) [L. _potent-_, “powerful”]. An old name for a supposed Mood, which is really either the Mood of Purpose, or else simply the Indic. of an _Auxiliary_ Verb. So called, because it involves the meaning of _power_ or possibility. =Predicate= [L. “_prædica-_,” “proclaim,” “state”]. A word or group of words making a _statement_ about a Subject (263). =Prefix= [L. _præ_, “before;” _fix-_, “fixed”]. A letter, syllable, or word _fixed before_ another word. =Preposition= [L. _præ_ “before;” _posit-_, “placed”]. A Word (not a Verb) _placed before_ a Noun or Pronoun as its object. =Preterite= (Tense) [L. _præterit-_, “past”]. A pedantical expression for “the _Past_ Tense.” =Prodosis= [Gr. _pro_, “before;” _dosis_, “giving”]. Literally, _giving before_. Hence, in a sentence, the Antecedent or Condition. See _Apodosis_. =Pronoun= [L. _pro_, “for;” L. _nomen_, “noun”]. A word used _for_ a _Noun_. =Proper= (Noun). [L. _propri-_, F. _propre_; “peculiar”]. A name that is _peculiar_ or _proper_ to the individual, not common to a class. See _Common_. =Prose= [L. _prosa_, for _prorsa_, for _pro-versa_,[17] _i.e._ “turned forward”]. Writing that does not _turn_ like _verses_ (see _Verse_ below) but runs _straight on_. Hence, the _straight forward_ arrangement of prose. =Prosody= [Gr. _prosodia_, a “song”]. Hence, that part of Grammar which treats of verse, whether intended to be sung or not. =Punctuation= [L. _punctum_, “point”]. Dividing a sentence by means of _points_ representing the pauses. =Quantity.= The _quantity_ of time necessary to pronounce a syllable. _Redundant_ [Latin _re(d)_, “back;” _undant-_, “flowing”]. _Flowing back_ or over, _i.e._ superfluous. N.B. This word is often lazily used to appear to get rid of a difficulty. But few words are, strictly speaking, _redundant_; they serve some purpose, although the purpose may not be easy to detect. =Reflexive= (Verb) L. [_reflect-_, “bend back”]. A Verb in which the action of the Subject is as it were _bent back_ on the Subject, so that the Subject and Object denote the same person or thing. =Relative= (Pronoun) [L. _re_, “back;” _lat-_, “carried”]. A name given to _who_, _which_, &c. when they do not carry one forward (as they do when used Interrogatively) but _carry_ one _back_ to the Antecedent.[18] =Retained= (Object). The name given to one of the Objects of a Transitive Verb when _retained_ as the Object of the same Verb in the Passive (123). =Rhyme= [A.S. _rim_, “number”], identity of sound (from the vowel to the end) between two syllables at the end of two lines.[19] The Anglo-Saxon Poetry was not based on rhyme but on alliteration. =Rhythm= [Gr. _rhythmos_, “flowing motion”], the _flowing_ regular motion of verse and of periodic prose. =Root.= That form from which another word springs, as a tree springs from its _root_. =Semicolon= [L. _semi_, half; Gr. _colon_, “_limb_”]. _Half_ of the _colon_, _i.e._ of the stop that marks off a separate _limb_ or member of a sentence. “=Sensuous=” [L. _sensu-_, “sense”]. Appealing to the senses. Milton says that Poetry should be “simple, _sensuous_, and passionate.” =Sentence= [L. _Sententia_, a “meaning”]. A group of words of a _meaning_ so far complete as to express a statement, question, command (239). =Sharp= (consonants): _k_, _p_, _t_, so called from their sharp sound. =Sibilant= [L. _sibila-_, hiss]. _Hissing_ letters: _s_, _z_, _sh_. =Simile=. A sentence expressing the _similarity_ of relations _e. g._ between “plough” and “land,” “ship” and “sea.”[20] =Solecism= [Gr. _soloikismos_; “speaking like the men of Soloi”[21]]. Inaccuracy of expression. =Spirants= [L. _spira-_, “breathe”]. Letters in the pronunciation of whose sounds the _breath_ is not wholly stopped, as it is in the pronunciation of “mutes.” =Stanza= [It. _stanza_, a “stop”]. A division of a poem containing every variation of measure in the poem, and generally furnishing a _stopping place_ at its termination. =Strong= (Verbs). Verbs that make their Past Tenses and Passive Participles not by adding _-ed_, _-t_, but by vowel changes. =Style= [L, _stilus_, “an instrument for writing”]. A manner of expressing thought in language. =Subject= [L. _subject-_, “placed under”]. That which is _placed under_ one’s thoughts, as the material or topic for speech. Hence, the Subject of a Verb is said to be that about which the Verb makes a statement. But see Par. 1, note. =Subjunctive= (Mood) [L. _subjunct-_, “subjoined”]. A Mood expressing a purpose, condition, &c., _subjoined_ to some statement, question, or answer (163). =Subordinate= (sentence) [L. _sub_, “beneath;” _ordin-_, “rank”]. A sentence that _ranks beneath_ another sentence. See Par. 249. =Substantive= (Noun) [L. _substantia_, “substance”]. A useless name given to Nouns denoting things said to have _substantial_ existence. =Suffix= [L. _sub_, “beneath,” _fix-_, “fixed”]. Same as _Affix_. =Superlative= (degree) [L. _super_, “above;” _lat-_, “carried”]. An Adjectival form denoting the expression of a quality in a degree _carried above_ other degrees (42). =Supplement= [L. _sub_, “up;” _ple-_, “fill”]. That which _fills up_, or supplies what is wanting in a Verb (148). =Syllable= [Gr. _syn_, “together;” _lab-_, “take”]. A group of letters _taken together_ so as to form one sound. =Syncope= [Gr. _syn_, “altogether” or “quite;” _cope_, “cutting”]. A considerable curtailment[22] or _cutting_ of a word, by omitting letters in the middle, _e.g._ _ne’er_ for _never_. =Syntax= [Gr. _syn_, “together;” _taxis_, “arranging”]. The _arrangement_ of words _together_ in a sentence. =Synthesis= [Gr. _syn_, “together;” _thesis_, “placing”]. _Placing together_ parts so as to form a whole. The opposite of _analysis_. Hence a _synthetical_ period in language. See Par. 551. =Tense= [L. _tempus_, Fr. _temps_, “time”]. The forms of a Verb indicating the _time_ of an action (71). =Transitive= [L. _trans_, “across;” _it-_, “going”]. A Verb that has an Object, so called because the action of the Verb is regarded as passing or _going across_ to the Object (55). =Trochee= [Gr. _trochos_, “a running”]. In English, a foot of two syllables consisting of an accented, followed by an unaccented syllable. So called from its brisk, or _running_ nature. =Verb= [L. _verb-_, “word”]. The chief _word_ in a sentence. =Verse= [L. _vert_, “turn”]. A line of poetry at the end of which one _turns_ to a new line. =Vocative= [L. _voca-_, “call”]. The use or case of a Noun when the person or thing is _called to_ (32). Vowels [L. _vocalis_ “having voice”]. The letters that _have_ a _voice_ or are sounded (not as the “consonants” but) by themselves: _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_. =Weak= (Verbs). Verbs that form their Past Tenses and Passive participles by adding _d_ or _t_, and not by changed Vowel. ----- [1] Quintilian I. 5, 41: “frequentissime in verbo, quia plurima huic _accidunt_.” [2] Probably a Latin mistake. The Greek original meant (1) _cause_, (2) _accusation_. The Latins took it in sense (2) instead of (1). [3] See _How to Write Clearly_, Par. 41. [4] In Rhetoric, the _apostrophe_ is the _turning away from_ one’s audience to address some _absent_ person. The old name for the Grammatical _apostrophe_ was _apostrophus_; and this would be useful to distinguish it from the Rhetorical term. [5] See Par. 40, _How to Write Clearly_. [6] See Par. 39, _How to Write Clearly_. [7] Hence to _conjugate_ a Verb is to repeat the inflections belonging to the class or _conjugation_. But the Romans used _decline_ and not _conjugate_ in this sense (Madvig). [8] Termination _-ivus_ in Latin, when added to Participles, denotes _that which has arisen from_, _e.g._ “captivus,” _that which has arisen from “capture.”_ [9] See Par. 14. [10] The _point_ will generally be at the _end_. Intentional “bathos” sometimes borders on “epigram.” See _How to Write Clearly_, Par. 42. [11] The Latin “genitivus” is a mistranslation of the Greek _genike_, which meant the _generic_ case _i.e._ the case, that denoted the _genus_ or class. For example, “life,” “What _class_ of life?” “_Man’s_ life.” [12] See Par. 43, _How to Write Clearly_. [13] _English Lessons for English People_, page 78. [14] This Definition, though in accordance with Etymology, is often Grammatically inapplicable. [15] This definition is unsatisfactory, see Par. 60. [16] _English Lessons for English People_, page 131. [17] Compare our _e’er_, _o’er_ for _ever_, _over_. [18] See _How to Tell the Parts of Speech_, p. 124. [19] Syllables altogether identical do not rhyme. [20] See _English Lessons for English People_, page 126. [21] The derivation usually given, but probably inaccurate. [22] Perhaps “a _cutting_ in the middle so as to pull the extremes _together_.” RULES AND DEFINITIONS. It is assumed that the ten following Definitions are known to the pupil:— 1. A _Noun_, is a name of any kind (page 19[1]). 2. A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a Noun (page 21[1]). 3. An _Adjective_ is a word that can be put before a Noun either to distinguish it, or to point out its number or amount (page 32[1]). 4. A _Verb_ is a word that can make a statement (page 39[1]). 5. An _Adverb_ is a word that answers to the question “how?” “when?” “where?” or “how far is this true?” (page 54[1]). 6. A _Preposition_ is a word that can be placed before a Noun or a Pronoun, so that the Preposition and Noun or Pronoun together are equivalent to an Adjective or Adverb (page 76[1]). 7.[2] A _Sentence_ is a collection of words expressing a statement, question, or command (page 45[1]). 8.[2] Any other collection of words, having a meaning, is called a _Phrase_ (page 45[1]), or _Clause_. See Glossary. 9. A _Conjunction_ is a word that joins two sentences together (page 85[1]). 10. A _Relative Pronoun_ is a Conjunctive Pronoun used so as to refer to a preceding Noun or Pronoun called the _Antecedent_ (page 125[1]). ----- [1] The figures denote the pages of _How to Tell the Parts of Speech_ on which the first ten Definitions will severally be found. [2] A Sentence preceded by a Conjunction ceases to _state_, _command_, or _question_; it therefore becomes a Phrase, _e.g._ “_When I saw John._” Such a Phrase may conveniently be called a _Clause_. See Par. 239. * * * * * 1. The _Subject_ of a Verb making a statement is the word or words answering to the question “who?” or “what?” before the Verb (Par. 1). 2. The _Object_ of a Verb or Preposition is the word or words answering to the question “whom?” or “what?” after the Verb or Preposition (14[1]). 3. When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction introducing a new Sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing the Relative (24). 4. The _Antecedent_ must sometimes be _supplied_ from the sentence (25). 5. The _Relative_ is sometimes _omitted_ (26). 6. Some Pronouns are used _Interrogatively_, _Conjunctively_, and _Relatively_ (28). 7. The _Uses_ or _Cases_ of a Noun are four, viz. _Subject_, _Object_,[2] _Possessive_, and _Vocative_ (32). 8. The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding _-s_ to the Singular (34). 9. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular and Plural, is formed by adding _’s_ to the Singular or Plural form (37). 10. An Adjective has three Degrees of Comparison, viz. _Positive_, _Comparative_, and _Superlative_ (42). 11. To form the Comparative and Superlative, add _-er_, _-est_ to Positives of one Syllable. “More” and “most” are used in other cases (43). 12. A Verb that can have an Object is called _Transitive_; a Verb that cannot, is called _Intransitive_.[3] 13. The _Passive Voice_ of a Transitive Verb is the form assumed by the Verb when its Object is made the Subject (60). 14. The _Active Voice_ of a Transitive Verb is the form that can be used with an Object (61). 15. A _Participle_ can be distinguished by the fact that it can be, in part, replaced by a Conjunctive word (66). 16. Each Voice has four _Moods_: _Infinitive_, _Indicative_, _Imperative_, and _Subjunctive_ (70). 17. The _Infinitive_ Mood speaks of an action without defining the doer (70). 18. The _Indicative_ Mood definitely points out an action (70). 19. The _Imperative_ Mood commands an action (70). 20. The _Subjunctive_ Mood expresses condition, purpose, wish, &c. (70). 21. Verbs have three _Tenses_: _Past_, _Present_, and _Future_ (71). 22. Each Tense has four “_States_” of Action: the _Indefinite_, the _Complete_, the _Incomplete_, and the _Complete Post-Continuous_ (73, 74). 23. A Verb _agrees_ with its Subject in _Person_ and _Number_ (78). 24. “May,” “can,” “must,” “will,” “shall,” “let,” &c. are called _Auxiliary_ Verbs (95). 25. “_To_” is _omitted_ in the Infinitive after the Auxiliary Verbs, and after “see,” “hear,” “feel” (96). 26. An Infinitive may be used (1) as a Noun; (2) as an Adverb; (3) as an Adjective. 27. The _Indirect Object_ of a Verb is the word or phrase answering to the question “For, or, to, whom?” “For, or, to, what?” when used after the Verb and the Direct Object (118). 28. When an Active Verb taking two Objects is changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other is _retained as Object_ (122). 29. Some Verbs, generally Intransitive, can take an Object of a nature _akin_ or _cognate_ to the Verb, called the _Cognate Object_ (125). 30. The _Object_ is sometimes used _Adverbially_ to denote _extension_, _price_, _point of time_ (127—131). 31. The _Subject_, generally with a Participle, is sometimes used _Adverbially_ (135). 32. A Noun or Pronoun, not Subject or Object of a Verb, but so connected with another Noun or Pronoun that we can understand between them the words “I mean,” “that is to say,” &c., is said to be in _Apposition_ to the latter (137). 33. Nouns and Pronouns are used _Subjectively_ when in Apposition to _Subjects_, and _Objectively_ when in Apposition to _Objects_ (138). 34. The (1) Intransitive Verbs “is,” “looks,” “seems,” “appears,” &c., and (2) the Transitive Verbs “make,” “create,” “appoint,” “deem,” “esteem,” being used to express identity, and, as it were, to place one Noun or Pronoun in apposition with another, may be called _Verbs of Identity_, or _Appositional Verbs_ (147). 35. Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take a _Subjective Supplement_; when Transitive, take an _Objective Supplement_ (150). 36. “It” and “there” are sometimes irregularly used to prepare the way for the Subject or Object (151). 37. In a Conditional Sentence, (1) the Clause expressing the condition is called the _Antecedent_; (2) the Clause expressing the consequence of the fulfilment of the condition is called the _Consequent_ (167). 38. Auxiliary Verbs (when not following “if” or any other Conjunction expressing Condition) are used Indicatively, _whenever they can be altered into the Indicatives of other Verbs_ (181). 39. Whenever language is irregular, there is some _cause_ for the irregularity (192). 40. The three principal _causes_ of irregularity are I. _Desire of brevity_; II. _Confusion of two constructions_; III. _Desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction_ (198). 41. A _Simple Sentence_ is a sentence that has only one Subject and only one Stating, Questioning, or Commanding Verb (245). 42. When several Simple Sentences are connected by “and,” “but,” “so,” “then,” &c., so that each sentence is, as it were, independent, and of the same rank as the rest, each is called a _co-ordinate Sentence_[4] (246). 43. A _Compound Sentence_ is a Sentence made up of Co-ordinate Sentences (247). 44. When a number of Sentences are connected by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that is not introduced by a Conjunction is called the _Principal Sentence_ (248). 45. Sentences connected with a Principal Sentence by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate are called _Sub-ordinate_[4] (249). 46. A _Complex Sentence_ is the whole Sentence formed by the combination of the Principal and Subordinate Sentences (250). 47. When a word passes from one form to another, a letter is often changed or doubled in order to _preserve the original sound_ (266). 48. Final _-e_ is dropped before an affix beginning with a vowel, but retained before an affix beginning with a consonant (270). 49. A monosyllable ending in _-ll_, when followed by an affix beginning with a consonant, or when itself used as an affix, generally drops one _-l_ (275). 50. If the termination of a word is a consonant preceded by a vowel, then, on receiving an affix beginning with a vowel, the final consonant in the word is doubled, provided that the word is a monosyllable, or accented on the last syllable (277). 51. When a word is separated from its grammatical adjunct by any intervening Phrase, the Phrase should be preceded and followed by a comma[5] (224). ----- [1] These and the following References are to the _Paragraphs_ in _How to Parse_. [2] If the Indirect Object is called a separate use, there will be five Uses of a Noun. [3] The usual Definitions are given in Par. 55; but they are very unsatisfactory. [4] The _mark_ of a Subordinate Sentence is that when preceded by its Conjunction, it cannot generally stand as a Sentence by itself. A Co-ordinate Sentence can thus stand by itself. [5] For words, idioms, &c., the pupil is referred to the Alphabetical Index at the end of the book. HOW TO PARSE * * * * * CHAPTER I. SUBJECT AND OBJECT. >>>>1<<<< =The Subject in a Stating Sentence.= All Verbs that make a statement must be accompanied by some Noun, or equivalent of a Noun, about which the statement is made:— (1) “_Thomas_ failed.” (2) “_He_ failed.” (3) “_The attempt to take the city_ failed.” (4) “_That he failed_ is certain.” In each of the three examples above, if you ask the question “Who or what failed?” the answer, being the _subject_ of our statement, is called the _Subject_ of the Verb. This leads us to a Definition: _The Subject of a Verb in a stating sentence is the word or collection of words answering to the question asked by putting “Who?” or “What?” before the Verb._[1] ----- [1] It is not enough to say that the Subject is “that about which the statement is made.” For, in “A tempest wrecked our ship,” the statement is just as much about “ship” as about “tempest”; but “ship” is not the “Subject.” >>>>2<<<< _Caution_ I. If the Verb is accompanied by an Adverb, as— (1) “He _seldom_ sleeps.” (2) “She does _not_ sleep.” —the Adverb should be repeated in the question: (1) “Who _seldom_ sleeps?” Answer: “He,” Subject. (2) “Who does _not_ sleep?” Answer: “She,” Subject. >>>>3<<<< _Caution_ II. If the Verb is accompanied by words necessary to give the meaning, as— (1) “John is _a mere boy_.” (2) “Thomas was made _happy_.” —these words may be repeated in the question: (1) “Who is _a mere boy_?” Answer: “John,” Subject. (2) “Who _was made happy_?” Answer: “Thomas,” Subject. >>>>4<<<< =The Subject in a Questioning Sentence.= In a Questioning Sentence, _e.g._— (1) “Did John come?” —ask “Did _who_ come?” Answer: “Did _John_ come?” Therefore “John” is the Subject. >>>>5<<<< _Caution._ If the Sentence only answers our question by repeating “Who?” “What?” “Which?” &c. as— (1) “_What_ made you so foolish?” (2) “_Who_ saw him die?” —then, “Who?” “What?” “Which?” are themselves the Subjects. >>>>6<<<< =The Subject in a Commanding Sentence.=[1] The Subject in a Commanding Sentence is almost always “you”; or, in Poetry, “thou” or “ye.” It is generally not expressed: (1) “Stay (_you_) where you are: the rest may go.” (2) “Follow (_thou_) me.” ----- [1] In these sentences, the name “Subject” is usually given to the Pronoun denoting the person to whom the command is addressed. >>>>7<<<< _Caution._ Where a Verb follows a Conjunction, as— (1) “. . . _that_ the attempt may prosper.” (2) “. . . _if_ Thomas _helps_ me.” —it is useful sometimes to repeat the Conjunction before “Who?” or “What?”:— (1) “_That_ what may prosper?” Answer: “The attempt,” Subject. (2) “_If_ who helps me?” Answer: “Thomas,” Subject. The Conjunctions “and,” “but,” “for,” “then,” “so,” “therefore,” &c. need not be repeated. EXERCISE I. (SPECIMEN). Find out the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:[1]— Once upon a time there* _lived_[2] a mighty king whose* name was Xerxes, and he reigned over Persia. _Does_ every boy _know_ where Persia is? If you _do_ not _know_, _look_ it out in the Map. Though he was king of the Persians, and _reigned_ over almost all the nations of the East, yet he was not satisfied with this; nothing but the whole world _could satisfy_ him. So, learning that a little nation lived not far from him, on the other side of the Ægean sea, and _had_ not yet _submitted_ to him, the king determined to conquer it. This nation, which consisted of several independent cities—Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and many others—_was called_ altogether by the name of “Greeks.” All the Greeks together, when they mustered all their fighting men, _did_ not _amount_ to a hundred thousand, while Xerxes _was obeyed_ by more* than a million of soldiers. Besides, the Greeks _were_ often _divided_ against themselves, one city fighting against another, so that they _seemed_ to have no chance against the Great King—for this was the name by which the King of Persia _was known_. Xerxes _did_ not _believe_ for a moment that the Greeks, few and divided as* they were, _would resist_ him. So before he _collected_ an army, he determined to try peaceable means. Accordingly he sent heralds to all the principal cities in Greece, and _bade_ them demand from each city “earth and water.” What _made_ him ask for that? Why, you must know this was the Persian way of demanding obedience and subjection; for, among them, giving earth _was_ the sign of surrendering their land to the Great King, and giving water meant that they surrendered their sea and navy to him. The heralds therefore, with this message from Xerxes, _went_ forth on their several journeys. “Who lived?” “A mighty king,” Subject. “Does every boy know?” “Does who know?” “Every boy,” Subject. “If who do not know?” “You,” Subject. “Look it out.” A command: Subject “you,” _implied_. “Though who reigned?” “He,” Subject. (Note that _reigned_ is joined by the Conjunction “and” to the Verb _was_, and both these Verbs follow the Conjunction “though.” We therefore repeat “though,” in asking the question to find the Subject. Note, also, that the answer is “he,” not “Xerxes.” The answer must always be a word _in the sentence_.) “Who or what could satisfy him?” “Nothing but the whole world,” Subject. “Who or what had (not yet) submitted?” “A little nation,” Subject. These words are also the Subject of _lived_, which is joined to _had submitted_ by “and.” “Who or what was called?” “This nation,” Subject. “Who or what did (not) amount?” “All the Greeks,” Subject. “Who was obeyed?” “Xerxes,” Subject. “Who were often divided?” “The Greeks,” Subject. “Who seemed?” “They,” Subject. “What made him ask?” Here the answer is the same as the question, viz. “What;” and “What” is the Subject of “made.” “What was (the sign of surrendering)?” “Giving earth.” Subject. ----- [1] In this Exercise, and in those that follow, the Pupil may be asked to point out Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, &c. But in that case, words marked thus * should be omitted. [2] The term “Subject” includes not merely the Noun that answers to the question “Who?” or “What?” before the Verb, but also all Adjectives or Adjective Phrases put to the Noun; _e.g._ “a mighty king” is the Subject of “lived.” “King” may be called the “Noun part of the Subject,” or the “Noun Subject.” >>>>8<<<< =Position of the Subject.= The Subject of a Verb expressing a statement generally (_a_) comes before the Verb; but it (_b_) sometimes comes after the Verb, _e.g._ when “there” or an emphatic Adverb, or some other emphatic word, comes at the beginning of the sentence:— (_a_) (1) “_He_ reigned in Persia.” (_b_) (1) “There is _no doubt_ about it.” (2) “Next came _my brother_.” (3) “‘Stop,’ cried _the soldier_.” >>>>9<<<< In Poetry, the Subject often comes after the Verb (See Pars. 513—4):— (1) “Loud blew _the blast_.” >>>>10<<<< In Questions, the Subject is generally (1) in the middle of the Verb, but sometimes (2) after the Verb— (1) “What did _the man_ say?” (2) “What said _the man_?” —unless the Subject happens to be “Who” or “What”— (1) “_Who_ saw him die?” EXERCISE II. Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:— When the heralds _had arrived_ at the cities of Greece, and _delivered_ their message, they were received differently in different places. Some cities _gave_ earth and water, because they _were_ afraid of the Great King; others, because they were jealous of their neighbours, and _hoped_ the Great King would help them and destroy their enemies. But the men of Athens and of Sparta _would give_ neither earth nor water. Indeed the Athenians were so angry at the message, that they threw one of the heralds into a pit, and _bade_ him take his earth thence; another they _threw_ into a well, telling him that he _could find_ water there. Xerxes, when he heard how his heralds _had been treated_, and how the men of Athens and Sparta _had refused_ earth and water, _determined_ at once to levy an army and to conquer Greece. Never before _was_ so vast a host _collected_. They drank whole rivers dry.* The Hellespont, across which they had to pass into Greece, _was bridged_ with boats: a promontory (its name was Mount Athos) _was cut through_ to give a passage to their fleet. And now this monstrous army, amounting to a million at least, _had penetrated_ Greece, and was marching southward. Still no one _ventured_ to oppose them, and in a few days the hosts of Xerxes, with undiminished numbers, had reached a pass called Thermopylæ. >>>>11<<<< =Different forms of the Subject.= The Subject may be— =1. A Noun, Pronoun, or Adjective put for Noun=:— “_John_ runs,” “_He_ runs,” “_Who_ runs?” “_That_ is a mistake.” =2. A group of Nouns connected by “and”=:— “_Two and three_ make five.” “_You and I_ are cousins.” =3. A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause=:— (1) “_To write an exercise without a fault_ requires much care.” (2) “_That he was guilty_ was not proved.”[1] ----- [1] The Noun-Clause in (2) may be called a _Noun-Sentence_, for convenience; but it must always be borne in mind that a Sentence preceded by a Conjunction, so that it no longer _states_, _questions_, or _commands_—ceases, strictly speaking, to be a _Sentence_, and becomes a Clause. See the Definitions, p. xxviii. The word _Phrase_ includes _Clause_. EXERCISE III. Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:— “What _is_ a pass?” perhaps you ask. A narrow path with steep mountains on both sides _is called_ a pass. In this case there* _were_ mountains on one side, and, on the other side, _was_ a marshy place stretching down to the sea, so that there* _was_ only room for a cart or two to pass. In such a place, to resist a host _was_ an easy matter for a few* brave men. But, just then, the Greeks were terrified. To remain at Thermopylæ _seemed_ to them certain death; so they determined to retreat. Then Leonidas, who was king of the Spartans, when he _found_ that he could not persuade the other Greeks to remain, _determined_ to remain by himself with a few* brave Spartans, to resist Xerxes, and to gain time for his countrymen. With him _remained_ about three hundred men, and the* rest^* _departed_. When Xerxes, after arriving at Thermopylæ, _saw_ the handful of Spartans prepared to resist him, he laughed at them, and _bade_ his soldiers bring them to him in chains. But the Persian soldiers, on advancing to the charge, _found_ that their master was mistaken in his laughter. Charge after charge _was made_ by the Persians, but to no purpose. The Persians _were slain_ in hundreds, but the Greeks _were_ neither _taken_ nor _driven back_. That the Persians _were_ no match for the Greeks _was made evident_ even to the proud King Xerxes; and, when the sun set, he retired to his tent in great sorrow. >>>>12<<<< =The Object.= Supply what is wanting to complete the sense after the following Verbs and Prepositions:— 1. The grey-hound killed ____. 2. I am travelling towards ____. 3. The woodman felled ____. 4. The soldier shot ____. 5. We wish for ____. 6. We desire ____. 7. I look for ____. 8. John is seeking ____. 9. I come to ____. 10. They reach ____. 11. The cart-wheel ran over ____. 12. I am thinking about ____. 13. I am living in ____. The best way to supply what is wanting is to repeat the Verb or Preposition, and ask _whom?_ or _what?_ (not before the Verb, as when you were finding the Subject, but) _after_ the Verb. For example, “Killed what?” Answer: “A hare.” “Towards what?” Answer: “Paris.” Now “hare” is called the _Object_ of the Verb “killed,” and “Paris” the _Object_ of the Preposition “towards.” >>>>13<<<< “Object” means “put in the way.” Just as a target is _put in the way of_ the marksman, and is called the _object_ at which he shoots, so the word or group of words answering to the question _whom?_ or _what?_ after a Verb or Preposition, often denotes the _object_ of the action of the Verb, or of the motion implied by the Preposition. For example, “the hare” is the _object_ of the action of “killing”: “Paris” is the _object_ of the motion implied in “towards.” Hence the name “Object” is given to the words answering the question _whom?_ or _what?_ after the Verb or Preposition, even in some cases where the name may seem misapplied. For example, in “He is travelling from _Paris_,” you can hardly say that Paris is the _object_ of motion. Nevertheless, in conformity with the general rule, “Paris” is called the “Object” of the Preposition “from.” >>>>14<<<< _The word or collection of words answering to the question whom? or what? after a Verb or Preposition is called the Object._[1] ----- [1] As in finding the Subject, so here, if the Verb is modified by “not,” or any other Adverb, the Adverb may be repeated with the Verb in asking the question. >>>>15<<<< =Different forms of the Object.= The Object, like the Subject, must be a Noun, or the equivalent of a Noun:— =1. A Noun or Pronoun=:— “I like _playing_, _John_, _nothing_.” =2. A group of Nouns connected by “and”=:— “He is sitting between _you and me_”; “This railway connects _Paris and Brussels_.” =3. A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause=:— (1) “I like to _play_, _to hear music_, _hearing music_, _a rascal to be punished_.” (2) “I know _that he was not guilty_.” “I asked _whether he had arrived_.” >>>>16<<<< =Position of the Object.= The Object generally follows the Verb or Preposition, but not always. For example:— I. When the Object is an Interrogative or Relative Pronoun:— (1) “_Whom_ did you see?” (2) “The house _that_ I live _in_.” >>>>17<<<< II. When the Object is emphatic:— (1) “_Silver and gold_ have I none.” (2) “_Not one word_ did he say.” (3) “_Some_ he killed, _others_ he took alive.” >>>>18<<<< III. In Poetry (514):— “_A monarch’s sword_ when mad vain-glory draws.” >>>>19<<<< =Some Verbs have no Object.= Some Verbs denote (1) _states_, _e.g._, “be,” “remain,” “seem,” “appear,” and generally all forms of “be” followed by the Verbal forms in _-ed_, _-en_, &c.; others denote (2) actions _not regarded as having an external object_, _e.g._, “run,” “walk,” &c. These two classes of Verbs do not take a Grammatical Object. The former class suggests the question “who?” not “whom?” _e.g._, “He seems ——”; “seems _who_ or _what_?” Answer, “He seems _a rascal_.” Here “rascal” answers to the question “who?” (not “whom?”) and is not called the Object of “seems.” See Par. 147. EXERCISE IV. (SPECIMEN) Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions in the following Exercise:— Next day the Persians _attacked_ the Greeks again, but to no purpose. Not the slightest impression _did_ they _make_ on the little Greek phalanx. Their gold and silver armour was no match _for_ the steel spears _of_ the brave Greeks. Besides, the Greeks were fighting _for_ their country, while the Persians _did_ not _want_ to fight, and were driven to the battle _with_ the lash. So the sun set again, and Xerxes _found_ that he was again defeated. But, that night, while the King _was_ angrily _thinking_ that he should have to retreat, a traitor came _to_ his tent and _offered_ to show him a path over the mountains, by which the Persians might come down _behind_ the Greeks, and thus (might) _attack_ them _in_ the rear as well as in front. At once, a Persian battalion set out _under_ the guidance _of_ the traitor, and _by_ sunrise next morning, the Persians, _with_ two vast hosts, _had shut in_[1] the little band of Greeks _between_ the sea, the mountains, and their enemies. “Attacked whom?” “The Greeks,” Object. “They did (not) make what?”[2] “The slightest impression,” Object. “For what?” “The steel swords of the brave Greeks,” Object. “For what?” “Their country,” Object. “Did (not) want what?” “To fight,” Object. “With what?” “The lash,” Object. “Found what?” “That he was again defeated,” Object. “Was (angrily) thinking what?” “That he should have to retreat,” Object. “To what?” “His tent,” Object. “Offered what?” “To show him a path over the mountains,” Object. The rest you can answer for yourself. ----- [1] “Shut in” is one Compound Verb. See _How to Tell the Parts of Speech_, p. 77. [2] See Note on page 10. The term “Object” includes, not merely the Noun, but the _whole of the answer_ to the question “whom?” or “what?” after the Verb. The Noun-part of the Object, may, for convenience, be called the Noun-Object, and may be stated separately, if desired, _e.g._, “the slightest impression” is the “Object,” but “impression” is the “Noun-Object,” of “did make.” >>>>20<<<< Many parts of the Verb that take no Subject may take an Object. For example, you cannot ask “Who or what _killing_?” but you can ask “_killing_ whom or what?” Consequently “killing” can have no Subject, but may have an “Object.” And so may “to kill.” EXERCISE V. Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions in the following Exercise:[1]— Leonidas _saw_ at once that he and his men _had_ no chance of escape. But _instead of_ lamenting, he seemed delighted _at_ the thought of dying honourably. He told his men _to clean_ their armour and weapons, and _to prepare_ themselves as if for a feast. Then, when the sun was sinking, “_Take_ your suppers,” said he, “and _remember_ that you will _take_ your breakfast elsewhere.” But in that little band there was not one man that _feared_ to die; for a soldier’s death was counted an honourable, and not a terrible thing, among the Greeks. When night came, out marched the Greeks _against_ the army of Xerxes. Wherever they went, they _carried_ death and terror with them; they _overturned_ the tent of Xerxes and _slew_ his guards. The proud king was forced to flee for his life; and, if the night could have lasted _for_ a night and a day, perhaps they might have destroyed the whole of that vast host. But, when day _began_ to dawn, the enemy _discovered_ the small number of the Greeks, and took courage. The Greeks were weary _with_ slaying their thousands, the Persians were fresh; the Greeks were three hundred men, the Persians were more than three hundred thousand. So the Persians gathered _round_ the Greeks, _attacking_ them _with_ slings and darts and spears, because they _did_ not _dare_ to attack them in close fight. When the Greeks charged, the Persians fled _from_ them; when the Greeks retired, the Persians _approached_ them. First one and then another of the Greeks fell _beneath_ the shower of darts, others were wounded and could scarcely stand; but none would surrender. Before sunset, every Greek was slain, and the Persian army _had gained_ the victory. But, _from_ that day to the present (day), all men _have honoured_ the names of Leonidas and his brave Greeks, who _have left_ for us and for all men an example teaching us not to be afraid _of_ dying honourably. ----- [1] The Subjects of the italicized Verbs may also be found both in this and in the preceding Exercise. EXERCISE VI. Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions, in the following Exercise:— Tommy _had heard from_ Mr. Barlow many stories _about_ the taming _of_ wild animals; so he thought _to_ himself he should like _to tame_[1] a pig. He _had heard_ that the youngest animals _are_ most easily _tamed_[1]; so he _chose out_ the youngest pig _in_ the farm-yard, and _approached_ it _with_ some bread in his hand. “Come here, little pig,” said he; but the pig _ran away_. “Then I must fetch you,” cried Tommy, and, so saying, he caught it by the leg. The little pig squeaked, and the old sow, coming up, _ran between_ Tommy’s legs, and _knocked_ him _down_ in the mud. “Who _did_ all this mischief?” said Mr. Barlow, coming out that moment from the house. “That foolish pig,” said poor Tommy. “Oh! no,” replied Mr. Barlow, “that foolish boy.” In doing the above Exercise, make three columns, thus:— ─────────┬───────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────── │Answer to the question _who?_ │Answer to the question _whom?_ │ or _what?_ before the Verb, │ or _what?_ after the Verb or │ _i.e._ │ Preposition _i.e._ WORD. │ SUBJECT. │ OBJECT. ─────────┼───────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────── had heard│ Tommy │many stories about the taming of │ │ wild animals from │ — │Mr. Barlow to tame │ — │a pig ─────────┴───────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────────── EXERCISE VII. Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions, in the following Exercise:— A lion, while* quietly sleeping, _was surrounded by_ some mice. They _began_ dancing _round_ him, and at last[2] one young mouse, bolder than* the rest,* _jumped_ up _on_ his body and _scampered_ across his face. The lion _awoke_ with a roar, and the mice _ran_ away: but the young mouse _was stopped by_ the lion’s* paw. “Spare me!” cried she, “and I _will_ never _disturb_ you again.” The lion good-humouredly _took_ his paw _off_ her, and _lay_ down again. Some days afterwards, the lion _was caught_ in a net spread by some huntsmen. In vain[2] he roared and _struggled_: he found that his struggles only _entangled_ him more in the net, and he cried in despair, “I _have_ no chance _of_ escaping.” Just then, up _came_ the little mouse _with_ a thousand brothers and sisters. To work they fell, gnawing the net, and _in_ ten minutes the lion _was released by_ the mice. ----- [1] Some of these Verbs, _e.g._ _to tame_, have no Subjects; some, _e.g._ _are tamed_, have no Objects. [2] An Adverbial Phrase. See _How to Tell, &c._, page 79. CHAPTER II. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. >>>>21<<<< =How to Find whether the Relative is Subject or Object.= In the sentence “Bring the book that pleases you best,” what is the Subject of “pleases?” Perhaps you may ask the question in the usual way, “What pleases?” Answer, “the book.” But this is not right. “Book” is the Object of “bring.” “Bring what?” Answer, “the book.” Now the same word is never both Object and Subject; so “book” cannot be the Subject of “pleases;” and the real Subject of “pleases” is the Relative Pronoun “that.” You will generally answer questions of this kind rightly if you remember that the Relative Pronoun[1] is in some sense a _Conjunction_, so that it joins together two sentences, one of which states, commands, &c., and may be called (Par. 248) the _Principal Sentence_; while the other—as it is introduced by the Relative Pronoun—may be called a _Relative Sentence_. If these Sentences are kept quite distinct—_the Principal Sentence being first repeated and parsed by itself, and afterwards the Relative Sentence_—the pupil will have no difficulty. ----- [1] _How to Tell_, &c., page 125. >>>>22<<<< In parsing the Relative Sentence, the Noun or Pronoun for which the Relative Pronoun is used—that is, its Antecedent[1]—should be written in brackets by the side of the Relative Pronoun. Thus, in parsing the Sentences of the next Exercise, write down the Principal and Relative Sentences as follows:— Principal Sentence . . . (1) “The jay was very soon punished for her robbery.” Relative „ (2) “_That_ (jay) robbed the peacocks of their feathers.” If the Sentence contains two or three Relative Sentences, they may be taken separately, _e.g._ in the seventh Sentence of the following Exercise:— Principal Sentence (_a_) (1) “The girl that I told you of was taught a lesson that she never forgot.” Relative „ (_a_) (2) “_Who_ (the girl) counted her chickens before they were hatched.” Principal „ (_b_) (1) “The girl was taught a lesson that she never forgot.” Relative „ (_b_) (2) “I told you of _that_ (girl.)” Principal „ (_c_) (1) “The girl was taught a lesson.” Relative „ (_c_) (2) “She never forgot _that_ (lesson).” The form _who_, or _whom_, will of itself tell you at once whether it is Subject or Object. In parsing a Relative Pronoun, state— 1. _Antecedent._ 2. _Subject of what Verb_, or, 3. _Object of what Verb or Preposition._ EXERCISE VIII. Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following sentences:— 1. The jay that robbed the peacocks of their feathers was very soon punished for her robbery. 2. The ass that frightened the beasts of the forest was laughed at when he began to bray. 3. The crow dropped the cheese, which the fox immediately snapped up. 4. The lion that spared the mouse was afterwards released by the mouse. 5. The travellers, all of whom had seen the chameleon, could not agree about its colour. 6. Shakespeare tells us that the man that does not love music is fit for murders and conspiracies. 7. The girl that I told you of, who counted her chickens before they were hatched, was taught a lesson that she never forgot. 8. Have you ever heard of Horatius Cocles, who defended the bridge against a host of enemies, and whom the Romans honoured by erecting a statue to his memory? Write these down as follows:— ─────┬───────────┬──────────┬────────── Word.│Antecedent.│Subject of│Object of ─────┼───────────┼──────────┼────────── that │jay │robbed │ — which│cheese │ — │snapped up ─────┴───────────┴──────────┴────────── Find out the Subjects and Objects of all the Verbs in the foregoing sentences. ----- [1] _How to Tell_, &c., page 125. >>>>23<<<< =The Position of the Relative.= Note that the Relative Pronoun, when used as Object, precedes both the Subject and the Verb. The reason is that the Pronoun, _serving the purpose of a Conjunction, has to precede the sentence_ that it joins to the Principal Sentence. >>>>24<<<< When a Parenthetical Sentence intervenes between the Relative Pronoun and its Verb, that sentence must be carefully separated from the Relative Sentence. _A Parenthetical sentence is a sentence inserted in the midst of another sentence, the latter being complete without the former._ The following are examples of sentences containing Relative Pronouns followed by Parenthetical sentences:— (1) “Yesterday I met Robert, _who_—you will hardly believe it—has grown to be six feet high, with a beard reaching to his watch-chain.” (2) “Yesterday I met Robert, _whom_ (though I had not seen him for ten years) I recognized at once.” In the following Exercise, the Conjunctional sentences are inserted between parenthetical marks; but the pupil must be prepared to parse the Relative hereafter without the aid of these marks. The following will be found a useful Rule:— _When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction_ (e.g. _“though” above in_ (2)) _introducing a new sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing the Relative_. EXERCISE IX. Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following Exercise, stating the Antecedent, and the Verb or Preposition of which each is Subject or Object:— Once there _was_ a quarrel between the eyes and the nose about the ownership of the spectacles, _which_ (so _said_ the nose) were undoubtedly intended for him and not for his two neighbours the eyes; _who_, on their part (although they admitted that the nose had a share in the spectacles), yet claimed the largest share for themselves. The two ears, _whom_ both parties accepted as judges, _called_ on the tongue, _who_ was counsel for both, to plead first the cause of the eyes, and then that of the nose. So the tongue began by saying that spectacles _that_ had no eyes to look through them, _were_ of no use; the word “spectacle,” _which_ the Latins used to denote a “place for seeing,” _proved_, of itself, that the instrument was meant for seeing and not for smelling. The judges, _who_ (though they became rather inattentive while Latin was being quoted) had listened with great patience to the arguments _that_ the tongue brought forward, now _desired_ to hear what the nose _had_ to say. So the tongue, taking that side of the question, _which_ he pleaded remarkably well, _called_ attention to the saddle _that_ was between the two glasses, _which_, said he, was clearly intended for the nose. He added, with great force, that, if the eyes were closed or even altogether removed, the spectacles would still remain faithfully in their place, but a man _that_ suddenly lost his nose _would_ certainly _lose_ his spectacles as well—“_which_,”[1] said he, “clearly proves that the nose is the owner of the spectacles. If a dog were placed between two claimants, _should_ we not readily _admit_ that the claimant to _whom_ the dog went would be the rightful owner? My lords, the spectacles, _which_ (because they have no power of motion) sit patiently there between my two clients, _would_ clearly _shew_ you, if they could move, to which claimant they adhered. _Cut_ out the eye, the spectacles will sit unmoved: cast down the nose, the trusty spectacles will immediately follow their fallen master.” Here the judges, declaring that _what_[2] they had heard was enough to enable them to arrive at a decision, _stopped_ the counsel, and at once decided in favour of the nose. EXERCISE X. Write or repeat the Subjects and Objects of the Verbs italicized in the last Exercise. ----- [1] See “Omission of the Antecedent,” Par. 25. [2] _What_ should be parsed here thus: “_what_ is put for _that which_; _that_ is the Subject of _was_; _which_ is the Object of _had heard_.” The sentence, fully expressed, would run thus: “declaring that _that_ (Subj.) _which_ (Obj.) they had heard was enough,” &c. >>>>25<<<< =Omission of the Antecedent.= Tell me the Antecedent of _which_ in the following sentence:— “The ass in the lion’s skin frightened all the beasts in the forest till he began to bray:* _which_ at once changed their fear into laughter.” There is no Noun or Pronoun here that can be called the Antecedent of _which_. _Which_ stands for “the ass’s beginning to bray,” or “the braying of the ass,” or some other words _to be supplied_ from the previous sentence. In parsing _which_ you must say, “_which_ stands for an Antecedent _to be supplied_, viz. ‘the braying of the ass.’” >>>>26<<<< =The Omission of the Relative.= When the Relative would be the _Object_, it is often omitted:— (1) “The book (_that_) you sent me is not mine.” (2) “Where is the parcel (_that_) I left here yesterday?” (3) “The message (_that_) I was sent with was to this effect.” In Poetry it (Par. 520) is sometimes omitted, even where, if inserted, it would be the _Subject_:— (1) “’Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view.” EXERCISE XI. Write down the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the Relatives, as in the last Exercise:— The sun had nearly set when Harry, having delivered the message _he had brought_, _began_ to turn his steps home-wards. There was no moon, _which_[1] (together with his ignorance of the neighbourhood) made him quicken his pace across the common. For some time he managed to keep the path, _which_ was nothing but two cart ruts leading from one farm to another. Presently, however, a track _that_ turned off to a gravel-pit, led him astray. When he had once gone wrong, he found that he could not find the path he _had lost_. Through brambles, over furze-bushes, he scrambled onward, till, at last, he fell into a deep pit _which_, having been left by the peat-cutters, had been filled with water oozing from the bog around, and _would have drowned_ him, if he had not been able to swim. Suddenly, to his groat joy, he saw a light, _which_[2] he wondered that he had not noticed before. He ran towards it, supposing it came from some cottage belonging to a shepherd _he had seen_ in the morning keeping his sheep near the middle of the common. Just when he was close on the light, he fell into another deep pool, _which_ was so broad that he had great difficulty in swimming across it. Scrambling out, he looked round for the light _he was seeking_; but to his surprise, it seemed to be behind him. Just at this moment another light appeared, straight before him, _which_, when he approached it, retired from him. Thinking it was the torch of some traveller _that_, like himself, had lost his way, he shouted to the man to stop, and ran towards him; but, instead of stopping, the light ran away faster than before, seeming to choose the most miry and boggy spots it _could find_, so that poor Harry soon fell a third time into the water. ----- [1] See Paragraph 25. [2] _Which_ is not the Object of _wondered_. >>>>27<<<< =Uses of “Who,” “What,” &c.= The Pronouns “who,” “what,” “which,” were once always used Interrogatively:— A. (1) “_Who_ has a good conscience?” In time, questions of this kind were used with their answers, thus:— (2) “_Who_ has a good conscience? He is prepared to die.” Afterwards, for shortness, the two sentences were blended in one. Then, sometimes the whole of the Interrogative sentence was treated as a Noun— (3) “(_Who_, or _whoever_, has a good conscience) is prepared to die.” But, more commonly, the Interrogative force of the first sentence was quite forgotten, and, “who” being treated like “that,” the two sentences became— B. (4) “He _who_ has a good conscience is prepared to die.” >>>>28<<<< Again, when Sentence A was made the Object of a Verb in a preceding sentence, _e.g._ “I _asked_,” the second sentence lost its Interrogative force; and “who,” instead of being Interrogatively used, was used Conjunctively, so as to join the sentence “I asked” with the following words:— C. (5) “I asked _who_ had a good conscience.” Carefully distinguish the three uses:— (A) “_What_ say you?” (Interrogative.) (B) “_What_ you say is true.” (Relative.) (C) “I asked _what_ you said.” (Conjunctive.) If you are asked where are the Antecedents of the Relatives “what” and “whoever,” you can often supply the Antecedents, thus:— (1) “What you say, (_that_) is true.” (2) “Whoever said that, (_he_) was mistaken.” >>>>29<<<< Sometimes, as in the fourth line of the next exercise, “what” may be parsed either as (1) Conjunctively, or as (2) Relatively used:— (1) “_What_ should he do? Harry did not know.” (2) “Harry did not know _what_, i.e., _that which_ he should do.” EXERCISE XII. Parse the italicized words, stating the Subjects and Objects of Verbs and Prepositions:— Harry’s* efforts had almost exhausted him. Wet, weary, and almost in despair, he stood shivering on the pool’s* brink, looking at the waters from _which_ he had escaped, not knowing _what_ he should do. Another light began to dance before him, but the chase _he had had_ after the light already, made him decide not to pursue it. “I have had enough of following you, Mr. Traveller,”* said he; “yet _what_ shall I do? If I stand here much longer, the little strength I _have_ will be exhausted; yet I do not know _which_ way to turn, and _what_ I have seen of this common convinces me that a man _that_ does not know the road well, _may go_ on walking round and round for hours and only come back to the place he started _from_.” Just then the clouds, _which_, while he had been wandering about, had hitherto covered the sky, now parted and showed a few stars. Among them was a constellation he _knew_ very well, called the Great Bear. Then, all at once, _what_ Mr. Barlow had told him _occurred_ to his mind, that two of the Great Bear’s* stars always point to the Pole-star, _which_ is always in the North. Now he knew that the farm he _had_ lately _left_ _was_ six miles to the south of his home, so that the path he ought _to take_, _lay_ to the north. Off he started at once, keeping his eyes on the Pole-star, _which_, though it led him through more brambles and furze and pools, yet at last brought him out of the common. When he came home, he told his father about the moving lights, _which_, his father informed him, were called Will o’ the Wisps, or Jack o’ Lanterns. Those lights came from the marshes, and it* was* the wind* that* made* them shake and dance about—_which_ poor Harry mistook for the motion of a traveller. Words marked * are not to be parsed for the present. CHAPTER III. USES AND INFLECTIONS OF WORDS. >>>>30<<<< =Inflections.= The different forms of the same words, as, (1) “like,” “likes,” “liked;” (2) “man,” “man’s,” “men;” (3) “quick,” “quicker,” “quickest,” are called =Inflections=. The word “Inflection” means a “bending,” or slight alteration. >>>>31<<<< Some words in a sentence are inflected to suit or _agree with_ other words with which they are put. For example, we say “He _likes_ me;” but, if “he” is altered into “they,” “likes” must be altered into “like” to _agree with_ “they.” The rules for the “putting together” or arrangement of words so as to agree with one another, are called Rules of =Syntax= (_syn-_, together; _taxis_, putting). >>>>32<<<< =Uses of the Noun.= I. A Noun may be used in the (1) _Singular Number._ Apple, man, mouse, ox. (2) _Plural Number._ Apples, men, mice, oxen. _Singular_ is nearly the same word as “single.” _Plural_ means “_more_ (than one).” II. Again, a Noun in a sentence may be used as— (1) _Subject._ “_John_ strikes.” (2) _Object._ “I strike _John_.” (3) _Possessively_ (_i.e._ to denote the Possessor). “_John’s_ book,” “_men’s_ thoughts.” (4) _Vocatively_ (_i.e._ “calling by”). “Come here, _John_.” >>>>33<<<< These _Uses_, inasmuch as they represent the _condition_ or _case_ in which the Noun stands relatively to other words in the Sentence, are sometimes called “Cases.” The word _case_, in its original Greek use, πτϖσιϛ[Greek: ptôsis], meant “falling.” By the Greeks the Subject was regarded as _erect_, while the action, and those affected by the action, were regarded as subordinate, bent, or _falling_. Hence the Greeks would not have used such an expression as the _Subjective case_ at all: to them it would have been as absurd as to speak of “an _erect falling_.” But the Latins, translating πτϖσιϛ[Greek: ptôsis] into _casus_, lost the Greek sense, and we have lost it also; so that now _case_ means little more than “use in connection with other words.” >>>>34<<<< =Inflections of the Noun.= I. The Plural use of a Noun is denoted by an Inflection, which is generally formed according to the following Rule:— _The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding -s to the Singular; as apple, apples._ >>>>35<<<< To this rule there are some exceptions well known to all English children. The reason for the exceptions generally is, that the regular Plural would be harsh and hard to pronounce: hence for “churchs” we say “churches,” and for “calfs,” “calves.” >>>>36<<<< Some of our irregular Plurals are remains of old Plural forms, and are made by— (1) Adding _-en_: _e.g._ “oxen.” (2) Changing the vowel sound of the monosyllable: _e.g._ “mice,” “men,” “feet,” “teeth.” (3) Leaving the singular form untouched: _e.g._ “sheep,” “deer.” In some cases the modern Plural is derived from an old disused Singular. For example, the old Singular forms, “flie,” “citie,” are retained in the modern Plurals, “flies,” “cities.” In other cases words (1) early introduced into the language received (and retain) the old _-e_, while (2) words, with similar terminations, later introduced, are spelt without _-e_:— (1) Echoes, heroes, potatoes. (2) Grottos, tyros, dominos. See Par. 283; also Morris’s _Historical Outlines of English Accidence_, p. 95. >>>>37<<<< II. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular and Plural, is formed by adding _’s_ to the Singular or Plural form, _e.g._ “sun,” “sun’s;” “children,” “children’s.” The mark (’), called an Apostrophe (see Glossary), denotes that something is omitted. In Early English there was a vowel instead of the Apostrophe. The Apostrophe serves the purpose of distinguishing the Possessive, _e.g._ “sun’s” from the Plural “suns.” When the Plural Noun ends in _-s_, the Possessive _-s_ is omitted, and nothing is added but the Apostrophe: “_boys’_ books.” This is also the case in the Singular, where a Singular Noun of more than two syllables ends in _-s_, _e.g._ “_Lycurgus’_ laws.” The other uses of Nouns have no Inflections to denote them.[1] ----- [1] Some inflections were once used to denote gender, _e.g. -ster_, ('spin_-ster_,’ meaning a female spinner) And _-ess_. But these inflections cannot now be used to denote the genders of all or even of many Nouns: consequently they are now _terminations_, and no longer to be called _inflections_. >>>>38<<<< =Uses and Inflections of Pronouns.= The uses of Pronouns are the same as those of Nouns, except that (1) some of the Pronouns, _e.g._ “I,” “he,” cannot be used Vocatively; (2) instead of being used Possessively, they have Possessive Adjectives formed from them. These Possessive Adjectives are really old Possessive Inflections or _Cases_ of the Pronouns, which have now ceased to be recognized as Cases. See Par. 569. The Inflections of the Personal Pronouns are as follows:— ───────┬────────────────────────────────────────┰───────────────────────── │ PERSONAL. ┃ POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. PERSON.│ SUBJECT. │ OBJECT. ┃ │ │ SING. │PLUR. │ SING. │PLUR.┃ SING. │PLUR. ───────┼──────────────┼──────┼────────────┼─────╂───────────────────┼───── 1st. │ I │ we │ me │ us ┃ my │ our 2nd. │ you[1] │you[3]│ you │ you ┃ your │your 3rd. │he, she,[2] it│ they │him, her, it│them ┃ his, her, its │their ───────┴──────────────┴──────┴────────────┴─────┸───────────────────┴───── ----- [1] Old form, Subject “thou,” Object “thee.” Possessive Adjective, “thy” or “thine,” still used in verse. [2] _He_, &c. is not, _by derivation_, a Personal Pronoun, but a Demonstrative Adjective, once having three Genders, _he_, _heo_ (she), _hit_. See Par. 569. [3] Old form “ye,” Subject, sometimes used as the Object. >>>>39<<<< The Interrogative and Relative Pronoun has (1) Subject, “who;” (2) Object, “whom;” (3) Possessive Adjective, “whose.” The Inflections are the same for Singular and Plural. A few Adjectives used as Pronouns have Plural Inflections, _e.g._ “these,” “those,” “others.” >>>>40<<<< =How to Parse a Noun or Pronoun.= In parsing a Noun or Pronoun, state:— I. NUMBER:— _Singular or Plural._ II. USE or CASE:— _Subject or Object_, or _Possessive or Vocative_. III. REASON FOR CASE:— (1) _Subject of what Verb._ (2) _Object of what Verb or Preposition._ (3) _Defining what Noun._[1] Notice that a Possessive Noun often has an Adjective joined to it: _e.g._ “this boy’s book.” Here “this” points out “boy’s” not “book.” ----- [1] For example: “The _sun’s_ bright _light_.” Here “sun’s” is Possessive, pointing out clearly, or _defining_, “light.” EXERCISE. Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in Exercise XII. those marked * as well as others, thus:— ────────┬────────┬────────────┬─────────────────── Noun │ │ │1. Subj. of V. or │Number. │Use or case.│2. Obj. of V. or P. Pronoun.│ │ │3. Defining N. ────────┼────────┼────────────┼─────────────────── Harry’s │Singular│Possessive │efforts efforts │Plural │Subject │had exhausted him │Singular│Object │had exhausted ────────┴────────┴────────────┴─────────────────── Answer the rest for yourself. =Uses and Inflections of the Adjective.= >>>>41<<<< I. USE.—The use of an Adjective is to point out, qualify, or “enumerate,” a certain Noun.[1] ----- [1] See _How to Tell_, &c., page 32. “Enumerate” here means to answer the question _how many?_ or _how much?_ before a Noun. >>>>42<<<< II. INFLECTIONS—There are three _degrees_ (_degree_ means _step_) in most Adjectives, _e.g._ “long.” (1) “Longer” of _two_ things, _i.e._ long when _compared_ with one other thing. This we call the _Comparative degree_. (2) “Longest” of _more than two_. This is, as it were, _carried above_ the Comparative degree, and we therefore call it the _Superlative degree_ (_super-_ above, _lat-_ carried). In poetry the Superlative inflection is sometimes used, without any notion of _comparison_, to mean “very.” “A little ere the _mightiest_ Julius died.” (3) “Long,” without any thought of comparison at all, but simply and positively long. This is called the _Positive degree_. >>>>43<<<< To form the Comparative and Superlative, add— (1) _-er_, _-est_, to Positives of one syllable.[1] (2) „ „ two syllables ending in _-y_, _-le_, _-ow_, _-er_. These forms _sound_ as though they had only two syllables, _e.g._ “happier,” “nobler.” Hence the exceptional formation. (3) _More_ and _most_ in other cases. “More,” “most,” are not Inflections, but substitutes for Inflections. A few disyllabic Adjectives are occasionally found with _-er_, _-est_, _e.g._ “sublim_er_.” But this license is best reserved for Poetry. (4) Other formations are quite irregular, _e.g._ not “good-er,” but “bet-ter,” from an old form “bet;” so “worse.” “Every” has no Inflections. Some few Adjectives (_e.g._ “_these_”) have a Plural Inflection; but these are so few that they need not be considered. There was once a Definite form in _-e_, of which perhaps “olde_n_” retains a trace (MORRIS). ----- [1] For changes in spelling, see Par. 268. >>>>44<<<< =How to Parse an Adjective.= In parsing an Adjective, state— I. _Degree of Comparison._ II. _Function of Adjective_, _i.e._ whether it qualifies, defines, enumerates, &c. This may be found by answering the question, “What does the Adjective tell me?” III. _Noun or Pronoun_, qualified, defined, enumerated, &c. Where the Noun is omitted, as in “I do not like these books; are they the _best_ (_books_) that you have?”—you may say that “best” qualifies the Noun “books,” _implied_ or _understood_. EXERCISE. Parse the Adjectives in Exercise I., thus:— ──────────┬────────┬───────────────────────────────────┬──────────────── Adjective.│Degree. │ Function. │Noun or Pronoun. ──────────┼────────┼───────────────────────────────────┼──────────────── Mighty │positive│tells you what sort, or “qualifies”│king. Whose │ — │tells you whose, or “defines” │name. Every │ — │tells you how many, or “enumerates”│boy. ──────────┴────────┴───────────────────────────────────┴──────────────── The other Adjectives in this and other Exercises may be similarly parsed. >>>>45<<<< =Uses and Inflections of the Adverb.= I. =Uses.= An Adverb may be used with— 1 (_a_). _A Verb_: “He declared _positively_ that he would not come.” 1 (_b_). _An implied Verb_ having for its Subject a Noun Clause made up of the Sentence:— (1) “He will _positively_ not come,” _i.e._, “That he will not come _is positively true_.”[1] (2) “_Perhaps_ he made a mistake,” _i.e._, “That he made a mistake _is perhaps true_.”[1] 2. _An Adjective_: “He is _very_, _more_, _less_, _least_, successful.” 3. (_a_) _An Adverb_, or, (_b_) _Adverbial Phrase_: (_a_) “_More_, _less_, _very_, often.” (_b_) “I laboured _altogether_ in-vain.” “I came _merely_ to-help-you.” “You live _far_ from-me.” 4. _A Noun_ (rarely): “_Even_ Homer sometimes nods.” This is a short way of saying “Even (so _wakeful_ a poet as) Homer;” so that, in reality, “even” modifies an implied Adjective. =Only= requires care in such sentences as: “_Only_ a tyrant would act thus.” In early English “one” (ân) was used in many places where we should use “only,” or “alone.” (For the use of “one” as an _Adjective_ to signify “only,” cf. the Latin “Ego _unus_ supersum.”) Thus, instead of “not (this) _only_ that,” they wrote:— (1) “Not that _one_ (ân) that,” &c. (2) “God ône (_i.e._, God _alone_, or _only_ God) can do this.” (3) “He was king _ône_,” _i.e._, “He _alone_, or, _only_ he.” In the earliest times “only” (_ônlich_) appears to have been used as an Adjective for “lonely,” “solitary,” and to have had a Superlative form (_ônlukest_). In this sense we still speak of “an _only_ child.” Rut the Adverbial termination _-ly_ (cf. the _-y_ in “many”) (Par. 218) has encouraged the Adverbial, and discouraged the Adjectival, usage. Our modern Adverbial “only” is therefore a compromise between an Adjective and an Adverb. It is not exactly an Adjective in the sense of “an _only_ tyrant”; nor yet is the “only” an ordinary Adverb modifying “would act.” It is a confusion between “A tyrant is the _only_ or _one_ person that would act thus,” and “A tyrant _by himself_ (one-ly) would act thus.” “Only” should be parsed as “Adjectival Adverb irregularly modifying ‘tyrant.’” ----- [1] Adverbs thus used are sometimes said to _modify sentences_. >>>>46<<<< II. =Inflections.= Adverbs have their Degrees of Comparison expressed (rarely) by Inflections, _e.g._ “soon,” “soon_-er_,” “soon_-est_”; more commonly by the addition of “more,” “most,” _e.g._ “happily,” “_more_ happily,” “_most_ happily.” >>>>47<<<< In parsing an Adverb, therefore, you may state— I. With what Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or Noun it is connected. Always ask yourself before parsing an Adverb, “What does this Adverb tell me?” The answer will contain the Verb, Adjective, or Noun with which the Adverb is used. II. Whether it is in the Positive, Comparative, or Superlative degree. >>>>48<<<< _Caution._ Some Adverbs are used as Conjunctions:— “You say you wish me well; will you help me _then_?” Here “then” must be parsed as a Conjunction, or as an Adverb used Conjunctively.[1] ----- [1] See _How to Tell_, &c., page 101. >>>>49<<<< The Adverbs “where,” “when,” “whence,” &c., are used (1) Interrogatively, (2) Conjunctively, (3) Relatively.[1] (1) “_Where_ is the book?” (2) “I asked him _where_ (in what place) the book was.” (3) “You will find the book _where_ (in the place in which) you laid it.”[1] ----- [1] In (3), as well as in (2), _where_ is Conjunctively used; but it is also used Relatively, and is thus described, to distinguish it from the _merely Conjunctive_ use. EXERCISE. Parse the Adverbs in Exercise I., thus:[1]— ──────────┬───────────────────┬──────────────────────────────────────── Adverb. │ Used with what │What the Adverb does.[2] │ Word. │ ──────────┼───────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────── Once │lived │Tells you _when_ he lived. There │see Par. 152 │ Where │is │Asks _where_ Persia is. Used │ │ Conjunctively. See _How to Tell, &c._ │ │ pages 101, 102. Not │do know │See _How to Tell, &c._ page 55. Out │part of “look out” │See _How to Tell, &c._ page 78. Almost │all │See _How to Tell, &c._ page 60. Far │“from him” (par. │Tells you _where_ the nation lived. │ 45.) │ Yet │had (not) │Tells you _when_ the nation had not │ submitted. │ submitted. Altogether│“taken” understood.│The meaning is (taken) altogether, the │ │ nation was called “Greeks”; or │ │ “altogether” may be connected with │ │ “was called” as “together” below. Together │did (not) amount │Tells you _how_ or in what circumstances │ │ “they did not amount.” Often │were divided │Tells you _when_ they were divided. ──────────┴───────────────────┴──────────────────────────────────────── The rest of this, and other Exercises, may be similarly parsed by the pupil. ----- [1] The Degree of Comparison is so unimportant that it need not be mentioned unless specially asked. [2] This column should not be written; nor need it be repeated. If the pupil has been well drilled in such work, while learning to distinguish an Adverb. >>>>50<<<< =The Use of the Preposition.= The Preposition has no Inflections; and, in order to parse it, there is no need to state anything but the Noun or Pronoun that is the Object of the Preposition. _Cautions:_ 1. Some Prepositions are used as Adverbs, _e.g._— “Come _in_,” “Heave _to_.” 2. Some Prepositions or Prepositional Adverbs are parts of Compound Verbs, _e.g._— “He was _run over_ by a heavy waggon.” >>>>51<<<< 3. When a Preposition has a Relative Pronoun for its Object, it often follows the Pronoun, _e.g._— “The people that I am _with_.” In such cases the Relative Pronoun is often omitted— “The boy you spoke _to_ was my brother.” EXERCISE. Parse the Prepositions in Exercise I., thus:[1]— Upon: Object, “a time.” Over: „ “Persia.” In: „ “the map.” Of: „ “the Persians.” Over: „ “almost all the nations of the East.” Of: „ “the East.” The other Prepositions in this and other Exercises may be similarly parsed. ----- [1] All this ought to have been done by the Pupil in learning to distinguish Prepositions. See _How to Tell_, &c., pp. 71, 80. >>>>52<<<< =The Use of the Conjunction.= The Conjunction has no Inflections, and therefore, in order to parse it, nothing is needed except to state what it does, _i.e._ what are the two sentences joined together by it. (See pages 104 and 105 of “_How to Tell_,” &c.) >>>>53<<<< _Caution._ Some Adverbs are used as Conjunctions:— (1) “I asked the man _where_[1] my brother was.” (2) “It was useless to attempt to persuade him; _so_[1] I took my leave.” In “as far as,” “as soon as,” &c., the first “as” is an Adverb modifying “far,” “soon;” the second “as” is a Conjunction. See _How to Tell_, &c., p. 99. These words are, however, sometimes parsed as _Compound Conjunctions_. ----- [1] See _How to Tell_, &c., pages 101, 102. EXERCISE. Parse the Conjunctions in Exercise I., thus:[1]— “If” joins { (1) “You do not know.” (2) “Look it out in the map.” “Where” joins { (1) “Does every boy know” (2) “Persia is.” “Though” joins { (1) “He was king—of the East” (2) “He was not satisfied.” “Yet” joins the same sentences. The other Conjunctions in this, and in other Exercises may be similarly parsed. ----- [1] “And,” “than,” and the second “as” in “as—as,” may be simply called Conjunctions, without attempting to write down the Sentences joined by them: _ib._, page 142. >>>>54<<<< =How to Parse a Verbal Noun.= A Verbal Noun is a Noun formed from a Verb by adding _-ing_ to it, _e.g._ “I like _walk-ing_.”[1] A Verbal Noun resembles other Nouns in being the Subject of some Verb, or Object of some Verb or Preposition; but it differs from other Nouns in often taking an Object of its own, _e.g._— “I like _eating_ beef.” Here “eating” is the Object of “I like,” but also has for its Object “beef.” Hence in a Verbal Noun you may state— 1. Whether it is used as Subject or Object.[2] 2. (_a_) Of what Verb it is Subject, or (_b_) of what Verb or Preposition it is Object. 3. What is its Object, if it has one. ----- [1] Verbal _Noun Phrases_ may also be formed, such as, “I do not like _being deceived_,” “He does not like _having been deceived_,” _&c._ As to spelling, see Par. 267-73. [2] Verbal Nouns are generally in the Singular, so that the Number need not be stated. EXERCISE XIII. (SPECIMEN). Parse the Verbal Nouns in the following Exercise:— On _reaching_ the shore, Mr. Barlow pointed to a speck far off on the horizon, and asked Tommy what it was. After _observing_ it attentively, Tommy replied that it must* be a very small boat. “What can the boatmen he doing so far out at sea?” asked Mr. Barlow. “They must be engaged in _catching_ fish,” said Tommy. “Look again,” said Mr. Barlow a few minutes* afterwards; “and, before _replying_, note whether the speck has changed.” “Yes, indeed!” cried Tommy, “instead of _appearing_ a boat,* it now seems to be a small vessel,* sailing this way.” A half* an hour* afterwards, Mr. Barlow bade Tommy look* once more. “Why,” said Tommy, “the vessel, by _coming_ nearer, seems to have changed into a ship, and, on _looking_ more closely, I see that it has three masts.” “Then,” replied Mr. Barlow, smiling, “I trust you will now believe, without _being_ very much _surprised_, that the sun is really larger than the earth, and only appears to be smaller, because of its _being-so-far-off_. And when you hear people saying that ‘_seeing_ is believing,’ remember for the future, that, though you may see rightly, your _reasoning_ may be wrong. You said you saw nothing but a speck at first, and there you were right; but you were wrong in _inferring_ that the speck was a boat.” ───────────────┬────────────────┬─────────────────┬──────────────────── Verbal Noun │is the Object of│is the Subject of│has for its Object ───────────────┼────────────────┼─────────────────┼──────────────────── reaching │on │ — │the shore observing │after │ — │it catching │in │ — │fish replying │before │ — │— appearing[1] │instead of │ — │— coming │by │ — │— looking │on │ — │— being surprised│without │ — │— being, &c. │of │ — │— seeing* │ — │is │— reasoning │ — │may │— inferring │in │ — │the speck was a boat ───────────────┴────────────────┴─────────────────┴──────────────────── ----- [1] “Appearing” does not take an Object after it; for you cannot ask “appears _whom_?” See Par. 147. For the same reason, “believing” in not the Noun-Object after “is,” for “is” cannot be followed by “him.” We say “it is _he_,” not “is _him_.” EXERCISE XIV. Parse the italicized Verbal Nouns in— The Sun and the Wind were one day disputing which was the stronger. On _seeing_ a traveller approaching, “Cease your _bawling_,” said the Sun to the Wind, “and let us decide the question by _doing_ and not by _talking_. Whoever can succeed in _taking_ away that traveller’s cloak shall be confessed to be the conqueror: what do you say to _deciding_ thus?” “I agree,” cried the Wind; “but would you mind my _trying_ first?” “Not a bit,” said the other; and straightway the Wind set to work. First he tried _blowing_ quietly, then more furiously; and at last he blew so loud that you could not have heard yourself speak for his _howling_; but all his _blustering_ was in vain. So far from _giving_ up his cloak, the traveller only drew it closer round him. Now it was the Sun’s turn to try. He began by _driving_ away the clouds that the Wind had gathered; then he warmed the air with his bright face till the traveller was forced to loosen his cloak because of the heat. On _seeing_ this, the Sun redoubled his efforts, till at last, fainting with the heat, the weary traveller flung himself on a bank to rest, after _stripping_ himself of cloak and coat as well. CHAPTER IV. USES, FORMS, AND INFLECTIONS OF THE VERBS. >>>>55<<<< =Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.= When you hear a person say “I struck ——,” you are led to ask “struck whom?” for the action _passes across_, as it were, from the Verb to the Object of the Verb. In “I walk,” the action is confined to the walker, and you are not led to ask “walk whom or what?” Hence “strike” is called a _Transitive_ Verb (_trans_, across; _itive_, passing): “walk” is called an _Intransitive_ Verb. The following Definitions are usually given:— I. _Transitive Verbs are those that denote an action not confined to the agent, but affecting something else._ II. _Intransitive Verbs are those that denote_ (1) _“being” or_ (2) _“becoming,” or_ (3) _some action confined to the agent, and not affecting anything else_. >>>>56<<<< Most Transitive Verbs can take a Noun-Object or Pronoun-Object after them, _e.g._ “I love, hate, strike _Thomas_, _them_:” and, as a rough test, it may be said that _if a Verb cannot take “them” after it, it is not a Transitive Verb_. >>>>57<<<< But a few Transitive Verbs take a Noun-Phrase or a Noun-Clause as Object, and rarely or never a Noun or Pronoun, _e.g._ “I _think_, _hope_, that he will come.” Here “that he will come” is the Object of the Transitive Verbs _think_ or _hope_. These Verbs are very seldom followed by a Noun-Object, _e.g._— (1) “Think not so foul a _thought_.” (2) “I hope better _things_.” >>>>58<<<< _Caution._ Some Verbs _seem_ to be (but _are not_) used Transitively. The apparent Object is really a kind of Adverb; it might be made the Object of an inserted Preposition, but it is not the Object of the Verb. See Par. 131. (1) “He ran (for) a mile.” (2) “She waited (for) an hour.” (3) “We slept (during) the whole morning.” The Verbs _is_, _seem_, _appear_, _remain_, _become_, &c., are Intransitive Verbs (see Par. 147). >>>>59<<<< =Active and Passive Forms.=[1] When the Object of a Transitive Verb, _e.g._ “John wounds _Thomas_,” is made the Subject, _e.g._ “_Thomas_ is wounded by John,” then the Verb in the second sentence tells us what is _done_ to Thomas, or what Thomas _suffers_. Hence the form of the Verb, _is wounded_, is called the _Passive_ (_i.e._ “suffering”). ----- [1] These forms are usually called _Voices_; but the Latin term (Madvig) seems to have been “forma” or “genus.” >>>>60<<<< _The Passive Voice is the form assumed by the Verb when its Object is made the Subject._ Hence only Transitive Verbs can have Passive Voices, for only Transitive Verbs have Objects. It is sometimes said that a Verb is in the Passive Voice when its Subject “denotes a person or thing acted on”; but this is not true. In “Goliath _fell_, or _perished_, by the hand of David.” “Goliath” denotes “a person acted on”: yet “fell” and “perished” are not Passive Forms. The ordinary form of the Verb is often called the _Active_ (_i.e._ “doing”) Voice, because it generally tells us what the person or thing denoted by the Subject _does_, _e.g._ “John _wounds_.” This is not always true. In “Goliath _fell_ or _perished_,” “fell” and “perished” tell you rather what Goliath _suffered_ than what he _did_: yet they would be called Active. The following definition seems truer:— >>>>61<<<< _The Active Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form that can be used with an Object._ Intransitive Verbs are always in the Active Voice. >>>>62<<<< Verbs of Motion are exceptions to this rule. We still say (and once used to say more commonly) “I _am arrived_,” “he _is come_.” The agent is here considered as affected by his own act: cf. the French “s’en aller,” “se promener.” >>>>63<<<< =Participles.= 1. Most Verbs, Transitive or Intransitive, can have Verb-Adjectives formed from them by adding _-ing_ (rejecting final _-e_), _e.g._ “dancing,” “wandering.”[1] ----- [1] For changes in spelling, see Par. 267-78. >>>>64<<<< These words are used as— (1.) _Adjectives_: “A _dancing_ bear,” “a _wandering_ gipsy.” (2.) _Verbs with Conjunctions_ or _with Relative Pronouns_: “A gipsy _wandering_ (i.e. _when_, _while_, or _because_ he was wandering) across the heath, found the child.” (3.) _Parts of a Stating Verb_: “A gipsy _was wandering_ across the heath.” Consequently, as these words _participate_ in the nature of Adjectives and also in the nature of Verbs, they are called _Participles_. When these words are used as Adjectives, they should be parsed as “Participles used as Adjectives.” >>>>65<<<< 2. A second Participle is formed from Transitive Verbs by adding _-ed_ to the Verb, _e.g._ _wound_, _wounded_. See Par. 558. This kind of Participle is often used with a Noun, to denote that the person or thing represented by the Noun _suffers_ the action denoted by the Verb; _e.g._ in “a _wounded_ man,” “wounded” denotes that a “man” has _suffered_ wounding. Hence the Participle in _-ed_ is called the _Passive Participle_. The Passive Participle is also formed in other ways, _e.g._, _break_, _broken_: _bring_, _brought_: _sing_, _sung_. The Participle in _-ing_ is called the _Active_ Participle. >>>>66<<<< =How to Tell a Participle.= A Participle can at once be distinguished (1) from an Adjective, (2) from part of a Stating Verb by the fact that it can be, in part, _replaced by a Conjunctive word_, _i.e._ by a Conjunctive or Relative Pronoun. You must judge from the sense of the passage what Conjunction is (partly) to replace any Participle. For example, “walking” might be replaced by— 1. _While_ or _when_: “_Walking_ along the street one day, I saw Thomas.” 2. _Because_: “_Walking_ on the ice in spite of the park-keeper’s warning, the boy fell in.” 3. _Though_ or _if_: “_Walking_ with the greatest care you will scarcely keep yourself from slipping.” 4. “I once saw a man _walking_ on a rope,” _i.e._, “a man _that was walking_.” 5. “I saw him _walking_ towards me,” _i.e._ “_while_ he was walking,” or “_that_ he was walking.” >>>>67<<<< There is probably some confusion between (1) “I saw him _a-walking_,” i.e. “_in_, or, _in the act of, walking_ (Noun)”; (2) “I saw him _walking_ (Participle)”; (3) “I saw him _walk_ (Infinitive),” which Infinitive was once “walk_-en_,” easily confused with the Verbal Noun and with the Active Participle. EXERCISE XV. (SPECIMEN). Change the italicized Participles into Verbs and Conjunctions or Verbs and Relative Pronouns:— A little boy _running_ carelessly along the street, knocked against an old woman _carrying_ a basket of eggs on her head. Down fell the basket _smashing_ all the eggs. The thoughtless boy at first ran on; but, _looking_ round and _seeing_ the people _staring_ and the old woman _beginning to cry_, he turned back, _saying_, “I am very sorry; I would not have knocked against you, if I had seen you.” “Yes, master,” replied the old woman, _looking_ sadly at the fragments of her broken eggs _lying_ about the dirty pavement, “but your sorrow will not mend my eggs, nor feed my grandchildren _waiting_ for bread at home.” ───────────────────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────── Participle. Conjunction, or Relative │Verb. Pronoun │ ───────────────────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────── running } { while │he was running } c { │ carrying } a { who │was carrying } n { │ smashing } { and │it smashed } b { │ looking } e { when │he looked back } { │ seeing } a { when │he saw } l { │ staring } t { that (Conj.) │people were staring } e { │ beginning } r { that (Conj.) │_she was_ beginning } e { │ saying } d { and │he said } { │ looking } i { while │she looked } n { │ lying } t { which │were lying } o { │ waiting } { who │are waiting ───────────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────── Passive, as well as Active, Participles can be changed into Verbs with Conjunctions or with Relative Pronouns. EXERCISE XVI. (SPECIMEN). Change the Participles in the following Exercise into Verbs and Conjunctions or Verbs and Relative Pronouns:— A rich gouty man _troubled_ with disease in his feet, went to a physician _distinguished_ for his skill, _promising_ to do exactly what the physician ordered, if only he would cure him. _Seeing_ his patient _deprived_ of the use of his feet and too lazy to use them, the physician took him up into a room _containing_ no chair, couch, or seat of any kind, and _having_ a floor _lined_ with iron. There he left him and went out, _locking_ the door behind him. Presently the rich man found his feet _growing_ unpleasantly hot. _Irritated_ at this he called out, but no one answered. _Hobbling_ to the door on his crutches, he found it _locked_. By this time his feet, _heated_ by the hot iron floor, pained him so much that he began to raise them, _lifting_ first one, then the other, at first slowly, then more and more quickly. In this way, _forced_ to use his legs, he found the use of them grow more and more easy, and was cured against his will. ─────────────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────── Participle. Conjunction, or │Verb. Relative Pronoun │ ─────────────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────── } c { │ troubled } a { that │was troubled distinguishe } n { that │was distinguished d │ promising } { and │promised seeing } b { since │he saw deprived } e { that(Conj.) │his patient was deprived containing } { that │contained having } c { that │had lined } h { that │was lined locking } a { after │he had locked growing } n { that │his feet grew irritated } g { since │he was irritated hobbling } e { after │he had hobbled locked } d { that(Conj.) │it had been locked heated } { since │they were heated lifting } i { and │he lifted forced } n { because │he was forced } t { │ } o { │ ─────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────── >>>>68<<<< =Participle after “see,” “hear,” &c.= You must be particularly careful after the Verbs of the senses, such as “see,” “hear,” and “find,” (where “find” means “understand.”) Thus, in “I saw my friend _shot_ down,” the meaning is “I saw my friend _being_, _i.e._ _when_ he was _in the act of being_, shot down;” but in “I saw his body, _thrown_ on one side and frightfully _mangled_,” the meaning might be, either “_when_ it _was being_ thrown,” or “_after_ it _had been_ thrown:” and you cannot tell which is meant without carefully looking at the whole of the passage. In other words, a Passive Participle, _e.g._ “shot,” may stand for “being shot,” or, “having been shot.”[1] ----- [1] See Par. 67. Possibly, in some cases, the Passive Participle represents the old Infinitive. Compare:— “That they would suffer these abominations By our strong arms from forth her fair streets (_to be_) _chased_.” SHAKESPEARE, _Rape of Lucrece_, _l._ 1,634. “Would swear him (_to have_) _dropped_ out of the moon.” —POPE. >>>>69<<<< =How to Parse a Participle.= A Participle, like an Adjective, (1) must always be connected with some Noun or Pronoun; (2) as being part of a Verb, it must be either Active or Passive; (3) if Active, it _may_ have an Object. In parsing a Participle, therefore, you can state— 1. What Noun or Pronoun it is joined to. 2. Whether it is Active or Passive. 3. What is its Object, if it has one. In order to answer (1), first replace the Participle by a Conjunction (or Rel. Pronoun) and Verb; then ask the question _who?_ or _what?_ before the Verb that replaces the Participle. The answer _given by the sentence to this question_ is the Noun or Pronoun to which the Participle is joined. For example, in the last Exercise, “troubled” is replaced by “that was troubled.” “Who was troubled?” The answer given by the story is “a rich gouty _man_;” then “man” is the Noun to which “troubled” is joined. “Seeing” is replaced by “since he saw.” “Who saw?” Answer, “The physician;” then “physician” is the Noun to which “seeing” is joined. EXERCISE. Parse fully Participles not marked * in previous Exercises. >>>>70<<<< =Moods.= When we speak about an action or state, we may speak of it in several different _ways_ or _Modes_. I. We may _point out_ the action definitely, as present, past, or future, _e.g._ “he comes, came, will come.” This is called the _Pointing_ or =Indicative Mode= or =Mood=. (_Indica-_, point out.) II. We may speak of an action _without defining_ the doer, _e.g._ “_to come_ is easy.” This is called the =Infinitive Mode= or =Mood= (_in_, not; _finit-_, _marked out_, _defined_). III. We may _command_ an action. This is called the _Commanding_ or =Imperative Mode= or =Mood= (_impera-_, command). IV. We may speak of an action not as past, present, or future, but as (1) expressing a _condition_, _e.g._ “if _he should come_;” or (2) subject to a _condition_, _e.g._ “I _should see_ him;” or (3) (_a_) _purpose_, _e.g._ “Come here that _I may see_ you;” or (_b_) _purpose_ approximating to a _wish_, _e.g._ “I pray that his life _may be spared_.” In all these cases, except (2), the Verb is preceded by a _Conjunction_—_if_, _that_, &c.; and this _Mood_ might therefore be called the _Conjunctive_ Mood. But it is generally called the =Subjunctive Mood=.[1] ----- [1] In any sentence, the statement of _fact_ is called the _principal_ clause, and the part of the sentence describing the _purpose_, _condition_, &c., is called _sub-_ordinate, and is said to be _sub-joined_ to the principal clause. Hence the Mood of the Verb in this _subjoined_ clause is called _Subjunctive_. >>>>71<<<< =Times or Tenses.= For the present, in speaking of the Times or Tenses of a Verb, we shall confine ourselves to those of the Indicative Mood. A Verb may tell you— 1. What any person or thing does at the _present_ time:— “He _catches_ fish.” 2. What he did in _past_ time:— “He _caught_ fish.” 3. What he will do in _future_ time:— “He _will catch_ fish.” A Verb, then, has three _times_ of which it can speak—Past, Present, and Future. Now the French for “time” is _temps_; and from this French word, slightly altered, we have made the word =Tense=. _A Verb has three Tenses—Past, Present, and Future._ >>>>72<<<< =States of Action.= Suppose you are speaking of a fisherman whom you saw some time ago, _i.e._ in _past_ time, catching fish. 1. You may say simply— “He _caught_ a salmon.” Here you do _not define_ the action further than by saying it is _past_. This Tense may therefore be called the “not-defined Past,” or =Past Indefinite=. 2. You may say— “He _was catching_ a salmon just as I left him.” —that is, the action was in an _incomplete state_, still going on, or _continuing_. This Tense may therefore be called the =Past Incomplete=, or =Past Continuous=. 3. You may say— “He _had caught_ a salmon just as I left him.” —that is, the action was in a _complete state_. This Tense may therefore be called the =Past Complete=. The same three divisions may be found in the Future and Present:— =1. Future Indefinite=: “I _shall catch_ fish.” =2. Future Incomplete=: “I _shall be catching_ fish.” =3. Future Complete=: “I _shall have caught_ fish.” =1. Present Indefinite=: “I _catch_ fish.” =2. Present Incomplete=: “I _am catching_ a salmon, but have not yet landed it.” =3. Present Complete=: “I _have caught_ a salmon, and here it is in my basket.” >>>>73<<<< In old English, it was more easy to see that “I _have caught_” was a present tense; for they used to arrange it thus, “I _have_ the salmon _caught_,” clearly showing that the Time of the Verb was Present (as is shown by “I have” _i.e._ “I possess”) and that “caught” was only a Participle or Adjective telling you what had happened to the salmon. But it is not so easy to see this in Intransitive and Passive Verbs, _e.g._ “I _have run_.” _Each Tense has three States, the Indefinite, the Complete, and the Incomplete._ The Passive Tenses are formed by placing the Passive Participle after the different Tenses of the Verb “to be.” >>>>74<<<< Some of the Passive Tenses are rarely or never used, owing to their lengthiness; and there is one “state” that is found in the Present, Past, and Future of the Active, but not of the Passive. (1) “I _have been_ } (2) “I _had been_ _catching_.” (3) “I _shall have been_ This “state” denotes an action _completed, after being continuous_. It may therefore be called the =Complete Post Continuous=. Hence all the Tenses may be arranged as follows:— >>>>75<<<< =Scheme of Tenses.=[1] ─────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┬──────────────── STATE. │ INDEFINITE. │ INCOMPLETE. │ COMPLETE. │ COMPLETE POST │ │ │ │ CONTINUOUS. ─────────┼───────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────┼──────────────── _Time._│ │ │ │ ————│ │ ACTIVE. │ _Present_│(I) =take= │(I) =am taking=│(I) =have │(I) =have been │ │ │ taken= │ taking= │ │ │ │ _Past_│(I) =took= │(I) =was │(I) =had taken=│(I) =had been │ │ taking= │ │ taking= │ │ │ │ _Future_│(I) =shall │(I) =shall be │(I) =shall have│(I) =shall have │ take= │ taking= │ taken= │ been taking= │ │ │ │ │ │ PASSIVE. │ _Present_│(I) =am taken= │(I) =am being │(I) =have been │ — │ │ taken= │ taken= │ _Past_│(I) =was taken=│(I) =was being │(I) =had been │ — │ │ taken= │ taken= │ _Future_│(I) =shall be │(I) =shall be │(I) =shall have│ — │ taken= │ being │ been taken= │ │ │ taken=[2] │ │ ─────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴──────────────── ----- [1] For a fuller scheme of the whole of the Active form, see Par. 584. [2] Not used. >>>>76<<<< =Common Mistakes in Tenses.= The Tenses and Participles of Irregular Verbs will be best learned by practice. But the pupil may be cautioned against confusing:— I. “Lay,” “lie,” “lie.” LAY (Transitive) = “to place or put down.” _Present._ _Past._ _Passive Participle._ (I) =lay= (I) =laid= (I have) =laid= LIE (Intransitive) = “to recline.” (I) =lie= (I) =lay= (I have) =lain= LIE (Intransitive) = “to tell a falsehood.” (I) =lie= (I) =lied= (I have) =lied= II. The Past Indefinite, and Passive Participle of “ring,” “sing,” &c.; often confused by Milton and Pope, but to be kept distinct in Modern English:— (I) =sing= (I) =sang= (I have) =sung= (I) =ring= (I) =rang= (I have) =rung= See Dr. Morris’s _Historical Outlines, &c._ In E.E., _sang_ was used in the Singular, _sung_ in the Plural, of the Past Tense. “Lay” is the Causative form of “lie,” as “raise” of “rise,” “set” of “sit,” “fell” of “fall,” “drench” of “drink.” >>>>77<<<< =The Negative, or Interrogative Form.= In questions and denials we prefer a different form of the Indefinite Present and Past. Instead of “I came not;” “Why speak you?” we say “I did not come;” “Why do you speak?” The advantage of this form of the Verb is, that it enables us to put the Verb at the end, while the _did_ or _do_ prepares the way for it. You may call this the Negative or Interrogative form of the Verb. More rarely this form is used affirmatively, to emphasize the truth of a statement:— “Who says I did not come? I _did_ come.” >>>>78<<<< =Person and Number.= If you alter the Subject of a Verb, you often have to alter the Verb _so as to agree with the Subject_. 1. If you alter “I” into “he,” you must alter “catch” into “catches,” _so as to agree with_ “he.” 2. Again, if you alter “he” into “they” you must alter “catches” to “catch,” _so as to agree with_ the alteration of the Subject from Singular to Plural. This is expressed by saying that— _A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and Number._ >>>>79<<<< As an explanation of our distinction between _First_, _Second_, and _Third Persons_, it may be remembered that the Romans, whose grammar we have copied, thought it natural for a person speaking to think _first_ of himself (_I_), _secondly_ of the person to whom he was speaking (_you_), and thirdly of any one else about whom he was speaking (_him_ or _her_). The following Scheme shews how a Verb _agrees with_ its Subject:— ──────────────────┬──────────┬─────────────────────────────── │Subject │Verb agreeing with its Subject. ──────────────────┼──────────┼───────────────────────────────  1st Person Sing. │I │=am=  2nd   „    „ │thou[1] │=art=  3rd   „    „ │he, she[2]│=is=  1st Person Plural│we │=are=  2nd   „    „ │you[3] │=are=  3rd   „    „ │they │=are= ──────────────────┴──────────┴─────────────────────────────── The Verb “to be” is the only Verb in English that has a separate form of the Verb when the Subject is in the Plural. In other Verbs the Plural form is the same as that of the First Person Singular, e.g. “I have,” “they have.” ----- [1] Old Form. [2] _It_ is sometimes called a Personal Pronoun, for convenience; it does not stand for a Person (except in the curious idiom mentioned in Par. 158.) Not only _he_ and _she_, but _it_ and all Nouns _spoken of_, are said to be _in the Third Person_. A Noun denoting a Person _spoken to_ is said to be in the _Second Person_, _e.g._ “come here, John.” [3] There was once an old form of the Subject _ye_, still used in Poetry, and sometimes now used as Object. >>>>80<<<< =How to Parse a Verb.=[1] If asked to parse a Verb in the Indicative Mood fully, _e.g._ “has caught,” in “He _has caught_ a fish,” you may state— 1. _The kind or nature of the Verb_: Transitive. 2. _The Voice_: Active. 3. _The Mood_: Indicative. 4. _The Tense_: Complete Present. 5. _The Person_: in the Third Person. 6. _The Number_: Singular. 7. _It agrees with its Subject_ “he.” 8. _It has for its Object_ “a fish.” _Caution._—Note that the Present Indicative is often used where, logically, the Future should be used:— (1) “He will come when he _is_ able.” (2) “I shall wait till he _comes_.” After “when,” “till,” &c., Shakespeare often uses the Future or Subjunctive, _e.g._ “When he _shall be_ able.” The modern Present may in these cases be parsed as “used for Future.” For the Present after “if,” see Par. 168. ----- [1] For the present, only the Indicative Mood is here spoken of. >>>>81<<<< =The Noun-Subject, and Noun-Object.= It is usual, in parsing a Verb, and stating the Subject and Object, not to state the whole of the Subject or Object, but only the Noun or Pronoun, omitting any Adjectives or Adjective Phrases connected with the Noun. For example, in the sixth Verb parsed in the Exercise below, the Subject of “had seen” is “the keen eyes of the lion;” but you need only take the _Noun_ part of the Subject, and may answer simply “eyes.” In the same way, when stating the Object of “didst thou leave,” you need not write down “thy cruel master,” but only the _Noun part_, “master.” >>>>82<<<< EXERCISE XVII.[1] Caxton _brought_ the printing press to England from Bruges in 1476. In addition to the difficulties that _attended_ the new art of printing, the language _had come_ into such a state that an author needed much judgment to select his words and frame his style. A conflict _was raging_ between the new-fangled French affectation and English pedantry, and Caxton _was_ sorely _distracted_ between the “honest and great clerks,” who _advocated_ the former, and the “gentlemen,” who stood up for “old and homely terms.” “Our language,” says the printer, “_varieth_ far from that which _was used_ and _spoken_ when I _was born_;” and he adds that “the English that is spoken in one shire varieth from the English spoken in another.” He goes on to tell a tale how certain merchants on the Thames sailing to Zealand and compelled by contrary winds to remain on the Foreland, _went_ into a farmhouse and asked for “eggs.” The good-wife answered that she _spoke_ no French. “Why _talkest_ thou of French?” replied the merchant, angry at being taken for a Frenchman, “I speak no French, nor _understand_ it, I ask for eggs.” But the farmer’s wife, in spite of all his anger, _could_ none the better _understand_ him, till one of his companions said he wanted “eyren,” and the eggs _came_ fast enough. “Lo what shall a man in these days now write?” _adds_ the puzzled printer. “Shall he write ‘eggs’ or ‘eyren?’ Certainly, it* is hard to please every man, by cause of diversity and change of language.” ----- [1] This Exercise is modified from the admirable _Short History of the English People_, J. R. Green, M.A. (Macmillan, London). It may be parsed after the following Specimen Exercise. EXERCISE XVII_a_. (SPECIMEN). State the Noun-Subjects, Noun-Objects, Kinds, Voices, and Tenses of the italicized Verbs:— Many centuries ago, a slave, who _had made_ his escape from a cruel master, _fled_ to a forest where night surprised him, so that he _was forced_ to take refuge in a cave. Scarcely _had_ he _closed_ his eyes in the attempt to sleep, when he heard the roar of a lion beside him. He started up, but it _was_ too late; the keen eyes of the lion _had seen_ him, and _were_ slowly _coming_ nearer. Androcles—who _had_ no arms of any kind—now gave himself up for lost. “What _shall_ I _do_?” said he: “I have no spear or sword—no, not so much as a stick to defend myself with.” And he _cried_ aloud in agony, “O foolish Androcles, why _didst_ thou _leave_ thy cruel master, who at least would have spared thy life because thou _wast_ useful to him, whereas now thou _wilt be_ the meal of this hungry lion?” What was his surprise, however, to find that the lion, instead of springing on him, _was walking_ quietly up to him, limping as though he were in pain. Gaining courage at this, Androcles made no attempt to run away. Presently the lion _held_ out his paw, and on examining it Androcles _found_ that it was inflamed[1] and swelled. Looking more closely, he perceives that a thorn _has pierced_ the ball of the foot, and that it is from this that the lion _is suffering_. ----- [1] Notice that here “inflamed” and “swelled” are Adjectives describing the condition of the foot. But in the sentence “on hearing this, the king was inflamed with fury,” _was inflamed_ would be a Verb. You can say “an _inflamed_ foot,” but not “an _inflamed_ king.” >>>>83<<<< ───────────┬─────────┬───────┬──────────┬─────────┬──────┬─────────┬───────── Verb │Kind and │ Tense │State, or │Person │Number│Subject │Object │ Voice. │ │ Division │ │ │ │ │ │ │ of Tense │ │ │ │ ───────────┼─────────┼───────┼──────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────────┼───────── had made │Trans. │Past │Complete │3rd │Sing. │who │escape │Act. │ │ │ │ │ │ fled │Intr. │Past │Indefinite│3rd │Sing. │slave │ — │Act. │ │ │ │ │ │ was forced │Passive[1│Past │Indefinite│3rd │Sing. │he │ — │] │ │ │ │ │ │ had closed │Tr. Act. │Past │Complete │3rd │Sing. │he │eyes was[2] │— │Past │Indefinite│3rd │Sing. │it │ │ │ │ │ │ │ (_i.e._│ │ │ │ │ │ │ his │ │ │ │ │ │ │ startin│ │ │ │ │ │ │ g up) │ had seen │Tr. Act. │Past │Complete │3rd │Plural│eyes │him were coming│Intr. │Past │Incomplete│3rd │Plural│eyes │ │Act. │ │ │ │ │ │ had[3] │Tr. Act. │Past │Indefinite│3rd │Sing. │who │arms shall do │Tr. Act. │Future │Indefinite│1st │Sing. │I │what cried │Tr. Act. │Past │Indefinite│3rd │Sing. │he │“O, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ foolish │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ,” &c. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ didst leave│Tr. Act. │Past │Indefinite│2nd (old)│Sing. │thou │master wast │ — │Past │Indefinite│2nd (old)│Sing. │thou │ — wilt be │ — │Future │Indefinite│2nd (old)│Sing. │thou │ — │ │ │ │ │ │ │ was walking│Intr. │Past │Indefinite│3rd │Sing. │lion │ │Act. │ │ │ │ │ │ held │Tr. Act. │Past │Indefinite│3rd │Sing. │lion │paw found │Tr. Act. │Past │Indefinite│3rd │Sing. │Androcles│“that it │ │ │ │ │ │ │ was │ │ │ │ │ │ │ inflame │ │ │ │ │ │ │ d,” &c. has pierced│Tr. Act. │Present│Complete │3rd │Sing. │thorn │ball is sufferin│Intr. │Present│Incomplete│3rd │Sing. │lion │ — g │Act. │ │ │ │ │ │ ───────────┴─────────┴───────┴──────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────────┴───────── ----- [1] Passive Verbs are necessarily almost always Transitive in their Active Forms; this, therefore, may be taken for granted, and “Transitive” need not be repeated every time with “Passive.” [2] “Be,” “was,” &c., are not called either Active or Passive. See Par. 147. [3] Carefully distinguish the Indefinite Past “had,” when used by itself, from the Complete Past “_had_ seen him.” >>>>84<<<< =“Governing” an Object.= Where a word, e.g. _he_, has one form when used as a Subject, _he_, and another when used as an Object, _him_—the Verb is sometimes said to _govern_ the Object, because the Verb, as it were, controls and alters the form of the Object. Only in cases where the Objective differs from the Subjective form, can a Verb be said, with truth, to _govern_ the Object. EXERCISE XVIII. >>>>85<<<< Parse, as above:— Gathering fresh courage from the behaviour of the lion, Androcles at last _ventures_ to lay his hand on the extended paw; he _touches_ and handles the swelling, and, in spite of the growing darkness, _succeeds_ in drawing out a large thorny splinter, which _had run_ deep into the foot. As soon as the thorn _was extracted_, the lion _showed_ his joy by evident signs, and at first _lay_ down by the side of his benefactor, as though to protect him; but presently he departed. Next morning, however, before the sun _had risen_, back _comes_ the lion to the cave with a deer in his jaws, which he _sets_ down at the feet of Androcles; and, for several days, while Androcles _was hiding_ in the cave, he _was protected_ from all danger and[1] _supplied_ with ample food by the grateful lion. But one day, just when the slave _was congratulating_ himself that he _had escaped_ his pursuers for ever, a party of soldiers, passing through the forest, _catch_[2] sight of him resting in the cave in the absence of the lion. At once they arrest him, and carry him back to the city whence he _had escaped_.[3] ----- [1] Repeat “was.” [2] Note “catch” not “catches.” See next Paragraph. [3] Continued in Par. 102. >>>>86<<<< =Singular Nouns with Plural Verbs.= Some Nouns, though Singular, are sometimes treated as Plural, because they are Plural in _meaning_, _e.g._ “party” in “A _party_ of friends are coming to dine with me to-day.” Here, although “is coming” would not be absolutely wrong, yet “_are_ coming” sounds more natural, because “party” means a number of persons coming from distinct quarters, and _regarded as distinct_. See Pars. 334—9. >>>>87<<<< =Shall, Will.= Note that in the Indefinite Future, _shall_ is used in the First Person, and _will_ in the Second and Third Persons:— =1st Person= I shall We shall. =2nd Person= Thou wilt You will. =3rd Person= He will They will. The reason is this: _shall_, like “must,” implies compulsion. Now we do not mind using a word implying compulsion about ourselves; but it seems rather rude to use it about others. For this reason we dislike saying, except in anger, “you shall,” “he shall,” and prefer to say, “you will,” “he will.” “You will” once meant “you wish _or_ are willing to;” but now it generally means no more than “you are going (to).” When we are bestowing a favour that does not depend on the recipient but on our own will, we may use “shall” with the Second Person:— (1) “You _shall_ have a holiday to-morrow.” Here the context absolutely destroys the notion of compulsion, and therefore “shall” may be used without rudeness. For a similar reason, there is no rudeness in— (2) “_Shall_ you see him to-morrow?” (3) “He says he _shall_ be out of town all the summer.” =Imperative Mood.= You cannot _command_ a man to do anything unless you speak _to him_; consequently the commanding or Imperative Mood is, strictly speaking, always in the Second Person, Singular or Plural, _e.g._ “come.” >>>>88<<<< Sometimes we, as it were, exhort or command ourselves, _e.g._ “let me see,” “let us run.” But this is the same as “suffer me to see,” “suffer us to run.” Here, therefore, “suffer” and “let” are Imperatives, _addressed to some imaginary person_; but “see” and “run” are not Imperatives, but Infinitives, the “to” being left out. (See Par. 94). >>>>89<<<< Again, sometimes, when we are speaking _of_ a Third Person, we seem to command him, _e.g._ “let him beware;” but this is explained in the same way, and is put for “let him (to) beware.” The Imperative is almost always in the Active. The Passive, when used, is formed (like every other Mood and Tense of the Passive) from the Passive Participle preceded by “be”:— (1) “_Be pleased_ to enter.” (2) “_Be pacified_, _be persuaded_ that all is well.” >>>>90<<<< In the Bible, the Subject of the Imperative is often expressed, _e.g._, “come ye”: but it is generally omitted in modern English. As a command applies mostly to the present time, there are no _Tenses_ in this Mood. A command relating to the future is sometimes expressed by the Future Indicative; either the compulsory form, “You _shall_ bring the book to-morrow,” or the courteous form, “You _will_ have dinner ready by seven.” We also say “_Have_ done,” Pres. Compl. >>>>91<<<< =How to Parse the Imperative.= An Imperative has no Inflections, and therefore cannot with truth _agree with_ its Subject. It is therefore wrong to use _agree_ about the Imperative. The Imperative _has_ a Subject. In parsing an Imperative, use the form given in Par. 80, remembering that, though the Subject of an Imperative is seldom expressed, yet it is always implied. >>>>92<<<< =Forms of the Infinitive.= The Tenses of the Infinitive Mood of a Verb, _e.g._ “send,” are as follows:— ────────────────────────┬────────────────────────┬──────────────────────── │Active. │Passive. ────────────────────────┼────────────────────────┼──────────────────────── Indefinite │(to) =send= │(to) =be sent= Incomplete │(to) =be sending= │(to) =be being sent=[1] Complete │(to) =have sent= │(to) =have been sent= Complete, │(to) =have been sending=│(to) =have been being Post-Continuous │ │ sent=[1] ────────────────────────┴────────────────────────┴──────────────────────── There is no Past Tense. The Future is expressed by different phrases, such as “to be on the point of sending,” “to be about to be sending,” “to be going to send,” &c. The “to” is inclosed in brackets, because it is sometimes omitted, _e.g._ “I saw him (to) _fall_,” where “fall” is Infinitive. See next Paragraph. ----- [1] Rarely or never used. >>>>93<<<< =“To” Omitted.= We can say indifferently— (1) “He dares not _come_.” (2) “He has not dared _to come_.” Why is “to” inserted in the second, and omitted in the first, example? Again, compare together— I bade him } I ordered him } I let him _come_ I permitted him _to come_ I made him I compelled him I can } I am able } I dare I venture I may I am allowed I must _come_ I am compelled _to come_ I shall I am certain I should I ought I will I am willing _To_ is also omitted after the Verbs _see_, _hear_, _need_, _feel_, _e.g._ “I saw him die,” “I heard her sing.” What is the reason for the omission of _to_ after all these Verbs? >>>>94<<<< The reason is that our ancestors used not to put _to_ before the Infinitive. Instead of “to walk” they used to say “walk_-en_.” “To” was only used to denote _purpose_, with a special form of the Verb, “to walk_-ene_,” _i.e._ “_in order to_ walk.” In time, the inflections _-en_ and _-ene_ became disused. So, to denote the Infinitive, they used “to” in all cases, not only in its proper sense of purpose, but also as the mere sign of the Infinitive, even where the Infinitive was nothing but a Noun. Thus, instead of saying “I like walk_-en_,” they began to say “I like _to_ walk.” >>>>95<<<< But after some Verbs, such as _let_, _may_, _can_, &c., it was not found necessary to use _to_. These Verbs, because they are so often _companions_ or _allies_ to other Verbs, are called “allied” or =Auxiliary= Verbs. When these Verbs therefore were used, everybody knew that an Infinitive was pretty certain to follow, even though _to_ was not put in: “let us (to) pray.” >>>>96<<<< For a similar reason, _to_ was not inserted after _see_, _hear_, &c., because they were Verbs of such common use that everybody understood that a Verb could be in the Infinitive after them, without the insertion of _to_.[1] But remember, the Verbs after the Auxiliary Verbs, _e.g._ “let us _pray_,” are Infinitives, just as much as after other Verbs where _to_ is inserted, _e.g._ “permit us _to pray_.” _“To” is omitted in the Infinitive after the Auxiliary Verbs “may,” “can,” “will”[2] “let,” “must,” &c., and also after “see,” “hear,” “feel,” &c._ ----- [1] Partly also the _to_ may have been omitted because these words _may_, _can_, _see_, _hear_, &c. are so common that the insertion of _to_, whenever we use them, would make our language lengthy and tedious. Occasionally in Shakespeare, _to_ is found inserted where we should omit it, and omitted where we should insert it. People had not yet drawn a fixed line between Auxiliary Verbs and others. Even now, where the Verb “dare” is used like an ordinary Verb, _to_ must be inserted after it. You may say, “He _dares_ not come,” but scarcely, “He _will_ never _dare_ come.” _To_ must be inserted in the last sentence. So, “they _made_ him _sit_ on the ground;” but “he _was made to sit_.” [2] The Infinitive, after “shall” or “will” denoting futurity, is generally connected with “shall” or “will” and treated as part of a Future Tense. >>>>97<<<< =The Complementary Infinitive.= The Infinitive is often used to _complete_, _i.e._ to be the _Complement_ of, a preceding Noun or Pronoun. For example, in— (1) “I like _a rascal to be punished_.” (2) “_The prisoner_ was ordered _to be executed_.” Here (1) “a rascal” is not the Object of “like,” for you do not like “a rascal” but “a rascal to be punished.” Consequently, “rascal” is only the _Partial Object_, and it has for its _Complement_ the Infinitive “to be punished.” In the same way (2) (though the Subjective Construction is less common than Objective), the “prisoner” was not “ordered” at all; what was ordered was _the execution of the prisoner_, or, in the words of the sentence, “the prisoner to be executed.” Consequently, “prisoner” is only the _Partial Subject_, and it has for its _Complement_ the Infinitive “to be executed.” =Uses of the Infinitive.= >>>>98<<<< The Infinitive is used— I. (_a_) As a Noun: (1) “I like _to walk_.” (2) “_To walk_ is healthy.” I. (_b_) As _part_ of a Noun-Phrase used Objectively:— (1) “I like _a rascal to be punished_.” (2) “I know _him to be honest_.” (3) “He reported _the experiment to have failed_.” (4) “I perceived _him to have made_ a mistake.” (5) “I saw _him_ (_to_) _fall_.” I. (_c_) Less frequently, as _part_ of a Noun-Phrase used Subjectively:— (1) “_He_ is said _to be coming_.” (2) “_The prisoner_ was ordered _to be executed_.” But these may also sometimes be parsed as Adverbial Infinitives. See Par. 105. >>>>99<<<< II. As an Adverb, or part of an Adverb, modifying a Verb or Adjective:— (1) “I am come (for what purpose?) _to see_ you.” (2) “I am sorry (on account of what?) _to hear_ this.” (3) “He is slow (in what respect?) _to forgive_.” (4) “You are cruel (in what respect?) _to frighten_ her.” >>>>100<<<< III. As an Adjective-Phrase:— (1) “Water _to drink_,” i.e. “_drinking_-water.” (2) “Paper _to write with_,” i.e. “_writing_-paper.” (3) “Their importunity was not _to be resisted_,” i.e. “ir-_resistible_.” (4) “Your mistake is _to be deplored_,” i.e. “_deplorable_.” >>>>101<<<< =How to Parse an Infinitive.= Hence, in parsing an Infinitive, you may first state— 1. _Kind of Verb._ Transitive, or Intransitive. 2. _Voice._ Active or Passive. 3. _Mood._ Infinitive. 4. “_State_,” or _Division of Tense_, _i.e._ whether Indefinite, Complete, or Incomplete. 5. _Object_, if it has any. To these statements you may add whether it is used as a— I. _Noun_: and, if so, (_a_) of what Verb it is the Subject or Object, Complementary or otherwise; and (_b_) to what Noun or Pronoun it is Complementary. II. An _Adverb_: and, if so, by what Preposition and Verbal Noun it may be replaced.[1] III. _Adjective_: and, if so, with what Noun it is connected. ----- [1] The pupil may also be asked to mention the word modified by the Adverbial Infinitive, as in parsing an ordinary Adverb. EXERCISE XIX. (SPECIMEN). >>>>102<<<< Parse the Infinitives in the following Exercise[1]:— Having been brought before the judge, Androcles was at once condemned, and ordered _to be exposed to_ wild beasts in the amphitheatre, _to strike_ terror into all other slaves that might wish _to run_ away from their masters. Accordingly, on the appointed day, the wretched slave was made _to stand_ in the presence of thousands of spectators, opposite the cage of a lion, which had not been suffered _to eat_ anything for several days, _to increase_ its natural savageness. The furious roaring of the famished lion struck terror into every heart, and made the poor slave _prepare_ for the worst. Suddenly, the signal is given, and from the open cage forth bounds the lion. But, what was the astonishment of the spectators, _to see_ the savage beast, on reaching its victim, at once _change_ its nature. Instead of devouring Androcles, it began _to fawn_ on and caress him. The spectators, indignant at the cowardice of the beast—for so they called it—bade the officers _let loose_ a second lion to destroy the first. It was done, and forthwith a monster larger and more furious than the first, rushed with open jaws at the trembling slave. But the first lion, at once springing on the assailant, forced it _to turn_ from Androcles, and after a terrible contest, left it disabled on the sand. The admiring spectators now shouted[2] applause,[2] declaring that the slave must _be asked to explain_ the lion’s extraordinary conduct. On hearing the story of his adventures, they begged the Governor _to pardon_ Androcles, and not only to give him his freedom, but also to bestow on him his faithful lion. Their importunity was not _to be resisted_, and both requests were granted. ----- [1] For brevity, the Voice, Mood, and “State,” are omitted, as also is the Object of the Infinitive, and the word modified by the Adverbial Infinitive. [2] See Par. 125. >>>>103<<<< ────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────┬─────────────────── Infinitive. │ Of what class? │ │1. If │ │ │ Complementary, │ │ │ state the Partial │ │ │ Subject or │ │ │ Object. │     1. Subject or│Subject or Object │2. If Adverbial, │ Object. │ of what Verb. │ replace by a │ │ │ Preposition and │ │ │ Verbal Noun. │     2. Adverbial.│ │3. If Adjectival, │ │ │ state Noun │ │ │ qualified. │     3. │ │ │ Adjectival. │ │ ────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┼─────────────────── to be exposed │ Complementary │was ordered │Androcles │ Subject. │ │ to strike │ Adverbial. │ — │for the purpose of │ │ │ striking to run away │ Object. │might wish │ — to stand │ Complementary │was made │the slave │ Subject. │ │ to eat │ Complementary │had been suffered │which │ Subject. │ │ to increase │ Adverbial. │ — │for the purpose of │ │ │ increasing (to) prepare[1] │ Complementary │made │the slave │ Object. │ │ to see │ Adverbial. │ — │at seeing (to) change[1] │ Complementary │see │the beast │ Object. │ │ to fawn │ Object. │began │ — (to) let loose │ Complementary │bade │the officers │ Object. │ │ to turn │ Complementary │forced │it │ Object. │ │ (to) be asked[1]│ Complementary │must │the slave │ Subject. │ │ to explain │ Adverbial.[1] │ — │for the purpose of │ │ │ explaining to pardon │ Complementary │begged │the Governor │ Object.[1] │ │ to be resisted │ Adjectival. │ — │qualifies │ │ │ “importunity” ────────────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────────┴─────────────────── ----- [1] “To” omitted, see Par. 93. “To explain,” see Par. 105. EXERCISE XX. >>>>104<<<< Parse the Infinitives in the following Exercise:— Long ago, when people used[1] _to worship_ many gods, a carter was striving[2] _to make_ his way with a heavily-laden waggon through a miry lane. The horses did their best, but the waggoner, who did not wish _to take_ more trouble than he could[3] _help_,[3] was content _to_[4] _sit_ upon the waggon and _let_[3] the horses _carry_ him, while he cracked his whip and sang songs. Presently the road began[1] _to rise_, but still the waggoner kept his seat. Soon they came to a place where a torrent seemed _to have dashed_ across the road, wearing a deep pit with its waters. The horses put forth all their strength _to pull_ the waggon across, but in vain; all their efforts could[3] not even _move_ the wheels, which began[4] _to sink_ deeper and deeper into the pit. Now, when it was too late[4] _to do_ anything, the good-for-nothing carter got down from his waggon; but all that he did was _to curse_ and swear at the horses. Finding that cursing did not move the waggon, he at last thought he would try what praying could[5] _do_. So, falling on his knees, he besought Hercules, the god of hard work, _to come_ and help him in his troubles. In an instant Hercules was on the spot; but, instead of helping him, “You lazy fellow!” said he, “how dare[5] you _send_ for me, till you have tried[2] _to do_ without me? Learn that Hercules helps none but those that are willing _to help_[6] themselves.” ----- [1] 'Used' is a Transitive Verb, and can govern a Noun or an Infinitive as its Object, _e.g._ “we use steel _pens_,” “we used _to walk_.” The Object Infinitive now rarely occurs after _use_, except after the Indefinite Past, as here. ‘Began’ is also a Transitive Verb and can be followed by an Object. [2] 'Strive' is not a Transitive Verb; therefore “to make” should be considered as an Adverbial Infinitive of purpose “striving for the purpose of making his way.” On the other hand, “try” is a Transitive Verb, and therefore can take an Object after it. [3] “Could” is the same as “was able.” The following Infinitive may be regarded as the Object of “can” or “could;” “can” was once a Transitive Verb. “Let” is the same as “suffer;” “dare” is the same as “venture.” “Help” meant 1st “to remedy,” 2nd “get rid of,” 3rd “avoid.” “Than he could help,” “Than he could avoid.” [4] “_To_ sit” is the same as “with sitting.” “Too late to do anything” is “too late for the purpose of doing anything.” [5] “Could” is the same as “was able.” The following Infinitive may be regarded as the Object of “can” or “could;” “can” was once a Transitive Verb. “Let” is the same as “suffer;” “dare” is the same as “venture.” [6] You might be disposed to say here that “are willing” is the same as “wish,” and that “to help” is the Object of “wish,” which is implied in “are willing.” But, if you bear in mind how often _to_ is used in such sentences, _e.g._ “I am sorry, glad, willing, able, _to_ do this,” it will seem better to take “to help” as an Adverbial Infinitive, meaning “as regards doing,” “in the matter of helping.” >>>>105<<<< _Caution._ After Verbs of asking, commanding, advising, compelling, it is not always easy to determine whether the Infinitive is Adverbial or Complementary. For example, in— (1) “They besought him _to help_ them.” —the meaning is the same as— (2) “They besought him _that he would_ help them.” Here there is a notion of _purpose_: and hence “to help” in (1) may be parsed as an Adverbial Infinitive meaning “for the purpose of helping.” But “him to help” might also be treated as meaning “his helping,” and regarded as the Object of “they besought.” Either parsing may therefore be allowed, Adverbial or Complementary. When the pupil has once grasped the notion that _could_, _would_, &c., are followed by Infinitives, it will be no longer necessary to separate the Auxiliary from the Infinitive. The whole may be parsed together as a Compound Verb. For example, in the last exercise, “could do,” may be treated as a Compound Verb. >>>>106<<<< =The Complementary Subject Infinitive.= Note that the Complementary Object Infinitive cannot always be converted into a Complementary Subject Infinitive. You can say— (1) “I like _a rascal to be punished_.” But not— (2) “_A rascal_ is liked _to be punished_.” The reason is this, that in (2) the Noun “rascal” is separated and disconnected in meaning from the Infinitive “to be punished;” and therefore “rascal” would be in danger of being regarded as the complete Subject of “is liked.” >>>>107<<<< Consequently the Complementary Subject Infinitive is seldom used except where the Noun-Subject and the Verb are so related that the former _might_ be made the Complete Subject of the latter, without making utter nonsense. For example, “he” _might_ be made the Complete Subject of “is known,” “was heard,” “was asked”; although in a very different sense from that of the following examples, in which “he” is Partial Subject:— (1) “_He_ is known _to be_ honest.” (2) “_He_ was heard _to say_, seen _to do_,” &c. (3) “_He_ was asked _to do_, ordered _to come_,” &c. In all these cases it is better to parse the Infinitive as Complementary; but it may be parsed, though not so well, Adverbially, _e.g._ “he is known _as regards being_ honest,” “he was heard _in the act of_ saying,” &c. >>>>108<<<< =The Infinitive after Adjectives.= I. As an Adjective can be modified by an Adverb, so can it by an Adverbial Infinitive:— (1) “Pleasant _to see_,” _i.e._, “_in_ seeing,” or, “_for the purpose of_ seeing.” (2) “This is hard _to bear_,” _i.e._, “_in_” or “_for_ bearing.” (3) “I am content _to be poor_,” _i.e._, “_with_ being poor.” (4) “He is quick _to detect_ imposition,” _i.e._, “_at_ detecting.” (5) “This apple is fit _to eat_,” _i.e._, “_for the purpose of_ eating.” >>>>109<<<< =The Adjectival Infinitive Explained.= An Adjectival Phrase may be made up by the Preposition _to_ and the Infinitive, as easily as by a Preposition and Noun. There is no difference, in principle, between “a monkey _with along tail_;” “apples _for eating_;” “paper _for writing_;” “water _for drinking_,” and— (1) “Apples _to eat_;” “paper _to write with_;” “a house _to let_.” (2) “Duties _to perform_;” “debts _to pay_;” “work _to do_.” (3) “A time _to work_, and a time _to play_;” “nothing _to do_.” (1) “This is not _to be believed_;” “it is not _to be denied_.” (2) “It is to be _deplored_, to be _remembered_,” &c. The Adjectival force of the Infinitive may be seen by the ease with which, in many cases, “to” may be replaced by _-ing_ or _-able_, so as to convert the Adjective-Phrase into an Adjective: “writ_ing_-paper,” “play_ing_-time,” “deplor_able_,” “undeni_able_,” &c. >>>>110<<<< =The Parenthetical Infinitive.= The Adverbial Infinitive of Purpose is often briefly used in a Parenthesis:— (1) “I came by a circuitous path, or rather—_to_ tell the truth—I completely lost my way.” This seems to be a short way of saying “(In order) to tell the truth (I must say that), I completely lost my way.” (2) “Will you come then?” “_To be sure_, I will.” This seems to be a condensation of “(In order for you) to be sure, (I say distinctly) I will come.” >>>>111<<<< =The Exclamatory Infinitive.= The Infinitive is sometimes used absolutely in exclamations:— (1) “_To think_ that he should be so foolish!” (2) “Simpleton! _To dream_ that he could succeed without effort!” In (1) “to think” appears to be the Subject of some Verb understood, _e.g._ “astonishes me;” in (2) “to dream” is probably an Adverbial Infinitive modifying “simpleton” repeated. “Simpleton _to dream_” is the same as “foolish _to dream_,” or “_for_ dreaming.” EXERCISE XXI. >>>>112<<<< Parse the italicized words in the following Exercise:— A lean hungry wolf one day met a mastiff, who had lost himself in the forest, and asked the wolf _to shew_ him the way home.* For a moment the wolf thought of springing at the dog’s throat; he was so plump and sleek and seemed so good _to eat_. But the mastiff was too strong _to be overpowered_; so the wolf replied, “Show you the way, Sir? _To be sure_ I will”: and away they trotted together. Presently the mastiff looked askance at the wolf. “You seem to me,” said he, “_to be_ in good condition for the chase, but you are not shapely _to look at_: one can count your ribs.” “I am content _to be_ poor,” replied the wolf: “here in these woods there is not much _to eat_. But what makes you so fat[1] and sleek?[1] I would give anything _to be_ in such condition.” “Then I advise you _to come_ with me,” replied the mastiff, “and you will be sure _to get_ what you want. You will have nothing _to do_, but _to bark_ at beggars and vagrants, and then you may _eat_ as much as you like of good beef and mutton. Will you come?” At the mention of mutton, the wolf could not _contain_ himself; his mouth watered and he began _to weep_ for joy. “_To think_ of your doubting whether I would come,” he cried: “most gladly will I accept your offer: my life is no longer _to be endured_. Indeed, _to tell_ you the truth, I have not tasted food for the last four days.” So on they went at a quickened pace. >>>>113<<<< As they walked and talked, the wolf could not forbear every now and then turning _to admire_ his companion. While* doing* so, he noticed a mark round the dog’s neck where the hair appeared _to be worn_ away. “What’s that?” asked the wolf. “Nothing.” “Nothing?” “Nothing _to speak_ of,” answered the mastiff in a rather confused way. “But what is it?” asked the wolf again: for he began _to be_ suspicious. “Well then, if you are determined _to know_—it is only the mark of the collar round my neck. Sometimes I am ordered _to be_ tied up _to prevent_ my losing my way, as I have done to-day. It is of no consequence.” “It is of so much consequence,” interrupted the wolf, “that I must wish you* good-bye,* and bid you _go_ home by yourself. _To lose_ one’s freedom is a loss not _to be endured_. I prefer _to starve_ free[1] rather than _to be_ a plump slave.” ----- [1] Cf. “to live happy,” “die rich,” &c. The use of the Adjective is a sort of compromise between (1) an Adverb, and (2) the Supplementary use in Par. 149. >>>>114<<<< =The Tenses of Participles.= Participles, like Adjectives, have no Tenses of their own, but borrow the time they express from some other Verb in the sentence. Thus “walking” or “supported” may be Past, Present, or Future:— 1. _Past_:— (1) “_Walking_ on, I soon _reached_ Windsor,” _i.e._, “after I _walked on_.” (2) “_Supported_ by this scanty food, he lived for ten days longer,” _i.e._, “since he _was supported_.” 2. _Present_:— (1) “I see an old man _walking_ towards me,” _i.e._, “who _is walking_,” or, “and he _is walking_.” (2) “I see an old man coming this way, _supported_ by his son,” _i.e._, “who,” or, “and he, _is being supported_.” 3. _Future_:— (1) “_Walking_ on, you will soon _reach_ Windsor,” _i.e._, “if you (_will_) _walk_ on.” (2) “_Supported_ by his son’s daily labour, he will live for the rest of his life in comfort,” _i.e._, “since he _will be supported_.” >>>>115<<<< The Participial forms might be arranged as follows, according to their forms:— ──────────┬────────────────┬───────────────────── │ ACTIVE. │ PASSIVE. ──────────┼────────────────┼───────────────────── INCOMPLETE│supporting │(being) supported COMPLETE │having supported│having been supported ──────────┴────────────────┴───────────────────── But the Incomplete form may sometimes denote an action in the Indefinite Past, as in the first example of Paragraph 114. Note that the Complete as well as the Incomplete form of the Participle can be used either for Present, Past, or Future. For example, “_Having walked_ on, I came to Windsor” means not “when I have walked on,” but “when I _had walked_ on,” so that the Participle is here put for the Complete Past. A future action is expressed in a Participle by a Phrase with “being,” _e.g._ “being _on the point of death_,” “being _about to die_” (where “to die” must be regarded as the Object of “about”). >>>>116<<<< The confusion in the uses of the Participle is, perhaps, in part explained by its having been confused with the abbreviated Adverbial use of the Verbal. For example, “_in_,” or, “_on_ walking” could naturally mean either “engaged in walking,” or “_upon_,” i.e. “_after_ walking.” When this Adverbial Phrase was contracted to “a-walking,” or simply “walking,” it was easily confused with the Participle. Originally the Participle ended in _-nd_, and the Verbal in _-ng_; but very early, the Particle assumed _-ng_. See Par. 554—8. CHAPTER V.[1] THE INDIRECT OBJECT. ----- [1] The Subjunctive Mood, which would naturally follow here, is deferred to Par. 163, owing to its difficulty. >>>>117<<<< Find the Object of the Verb in the first of the following sentences:— (1) “John brought Thomas a book.” (2) “I will forgive them their fault.” (3) “The father allowed his son two hundred pounds a year.” (4) “I envy her her good health.” (5) “This conduct will lose you your friends.” (6) “Fill me the cup.” (7) “My mother taught my brother French.” (8) “I will ask your sister this question.” Ask the question in the usual way, “Brought whom or what?” Answer, “Brought a book;” therefore “book” is the Object of “brought.” If any one were to say, “No, the sentence gives the answer ‘brought Thomas,’” you would reply, “John did not bring Thomas, he brought the book _for_ or _to_ Thomas; and ‘brought Thomas’ is only a short way of saying ‘brought _for_ or _to_ Thomas.’” >>>>118<<<< Nevertheless, as “Thomas” does (in a certain sense) answer to the question “whom?” after the Verb, it is called an Object. But “book” is called the =Direct Object=, as it is the first and _direct_ object of the action; and Thomas is called the =Indirect Object=, as being the second object _indirectly_ affected by the action. =Rule.= _The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word or phrase that answers to the question “For, or, to whom?” “For, or, to what?” when asked after the Verb and its Direct Object._ >>>>119<<<< There are a few exceptions to this rule. In “he _played_ me a trick,” “on,” not “for,” would be supplied before “me.” Also, after “ask,” “of” or “from” has to be supplied: “he asked (_of_) his sister a question.”[1] ----- [1] Probably in (8), after “ask,” the word “sister” may be regarded as the Direct Object, and “ask-a-question” as a Compound Verb having as its Object, “sister.” >>>>120<<<< _N.B._ The Indirect Object can easily be detected as follows: it always comes _before the Direct Object_, and cannot be placed after the Direct Object without the insertion of a Preposition, in which case it ceases to be the Indirect Object of the Verb, and becomes the Object of the Preposition:— (1) “John brought a book _for_ Thomas.” (2) “I will forgive their fault _to_ them.”[1] (3) “The father allowed two hundred pounds a year _to_ his son.” ----- [1] This and other similar constructions, _e.g._ “I envy your good health to you,” are extremely harsh, and not to be imitated. EXERCISE XXII. >>>>121<<<< Which are the Direct and which the Indirect Objects of the italicized Verbs?— 1. John _fetched_ me a book. 2. He _forgave_ me my fault. 3. My mother _taught_ me French. 4. The judge _asked_ him a question. 5. He _refused_ me this slight favour. 6. My cousin _did_ me a good turn. 7. The thief _gave_ me a sudden blow. 8. My uncle _left_ me a small sum of money. 9. She will _tell_ me what she wants. 10. You shall _send_ me some more soldiers at once. 11. He _lent_ me a thousand pounds. 12. I _will shew_ your friend everything that is to be seen. 13. This man _owed_ me money. 14. He _played_ me a trick. 15. This conduct will _lose_ you the esteem of your friends. 16. He _promises_ us much, but does little. 17. He _answered_ me nothing. 18. I _envy_ you your good health. 19. A little forethought _will save_ us a great deal of trouble. 20. His father _allowed_ him two hundred pounds a year. >>>>122<<<< =The Object after a Passive Verb.= When an Active Verb, taking two Objects, is changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other is _retained as Object_. This Object may be— I. _The former Indirect Object of the Active_:— (1) “Their lives were offered _them_ by the conqueror, if they would surrender.” (2) “His fault was forgiven _him_ by his master upon his promise of amendment.” (3) “This favour was refused _me_ by my friend.” (4) “Much trouble was saved _me_ by his kindness.” (5) “Three questions were asked _me_ by the examiners.” (6) “Writing was taught _me_ by my mother.” II. _The former Direct Object of the Active_:— (1) “They were offered _their lives_ by the conqueror.” (2) “He was forgiven _his fault_.” (3) “I was refused _this favour_.” (4) “I was saved _much trouble_ by his kindness.” (5) “I was asked _three questions_ by the examiners.” (6) “I was taught _writing_ by my mother.” >>>>123<<<< If a distinction is needed between the two kinds of Objects used after a Passive Verb, the terms _Direct_ and _Indirect Object of the Active_ may be used. But unless such a distinction is asked, it will be enough to say that it is the _Object retained after a Passive Verb_, or, for shortness, the _retained Object_. >>>>124<<<< _Caution._ Carefully distinguish the _Retained Object_ from the Supplement (Par. 148) of a Verb in itself incomplete. For example, “to make king,” is a Compound Verb, equivalent to “to _king_,” or “to _be-king_.” Consequently, “king” is not the _Retained Object_, but the Supplement of an incomplete Verb in:— “They _made_ him _king_,” i.e., “they _made-king_” or “_be-kinged_ him.” >>>>125<<<< =The Cognate Object.= Some Verbs, though generally Intransitive, take occasionally after them an Object whose meaning is _akin_ to the Verb. Such Objects are called =Cognate= (_co-_, together; _nate_, born: hence “born together,” “related,” “akin”). This usage is more common in Poetry and in elevated language than in ordinary Prose:— (1) “They have slept their _sleep_.” (2) “He has fought a good _fight_;” “They shouted _applause_.” (3) “We have walked a long _walk_ to-day.” >>>>126<<<< =The Early English Dative.= In the earliest English there was a special Inflection to denote the Indirect Object. Being mostly used after such Verbs as “give,” “lend,” “send,” “forgive,” “refuse,” &c.—all of which imply “giving” or “not giving”—this Use or Case of the Noun or Pronoun was called the =Dative= (_i.e._, giving) =Case=. In the earliest English, this Inflection would make it perfectly clear which was the Direct and which the Indirect Object. Compare together (1) the modern English, and (2) the earliest English, in the following examples:— (1) “This king gave (to) the minsters large gifts.” (2) “This king gave large gifts mynstr-_um_.” In (2), but not in (1), we see distinctly by the Inflection _-um_ (which is the sign of the Dative use), that “mynstrum” is the Indirect Object. If the old Dative case had to be specified, wherever it is found in Modern English, we should have to call the Objects in the following examples, _Datives_:— (1) “Trust _me_ and believe no _one_ else.” (2) “A calamity has befallen _us_.” (3) “Obey _me_ and disobey _him_.”[1] (4) “It displeased the _king_, though it pleased the _people_.”[1] But in modern English the Object after “trust,” “befall,” &c. must now be called the Direct Object. ----- [1] In (3) and (4) the Verbs are derived from French, and were followed (generally) by the Preposition “à.” =The Adverbial Object.= >>>>127<<<< An Adverbial Phrase is sometimes contracted into a Noun with a Prepositional Prefix, _e.g._, “a-board,” “a-foot,” “a-field;” and sometimes still further contracted into a Noun without Prefix of any kind: (1) “I am going _fishing_” (this is a contraction for “go _on fishing_,” or, “go _a-fishing_”). _Home_ (E.E. ham) is repeatedly used as an Adverb in “Layamon,” and also as an Inflected Noun. >>>>128<<<< Again, in the earliest periods of the language, an Adverbial Phrase was sometimes represented by an _Inflected Noun_, the Inflection representing a modern Preposition (_see_ last paragraph): (2) “He that was dead came forth, bound hand_-um_ and fôt_-um_,” i.e., “_as regards_,” or, _in_, “hands and feet.” (3) (Modern English), “—bound _hand_ and _foot_.” >>>>129<<<< Hence, even where no Preposition was ever inserted, the Objective form is sometimes used in answer to the questions “How far?” “How much?” “When?” “Where?” _e.g._— (1) “He is worth _you_ and _me_ put together.” (2) “He walked _a mile_.” (3) “He is _ten years_ old.” The Objective form _me_ in the first sentence shews that all these Nouns and Pronouns must be regarded as Objectively used. >>>>130<<<< These Adverbial Objects are sometimes, as it were, compromises between Adverbs and Direct Objects. For example, “is worth” _implies_ the Transitive Verb “equals,” and may therefore, naturally be followed by a Direct Object. On the other hand, it is in form Intransitive, so as to require an Adverb rather than an Object. >>>>131<<<< In some of these cases a Preposition may be inserted before the Object, as— (1) “We waited (for) _an hour_.” (2) “He is (by) _a trifle_ taller than I.” (3) “We will come (in) _three days_ from this time.” (4) “(At) _that moment_, Thomas appeared.” (5) “He came (by) _the shortest way_.” (6) “He stood (on) _this side_ of me.” But it is not to be supposed that a Preposition was thus inserted in early English. EXERCISE XXIII. (SPECIMEN). >>>>132<<<< Parse the italicized Nouns and Pronouns in the following Exercise:— The Romans had given _Lars Porsena_ _offence_ by banishing their king Tarquin the Proud. So Porsena sent _them_ an _ambassador_ bidding them take back their king or prepare for war. But the Romans knew well that they would never be forgiven their _rebellion_ by king Tarquin; and, although pardon was offered _them_ if they would submit, they knew they could not trust his _promises_. So they gave the _ambassador_ an _answer_ of defiance, and sent him away. Then king Porsena, after waiting some _days_ to see whether they would submit, determined to teach the _Romans_ a _lesson_ and to humble their pride. So, two _months_ after the banishment of Tarquin, the Tuscan king set out for Rome. >>>>133<<<< Great was the fear _that_ the Tuscan army caused the _Romans_, when it suddenly appeared on the other side of the Tiber. The senate was just then taking counsel; but on hearing of the enemy’s approach, all rushed that _instant_ toward the wall. Messenger after messenger had arrived bringing the _consuls word_ that this town had been taken or that village burned; but still the Romans had not expected that the army could reach Rome that _day_. Forcing his way through crowds that pressed round asking _him_ anxious _questions_ about their friends and relations, the consul mounted the wall and at once cried out: “If yonder bridge is not broken down, the enemy will be upon us this _moment_.” Then out spoke Horatius and said: “I and two others will keep the bridge for you: hew it down at once.” So Horatius and two other brave Romans, took their stand on the bridge, to fight their _battle_ against the whole Tuscan army, while the rest of the Romans, Senators and Commons together, worked hard at the bridge, loosening the props and tearing down the planks. >>>>134<<<< An Object may be parsed as follows:— ────────────┬──────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────── │After } 1. Direct. │1. } │Active 2. Indirect. │2. After what Verb. │Verb. │ Object. │After } 3. “Retained.”│3. │Passive │ │ 4. Adverbial. │4. Answering what question. ────────────┼──────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────── Lars Porsena│Indirect │had given. Them │Indirect │sent. Rebellion │Retained │would be forgiven. Them │Retained │was offered. Days │Adverbial │“How long?” Romans │Indirect │to teach. Lesson │Direct │to teach. ────────────┴──────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────── Answer the rest for yourself. >>>>135<<<< =Adverbial Subject= I. The Subject is sometimes used with the Participle (without any Verb of which it can be called the Subject) so as to make an Adverbial Phrase:— (1) “They dragged my friend away, _I_ in vain _resisting_ and _protesting_,” _i.e._ “while I,” &c. (2) “Up we climbed, _he remaining_ below.” (3) “_This done_, they departed.” (4) “_Breakfast ended_, they went out for a walk.” Examples (1) and (2) shew us that in this construction the Noun is used _Subjectively_, and not Objectively; for the Subjective forms “I” and “he” are used, not “me” and “him.” The Subject may be explained as Subject of the Verb _implied_ in the Participle; _e.g._ in (1) “_I_ resisting” is the same as “while, or, though, I _resisted_.” The Subject in this construction being free from or _loosed from_ its usual connection with the Verb, is sometimes called the =Subject Absolute= (_ab_, from; _solut-_, loosed). >>>>136<<<< II. Sometimes the Participle is omitted:— (1) “_Sword_ in hand, the captain led on his men.” (2) “I was lying on the grass, an unopened _book_ by my side.” (3) “_Breakfast_ over, we prepared for our journey.” In all these cases some participle, such as “being,” can be easily supplied. >>>>137<<<< =Apposition.= Sometimes a Noun or Pronoun is used not as the ordinary Subject or Object of a Verb, but as a sort of repetition and explanation of the Subject or Object. In such cases, “I mean,” or “that is to say,” or some similar expression, may be supplied between the two Nouns:— (1) “Next came } Thomas, (that is to say) _the boy_     Then we saw that cleans the boots.” Here “the boy,” being in close connection with “Thomas,” is said to be in =Apposition= (_ad_, near; _position_, position) to “Thomas.” >>>>138<<<< For “the boy,” write the Third Personal Pronoun. Then the sentence becomes— (2) “Next came Thomas, _he_ that cleans the boots.” (3) “Then we saw Thomas, _him_ that cleans the boots.” In (2) “Thomas” is the Subject, and the Pronoun in Apposition has the Subject-Inflection; in (3) “Thomas” is the Object, and the Pronoun in Apposition has the Object-Inflection. Hence we get this Rule:— _Nouns and Pronouns are used Subjectively when in Apposition to Subjects, and Objectively when in Apposition to Objects._ >>>>139<<<< By “used Subjectively” or “Objectively” is meant that—if the word has Subject and Object Inflections—the Subjective Inflection or Objective Inflection must be used. >>>>140<<<< In most cases it may be shewn that words “used (1) Subjectively” and (2) “Objectively” respectively, answer the question (1) “who?” or “what?” before the Verb, or (2) “whom?” or “what?” after the Verb—so that they are _logically entitled_ to be described as being themselves Subjects or Objects. Thus “he,” above, answers “who came?” Nouns or Pronouns in Apposition may be therefore described as _Appositional Subjects_ or _Objects_ respectively. >>>>141<<<< =Apposition with Indirect Object, &c.= The Indirect Object is not often emphatic enough to have another Indirect Object in Apposition to it. But such a construction may occur: “Will you give _him_ your confidence—a rascal banished from all respectable society?” >>>>142<<<< The Noun when used Possessively, being almost an Adjective, is rarely or never followed by a Noun in Apposition. It would scarcely be English to say: “This picture was not mine but my _brother’s_—an artist himself, and a great _connoisseur_.” Even were such an Appositional use allowable, the Possessive could not be tolerated in Apposition; the Objective would have to be employed, _e.g._ “artist” above, and would have to be regarded as the Object of an _implied_ “of.” In the following examples there is no Apposition; the Noun that was once Appositional has now become part of a Compound Noun:— (1) “_William the Conqueror’s_ character;” “_King Alfred’s_ reign.” The word “house” must be supplied after _each_ of the Possessive Nouns in the following Example: (1) “Let us go to _Macmillan’s_ the _Publisher’s_.” =Apposition with an Implied Noun.= >>>>143<<<< Sometimes a Noun is “in Apposition” not to another preceding Noun, but to _some Noun implied from the preceding words_:— (1) “He was said to have disobeyed his parents—_a fault_ deemed unpardonable in those days.” (2) “You were silent when accused—a clear _confession_ of guilt.” In some cases the Noun implied from the preceding sentence would, if expressed, be Objective. For example, the sentences might have run— (1) “He was guilty of _disobedience_—a _fault_,” &c. (2) “You kept _silence_—a _confession_,” &c. But in other cases the implied Noun might be Subjective, _e.g._:— “If he were elected a Member of Parliament—not a very probable event,” _i.e._ “if his _election_ were to happen,” &c. EXERCISE XXIV. >>>>144<<<< Parse the italicized words in— By this time the Tuscan army had come up, their _spears_ advanced, and _trumpets_ sounding in triumph. When they saw the three brave Romans on the bridge offering _them_ _battle_, at first the sight caused _them_ _laughter_, and three of the bravest chiefs spurred forth at Porsena’s command to open _him_ a _path_. But the next _moment_, their three bodies lay bleeding beneath the Roman spears. Then three more Tuscans rode forward; but, _these_ too being slain by the three Romans, fear and wrath fell on the whole army. So now, with levelled spears and closed ranks, they advanced all together against the champions, a _sight_ to make the bravest shrink back. But the three stood their _ground_: and now they had gained their _countrymen_ _time_ enough to loosen the props of the bridge, which began to shiver under the force of the stream. “Back, Horatius, back,” shouted the Consul; and back rushed his two friends, just in time, the bridge _cracking_ beneath their feet, and thundering downward, as they touched the bank. But the brave Horatius, his _wound_ retarding him (for he had been wounded in the last contest) could not run back in time, and so was left alone, the enemy _pressing on_ him in front, and the _river_—which was fully fifty _yards_ broad—surging and foaming behind. One _moment_ he paused, and offered up a prayer; then leaped into the stream. Romans and Tuscans, all alike, eagerly watched the brave swimmer, swimming a strong _stroke_, wounded though he was: and Porsena cried aloud that he was worth twelve ordinary _lives_, and prayed that he might live and fight many another _battle_. One _minute_ he seemed to be sinking, but the _next_ he rose, and at last, weary and faint, he reached the shore. From that time all the Romans paid _Horatius_ due _respect_, and bestowed gifts upon him, and set up his statue in the market-place, an _honour_ rarely bestowed on any Roman citizen. EXERCISE XXV. Parse the italicized words in— >>>>145<<<< A great battle was raging between the birds and the beasts: it had lasted all _day_, and was not yet decided. Not a bird or beast but* had taken one side or other in the battle—_all_[1] but the bat. She alone, the cowardly _creature_, would take no part with either side. In vain the eagle, the _general_ of the birds, being hard pressed by his enemies the _beasts_, sent _her_ his _commands_ by the swallow to join the army of the birds. “How can you give _me_ the _name_ of bird?” she replied; “what bird has teeth as I have?” Soon afterwards the lion, the _king_ of the beasts, finding the battle going against him, sent to say that he would forgive _her_ her past _cowardice_ if she came at once to join his army. “What right has he to ask _me_ such a _favour_?” replied the bat. “How can he take me for a beast? Even a mole can see that I have wings. Who ever saw a beast with wings?” >>>>146<<<< Saying these words, she flew to the birds, who seemed on the point of gaining a complete victory, and eagerly offered the _eagle_ her _services_. But the eagle answered, “Just now you told _us_ you were a beast. Go to your friends the _beasts_: they need your help more than we.” The bat retired in confusion; but an _hour_ afterwards, _fortune_ inclining toward the beasts, she humbly approached the lion, offering him her help. “You would not do _us_ a _kindness_ when we were in trouble,” roared the lion, “and now do you talk about giving _us_ your _help_? Away with you! The _battle_ once over, I will make short work with you.” Rejected by both parties—the natural _result_ of her cowardice—the bat was forced to lead a solitary life. So she skulks in dark places, and prefers the night to the day—a _warning_ to all men that they must not “trim.” ----- [1] “All” is _in apposition_ with a Subject understood. It is as though the sentence had run, “the birds and beasts had all taken sides in the battle, _all_ but the bat;” and “all” in an Adjective used as a Noun, and in apposition with “birds and beasts,” implied from the preceding sentence. >>>>147<<<< =Appositional Verbs, or Verbs of Identity.= It has been shewn that two Nouns or Pronouns when “in Apposition” are both used Subjectively, or else both used Objectively. There are some Verbs whose nature it is thus to connect Nouns or Pronouns, placing them, as it were, in Apposition. These Verbs sometimes express the _identity_ between two persons or things. The Verb “is” is commonly used thus:— (1) “The author of this book _is_ my brother.” Here “is” expresses the _identity_ between “my brother” and the Subject of “is,” _i.e._ “the author.” Hence the name Object could not be given to “my brother.” Indeed, if you alter the sentence by putting yourself in your brother’s place, it becomes— (2) “The author of this book is _I_.” Since, therefore, you are obliged to use the Subjective form “I” (not “me”), it follows that “brother” in (1) is Subjectively, not Objectively, used. For a similar reason, the ordinary term “Object” cannot be given to the Noun following the Verb in— (3) “He was made, appointed, created, _king_.” (4) “He was thought, deemed, believed, supposed, called, named, a _rascal_.” (5) “He seems, appears, looks a _rascal_.” In these sentences the Verb by itself is incomplete. “He was _made_” is not only not the complete meaning; it is even untrue. The Verb is, not “was _made_,” but “was _made-king_.” “To _make-king_” and “to _make-beautiful_” are, each, just as much one Verb, as “to _be-king_” and “to _beauti-fy_.” >>>>148<<<< Since the words “rascal” and “general” _supplement_ the preceding Verbs, they may be called the _Supplement of the Verb_; and, since they are here used Subjectively, they may be called the _Subjective Supplement of the Verb_.[1] On the other hand, in— (6) “They made, appointed, created, _him general_.” (7) “We thought, deemed, supposed, believed, called, named, _him a rascal_.” —since the identity is here between the _Object_ “him” and the “rascal” or “general,” we may call “rascal” and “general” _Objective Supplements of the Verb_.[1] ----- [1] The term “Supplement,” and not Complement, is used, for fear of confusion between the Supplement of the Verb, and the Complement of the Subject or Object mentioned in Par. 97. >>>>149<<<< Adjectives are sometimes thus used as Supplements:— (1) “We thought her _foolish_.” (2) “I painted my house _white_.” Here “thought-foolish” may be regarded as a Compound Verb. Somewhat different is the Participial use of Adjectives in— (1) “They found the man _dead_.” (2) “I bought the house _new_.” (3) “I ate my dinner _cold_.” _Caution._ Distinguish carefully between:— 1. _The Complementary Infinitive_, which is the Complement of a Noun or Pronoun (see Par. 97). 3. _The Supplement_, which is the Supplement of a Verb. >>>>150<<<< N.B.—_The Intransitive Verbs “is,” “looks,” “seems,” “appears,” and the Transitive Verbs “make,” “create,” “appoint,” “deem,” “esteem,” being often used to express identity, may be called “Verbs of Identity_.” =Rule.=—_Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take a Subjective Supplement; when Transitive, take an Objective Supplement._ =Preparatory ‘it’ and ‘there.’= >>>>151<<<< Instead of saying “To walk is healthy,” “To steal is dishonest,” we sometimes wish to put the Subject, _e.g._ “to walk,” at the end. But we should not like to say “is healthy to walk;” we want to put in some little word as the Subject of _is_, as it were to _prepare_ the way for the real Subject that is coming later on. So we say “_It_ is healthy to walk,” _i.e._ “it is healthy—I mean to walk is healthy.” This “it” may be called the _Preparatory Subject_ of “is;” for it is like a servant sent on to _prepare_ the way for his master and to secure room for him at an inn. “To walk” is the real Subject of “is.” >>>>152<<<< The Adverb _there_ is used in the same _preparatory way_, though of course it is not a Subject. For example, if you are beginning a story about a boy, it does not sound well to say “once a little boy was;” so we place “little boy” last, and put in the word “there,” not to mean “in that place,” but simply to make us feel that something is coming:— “Once _there_ was a little boy.” When _there_ is thus used, you may say “it prepares the way for the Subject, and is a Preparatory Adverb.” EXERCISE XXVI. (SPECIMEN). State the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the italicized Nouns in the following Exercise:— >>>>153<<<< Once there _was_ a stag in a forest. Looking one _day_ at the reflection of his antlers in the water, he _thought_ himself the most beautiful creature he had ever seen, till his eyes fell on the long, slim, shadows of his legs. “Why,” cried he, “_has_ not Providence _made_ all my limbs ornaments to me? Why _has_ not Heaven _given_ me the legs of the horse, which, though they do not carry him quite so swiftly as I run, _are_ nevertheless swift and beautiful at the same time? It is certain that then I _should_[1] be the king of the forest, and there _would_[1] be none to dispute the title with me. But alas! my legs _are_ mere sticks, and _make_ me the scarecrow of the forest. However, _complaints_ being unavailing, I must submit.” >>>>154<<<< Scarcely had he spoken, when there _was_ a sound of the huntsman’s horn. Away flew the stag, through the thick wood; but he was sadly hindered, his long _antlers_ catching in the low branches, and checking his furious leaps. Before he had gone a _mile_, the hounds were close upon him; but luckily he reached the open plain. Here his fine antlers, the _ornaments_ of which he had been so proud, no longer hindered him; and by the aid of his legs, the ugly _sticks_ that he had been so contemptuously despising, he soon got safe away. It _is_ a mistake you see, sometimes, to despise _what_ is ugly. ----- [1] You need not state the Mood of this Verb. >>>>155<<<< ──────────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┬─────────── Verb.[1] │ Subject. │Direct Object. │ Supplement of │ Indirect │ │ │ the Verb. │ Object. │ │ │1. Objective. │ │ │ │2. Subjective. │ │ │ │3. Adjective. │ ──────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────┼───────────────┼─────────── was │a stag (Prep │ — │ — │ — │ Adverb, │ │ │ │ “there.”) │ │ │ thought │he │himself │“the, &c. seen”│ — │ │ │ (Obj.) │ has made │Providence │limbs │ornaments │ — │ │ │ (Obj.) │ has given │Heaven │legs, &c. │ — │ me are │which │ — │swift, &c. │ — │ │ │ (Adj.) │ is │that then I │ — │certain (Adj.) │ — │ should, &c. │ │ │ │ (Prep. │ │ │ │ Pronoun, │ │ │ │ “it.”) │ │ │ should be │I │ — │king of the │ — │ │ │ forest │ │ │ │ (Subj.) │ would be │none (Prep. │ — │ — │ — │ Adverb, │ │ │ │ “there.”) │ │ │ are │my legs │ — │sticks (Subj.) │ — make │(my legs) │me │scarecrow │ — │ │ │ (Obj.) │ was │a sound, &c. │ — │ — │ — │ (Prep. │ │ │ │ Adverb, │ │ │ │ “there.”) │ │ │ ──────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴─────────── ──────────────┬────────────────┬────────────────────────────────────────── Noun. │ Use or Case. │ Reason for Use or Case. ──────────────┼────────────────┼────────────────────────────────────────── day │Object │Adverbial (Ans. _when?_) complaints │Subject │Absolute with Participle, “being │ │ unavailing” antlers │Subject │Absolute with Participle, “catching” a mile │Object │Adverbial (Ans. _how far?_) ornaments │Subject │In apposition to “antlers” sticks │Object │In apposition to “legs” what │Subject │“is ugly” (that) Par. 28│(Implied Object)│Object of “despise.” ──────────────┴────────────────┴────────────────────────────────────────── ----- [1] It will be convenient, for the sake of uniformity, to parse Verbs first, and then other words. EXERCISE XXVII. State the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the other italicized words in the following Exercise:— >>>>156<<<< In a crack near a cupboard, filled with good things, there once _lived_ a young mouse with her mother. One _day_ the little mouse, who had been wandering about by herself—a common _custom_ with her—came running hastily back: her _face_ and tail proclaiming unusual delight. “Dear mother,” cried she, “it _seems_ certain that the people here are very fond of us, for they _have built us_ a house that _will give_ us everything we _need_. They _have made_ it square, and just of the right size: the floor _is_ wooden, and so are the sides; but _there_ are windows to let in the light, and bars to keep out those monstrous striped animals that you _call cats_. Besides, just inside the cottage, close to the door, _there is_ a piece of toasted cheese. As soon as I perceived it, the delicious _smell_ attracting me, I was on the point of rushing in to taste it; but I thought _it_ my duty to come and bring _you word_ first.” >>>>157<<<< “My dear daughter,” replied the old mouse, “_it_ is most fortunate that you did not enter that trap (for it was a trap) which you thought a cottage. If you had entered, you would have been taught by your death a _lesson_ that you have now learned very cheaply. When young mice grow _old_, they find that many things that seemed _made_ for them were made for quite a different purpose—a _truth_ that, I trust, you will never forget.” “It” as Antecedent. >>>>158<<<< I. “It” is still clearly used for the Antecedent of the Relative Pronoun in questions:— (1) “Who was _it_ (_i.e._, the person) that you saw?” It is also thus used in the Bible, where we could hardly use “it”:— (2) “Art thou not _it_ that hath cut Rahab and wounded the dragon?” Similarly in Shakespeare:— (3) “There was _it_ for which my sinews shall be stretched upon him,” _i.e._, “_the thing_ for which I will attack him.” >>>>159<<<< II. We do not now like to put “it” in an emphatic position. The word seems too light to bear, as it were, the weight that would sometimes fall on it, if placed in the usual position of the Antecedent. For example, in answer to (1) above, we do not like to say, though it would be logically correct— (4) “_It_ that I saw was John.” Instead of this, we prefer to take some of the emphasis from “it” by shifting the place of “that.” In this way, “it” becomes almost as unemphatic as the preparatory “it” in Par. 151:— (5) “_It_ was John that I saw.” >>>>160<<<< By a similar transposition, instead of saying, “It that says so is you,” we ought to say, strictly speaking— (6) “_It_ is you that _says_ so.” But this sounds harsh. We feel that what we want to express is “You _say_ so.” Hence “_You that says_ so” seems ungrammatical. Consequently, by a mistake of confusion (confusing (6) with “you say so”), we have fallen into the habit of writing the sentence thus:— (7) “_It_ is you that _say_ so.” >>>>161<<<< But, in parsing (7), the only right method is 1st, to state that “say” is, by confusion, used for “says;” 2nd, that the sentence is transposed from “it that says so is you;” 3rd, that “it” is the Antecedent of “that,” and Subject of “is.” The same parsing applies to— (8) “_It_ was you that I laughed at,” _i.e._, “it that I laughed at was you.” >>>>162<<<< It would appear also to apply to— (9) “_It_ was at you that I laughed.” (10) “_It_ was from you that I received this insult.” These sentences would appear to be for “It that I laughed at was you,” “It that I received this insult from was you.” It has been suggested that “it” is here the “Preparatory _it_,” and “that” a Conjunction, the meaning being “The fact that I received this insult was owing to, or, from you.” But this does not seem to hold good for (9) “The fact that I laughed was at you.” Of course however “it” is the Preparatory “it,” and “that” is a Conjunction in: (11) “_It_ was in the time of Julius Cæsar _that_ the Romans first invaded Britain.” CHAPTER VI. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Besides expressing _facts_, a Verb may express— >>>>163<<<< I. =Purpose=:[1]— (1) “Give him some water that he _may drink_.” (2) “We hid the water lest he _should drink_ it all.” >>>>164<<<< II. =Condition=:[1]— (1) “If you _were to give_ him some water. . .” (2) “_Should_ you _see_ him to-morrow. . .” >>>>165<<<< III. =The Consequence of the fulfilment of Condition=:[1]— (1) “. . . he _would drink_.” (2) “. . . you _would find_ him much changed.” Every ordinary Verb has a _manner_, _mode_, or =Mood= of expressing Purpose, Condition, and Conditional Consequence. ----- [1] Since purpose is not generally so important as statement of fact, and is generally _subjoined_ to statement of fact, the Mood of purpose is called the “Subjoined” or =Subjunctive=. The name also includes (less properly) the Conditional Mood. >>>>166<<<< =Subjunctive of Purpose.= ─────────────────────┬──────────────────────── Present. │ Past. ─────────────────────┼──────────────────────── (that he) =may= drink│(that he) =might= drink (lest he) drink[1] │(lest he) =should= drink ─────────────────────┴──────────────────────── “Would” (apparently of purpose) is used in “We _begged, besought_, that he _would_ come.” See Par. 173. The distinction between “might” and “should” appears to be, that “might” (expressing _possibility_) is a more modest word wherewith to represent one’s object, than “should,” which expresses _futurity_, and necessity. (1) “I gave him water (in the hope) that (possibly) he _might_ drink.” (2) “I took away the water (for fear) lest (which would certainly have happened) he _should_ drink.” In other words, since we do not like to express our hopes so strongly as our fears, we use “might” of what we _hope_, and “should” of what we _fear_. ----- [1] This is rarely used; more commonly, the Past Subjunctive, “should drink,” is used in its stead. =Subjunctive of Condition.= The following is an important division of a Conditional sentence:— >>>>167<<<< _In a Conditional sentence_, (1) _the clause expressing the condition is called the Antecedent_ (“_going-before_”); (2) _the clause expressing the consequence of the fulfilment of the condition is called the Consequent_.[1] The forms in the Antecedent differ from the corresponding forms in the Consequent, and three out of five are identical with the Indicative, as will be seen from the following scheme:— ----- [1] These are also called (1) Protasis; (2) Apodosis. See _Glossary of Grammatical Terms_. >>>>168<<<< =Conditional Mood=. ─────────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────── Antecedent. │ Consequent. ─────────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────── { _sees_[1] ] │ { _will know_ ] { =were to= see │ — (If he) =should= see (me).│(he) =would= know me. _saw_ │ — _had seen_ │ =would have= known ─────────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────── ----- [1] The form “if he _see_” is now nearly extinct in good modern English. But a remnant of it remains in “if it _were_,” which is the only correct modern form for the Past Conditional. “If I _was_ you” is ungrammatical, though found (as well as “you _was_”) in the eighteenth century. “If it _be_,” “though it _be_,” are also still used, though falling into disuse. “Were” generally implies a Condition not fulfilled. For an explanation of the curious anomalies of this Scheme, see Appendix I., Par. 231. >>>>169<<<< =The Conditional Mood of Auxiliary Verbs.= The Auxiliary Verbs have only the Indicative form of the Subjunctive; they do not use the “shall-form.” For example, we do not say, “If I _should can_ (be able to) come, I _should will_ (wish to) do so,” but “If I _could_ come, I _would_ do so.” Remembering that “could,” “might,” and “would” are the Past Tenses of “can,” “may,” and “will,” and also bearing in mind the meanings of “can,” “will,” &c., viz. “to be able,” “to be willing,” we shall be able to express their Indicative Subjunctive forms in the ordinary Subjunctive forms, as follows:— >>>>170<<<< =Conditional Mood.= ───────────┬─────────────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────── TENSE. │ ANTECEDENT. │ CONSEQUENT. ───────────┼─────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────── │ _Can_ = “to be able.” Present │ { _can_ (am able) │ { _can_ (=shall= be able) Past │If I _could_   =were to be= able │I _could_ (=should be= │ │ able) │      [ =should be= able │ Compl. Past│ _could have_ (=had been= able)│ _could have_ (=should ha │ │ ve been= able) ───────────┼─────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────── │ _May_[1] = “to be allowed.” Present │ { _may_ (=am= allowed) │ { _may_ (=shall= be │ │ allowed) Past │If I _might_   =were to be= allowed│I _might_ (=should be= │ │ allowed) │      [ =should be= allowed │ Compl. Past│ _might have_ (had =been= │ _might have_ (=should │ allowed) │ have been= allowed) ───────────┼─────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────── │ _May_[1] = “to be possible.[2]” Present │ { _may_ (=it is possible= for │ { _may_ (=it will be │ me)[3] │ possible= for me) Past │If I _might_   it =were to be= poss│I _might_ (=it would be= │ ible for me[3] │ possible for me) │      [ it =should be= possible│ │ for me │ Compl. Past│ _might have_ (it =had been= │ _might have_ (it =would │ possible for me)[3] │ have been= possible │ │ for me) ───────────┼─────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────── │ _Will_ = “to be willing,” “to like.”[4] Present │ { _will_ (=is= willing) │ { _will_ (=shall be= │ │ willing) Past │If h _would_  =were to be= willing │I _would_ (=should be= │e │ willing)[4] │      [ =should be= willing │ Compl. Past│ _would have_ (=had been= │ _would have_ (=should ha │ willing) │ ve been= willing)[4] ───────────┴─────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────── ----- [1] “I _may_ come” may mean, either (1) “I am allowed to come,” or (2) “It is possible that I may come.” [2] It is English to say “I am _likely_, I am _sure_, to come.” It is a pity it is not English to say “I am _possible to_ come.” If it were, we might write “If I _were possible_, _should be possible_, _had been possible_, to come,” just as we do with “may (to be allowed).” As it is, a slight change has to be made, and we have to say, not “I am possible to come,” but “it is possible for me to come.” [3] Forms marked ^3 are rarely or never used. Hence it appears that “may” in the sense of “to be possible” is used only in the Consequent. [4] Note that “he would” very often, in the Consequent, corresponds to “I should,” and cannot be replaced by “willing,” _e.g._ “If I should see him, he would know me.” Here “would” is put, out of politeness, for “should,” and represents the Conditional (Consequent) Mood. (See Appendix I., Par. 237). But “_I_ would” is never (except in Scotland and Canada) used for “_I_ should.” Consequently in the Scheme above, “he” is placed in the Antecedent, and “I” in the Consequent, to mark the difference of use. EXERCISE XXVIII. >>>>171<<<< Replace the italicized Auxiliary Verbs by their equivalents in a non-auxiliary form; and, where they cannot be replaced, state the Mood represented by them:— 1. “If I _might_ choose,” said the camel to Jupiter, “I _would_ have the neck of the swan, and the legs of the horse; then _I should_ he the king of the beasts.” “You _could_ not _have made_ a greater mistake,” replied Jupiter; “if you had your way you _would be_ nothing but a giraffe.” 2. “If you _would_ but _throw_ me into the water,” said the gudgeon to the fisherman; “I _should_ soon grow fatter and bigger, and then, whenever you wanted me, I _would come_ and be caught.” “If I _could_ feel sure of that,” replied the fisherman, “perhaps I _might_ let you go; but, as I am not at all sure, I must pop you into my basket.” 3. “I _could have_ won the race, if I had wished,” said the hare in a rage to the successful tortoise; “but I _would_ rather lose the prize, than trudge for a dozen hours together, as you do, over a dozen yards.” 4. The ass in the lion’s skin _might_ have kept the beasts in awe for ever, if he _could have_ kept quiet. 5. “If I _could_ sell my milk at a good price, I _might_ buy a hen; the hen’s eggs _would_ give me money enough to buy a new gown; then I _should_ be the best dressed girl at the fair, and I _would_[1] walk like a fine lady, tossing my head—like this.” ----- [1] See Par. 173. >>>>172<<<< CAUTION. _Might._—“I might have” is often used for “I should have had power to,” where “power” means “lawful power.” It differs very little, in such cases, from “I could have,” except that in “could” there is no notion of “lawful” power. (1) “If he had wished he _might_ have helped me.” (2) “If he had not been too scrupulous, he _could_ soon have made his fortune.” But the two words are often confused. Very often also it is doubtful whether “might” and “could” are not Indicatively, rather than Subjunctively, used. “He _might_ have helped me” sometimes (see Par. 175) means “He _had_ (Indic.) the power to have helped me (but did not use it).” Since, according to the proverb, “no one knows what he can do till he tries,” _power_ may always be regarded (1) _as existing_ though unused, _i.e._ _Indicatively_; or (2) as a _possibility_, subject to the fulfilment of _condition_, i.e. _Subjunctively_. Hence, in Latin, the Indicative “potui” is often used in Conditional language. >>>>173<<<< _Will_, _would._—Note that—just as “I _may_ come” means “I _shall possibly_ come,”—in the same way “I _will_, or _would_ come” often means “I _shall willingly_, or, _should willingly_, come.” In other words, “will” is used for the Future of itself, _i.e._ “I shall will,” just as “may” is for “I shall may.” Hence “would” is not quite the same in— (1) “John _said_ he (John) _would_ be punctual.” (2) “John _thought_ he (John) would take a walk.” In (1) the meaning is little more than “John said he _was going_ to be punctual”; but in (2) “will” is for “shall will” or “shall like,” and “would” is, therefore, for “should will” or “should like,” so that the sentence means “John thought he _should like_ to take a walk.” This explains the use of “would” for “might” after Verbs of praying (Par. 165). “We begged that he _would_ come” is put for “we begged that he _might will_, i.e. _might be pleased_ to come.” =Indicative Use of Auxiliary Verbs.= The Verbs “can,” “may,” “shall,” “will,” together with their Past Tenses “could,” “might,” “should,” “would,” being sometimes Indicatively and sometimes Subjunctively used, require much care. Here are examples of the Indicative use of these verbs:— >>>>174<<<< _Can_, _could_, “to be able.” “He did help me, but he _could_ not (_was not able_ to) help me much.” >>>>175<<<< _May_, _might_ (i), “to be allowed;” “to have power.” (1) “I _may_ (_i.e. am allowed_ to) play now, because I have finished my work.” (2) “When I was a boy I _might_ (_i.e. was allowed_ to) always play after I had worked three hours.” (3) “My father says that I _may_ (_i.e. am allowed_ to) go out.” (4) “My father said that I _might_ (_i.e. was allowed_ to) go out.” (5) “You _might_ (_i.e. had the power_ to) have helped me, but you would not.” >>>>176<<<< _May_, _might_ (ii), “to be possible.” (1) “He says that he _may_ possibly come, but he does not feel certain;” _i.e._ “his coming is possible.” (2) “He said that he _might_ come, but that he did not feel certain;” _i.e._ “his coming was possible.” >>>>177<<<< _Shall_, _should_ (i), “to be obliged; to be bound.” (1) “You _should_ (_i.e. were_, and _are, bound_ to) control your temper.” (2) “You _should_ not (_i.e. were bound_ not to) have been so hasty.” >>>>178<<<< _Shall_, _should_ (ii), “to be going.” (1) “John says that he _shall_[1] (_is going_ to) help me.” (2) “John said that he _should_ (_was going_ to) help me.” ----- [1] There is no rudeness in “shall” here, because John is here avowing his own fixed intention. _You_ do not use “shall” about John: John uses it about himself. >>>>179<<<< _Will_, _would_, “to be willing; to wish; to like.” (1) “He _would_ not (_i.e. willed_ not, or, _refused_ to) help me, although he _could_ (_i.e. was able_ to) easily have done it.” (2) “Although he was warned of the danger, yet the foolish boy _would_ (_i.e. willed, was determined_ to) run upon the thin ice.” (3) “After breakfast the old man _would_ (_i.e. liked_ to) generally take a walk.” >>>>180<<<< _Caution._—Notice that Indicative Tenses of “may,” “can,” “shall,” “will,” when depending on a Principal Verb in the Present, are Present; but when depending on a Past, are Past:— (1) “I say that I _may_, _can_, _shall_, _will_, _help_ you.” (2) “I said that I _might_, _could_, _should_, _would_, _help_ you.” >>>>181<<<< =Rule=.—_The Auxiliary Verbs “can,” “could,” “may,” “might,” &c. (when not following “if” or any other Conjunction expressing Condition) are used Indicatively, provided they can be altered into the Indicatives of other Verbs._ >>>>182<<<< =How to Parse the Subjunctive.= 1. Where the Mood expresses _Purpose_, parse the Verb as “Subjunctive of Purpose.” 2. Where the Mood expresses _Condition_, but in the Indicative form, _e.g._ “If he _comes_, _came_, _had come_,” you may parse the Verb as “Conditional (Indicative form);” otherwise as simply “Conditional.” 3. State whether the Conditional Verb is in the Antecedent or Consequent. It is good practice to replace Auxiliary Verbs by their equivalents, either in the Indicative or the Subjunctive, as the case may be. EXERCISE XXIX. (SPECIMEN). >>>>183<<<< State the Moods of italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:— Hundreds of years ago, in the centre of the city of Rome there suddenly appeared one morning a deep chasm or pit. No one knew what _could have caused_ it, and no one could fill it up. If earth or stone _could have filled_ it up, it _would_ not _have remained_ open long; but, although heaps upon heaps of stone and rubbish were cast down, the pit still remained unfilled. The people now began to fear that the gods of Rome _might intend_ to punish the city, and they thought the pit _might be_ a sign of their anger. So they went to the priests to ask them what they _ought_ to do. The high priest replied that the gods had sent the pit in anger at the citizens; “Even though you _went on_ casting in earth for centuries,” said he, “the pit _would_ never _be closed_: it will always remain open, until the most precious thing in Rome _is cast_ into it.” On learning this, the citizens cast in their gold and the women their bracelets and ear-rings, in the hope that thus they _might satisfy_ the gods and close the pit. But all was in vain, and it seemed as if nothing _would be_ of use. At last a young soldier named Marcus Curtius, clothed in full armour and mounted on his horse, cried aloud that if a brave man _had cast_ himself into the pit, it _would have been closed_ long ago. Saying this he set spurs to his horse and leaped into the pit; which at once closed, and never opened afterwards. >>>>184<<<< _Could have caused._ “Was able to have caused.” Indicative.[1] _Could have filled._ “Had been able to fill.” Indicative form of the Conditional: Antecedent. _Would have remained._ Conditional: Consequent. _Might intend._ “_It was possible_ that they intended (put for ‘they were possible to intend').” Indicative.[1] _Might be._ “_It was possible_ to be (put for ‘was possible to be’).” Indicative.[1] _Ought._ “Were bound.” Indicative.[1] _Went on._ “Should go on.” Indicative form of the Conditional: Antecedent. _Would be closed._ Conditional: Consequent. _Is cast._ “Shall be cast.” Indicative form of the Subjunctive. _Might satisfy._ “It was possible that they were going to satisfy (put for 'they were possible to satisfy').” Indicative.[1] _Would be._ Conditional: Antecedent. Full sentence is, “as (it would seem) if nothing were going to be of use.” _Had cast._ Indicative form of the Conditional: Antecedent. _Would have been closed._ Conditional: Consequent. ----- [1] Note that the Indicative is used not only in questions, but also after Verbs of fearing, hoping, &c., in many places where it cannot be said to express a _fact, e.g._ (1) “I hope he _has_ come,” (2) “I fear he _has_ not come,” (3) “I will ask who _has_ come, or, if any one _has_ come.” In Latin, the Subjunc. would be used in (2) and (3), the Infin. in (1). EXERCISE XXX. State the Moods of the following italicized Verbs:— >>>>185<<<< “If we _had_ but a king,” said some noisy frogs in a pond, “we _should_ be peaceful and orderly; as it is, every one _may_ do as he pleases, and say what he likes, and there is as much uproar in our pond as[1] if we _were_ a set of noisy ducks, instead of being quiet respectable frogs. A king _would_[2] soon set us to rights. O! that Jupiter[3] _would_ give us a king.” So they held an assembly and offered up a prayer to Jupiter that he _would_[4] give them a king. Scarcely were the words of their prayer out of their mouths, when down came a big black monster from the sky, splashing the water up like a fountain. Away swam the frogs in a fright. “Jupiter _should_ not have sent us such a terrible monster,” cried they; “why _could_ he not send us a decent quiet king, who _might_[5] keep us in order without frightening us out of our wits? As for this tyrant, if he _terrifies_[6] us thus at his first coming, what will he do when he _is_[7]^{(_a_)} used to oppressing us?” >>>>186<<<< But the big black monster took no notice of their terror. There he lay silent and sullen, and _would_ not so much as move a limb. Astonished at his silence, the frogs, after their first fright, began to wish that their new king _would_[4] say or do something, so that at least they _might be relieved_ from their suspense. So they took out of prison a frog that had committed murder, and promised him free pardon if he _would_ swim within three frog’s leaps of the king. Shivering with terror the poor frog swam towards the king, scarcely daring to hope that he _might_[7]^{(_b_)} escape, and expecting every moment that the huge monster _would_ dart upon him with open jaws, and swallow him up. Closer and closer he swam; still the king floated silent, motionless. Taking courage from this, the frog thought he _would_[8] awake his majesty by croaking. He croaked, but the king made no reply. He swam closer, and still closer, and at last, his suspicions being aroused, he extended one of his legs, and stroked the monster’s face with it. It was as he had suspected. The king was no king, nothing but a big black log. >>>>187<<<< Immediately the whole tribe of frogs, who had been watching from a distance, lifted up their voices and began to abuse Jupiter: “If he _had wished_ to insult us,” cried they, “he _could_ not have treated us more contemptuously. We _should_ not have minded a strong and somewhat fierce king, even if he _had swallowed_ up a few of us now and then. Anything _would_ be better than this do-nothing, this King Log. Why _may_ not we have a king as the birds and the beasts have? Jupiter _should_ not have treated us thus; he _might_[9] at least have sent us no king instead of thus insulting us. We will pray to him no more until he _sends_[10]^{(_a_)} us a real king.” So the frogs shut up all their temples, and for a whole day _would_ say no more prayers to Jupiter. But at the end of the day there suddenly hopped down into the pond a monstrous stork to be their king. He began by gobbling up a dozen of the noisiest frogs, and ordered that no frog _should_[10]^{(_b_)} croak in any part of the pond while he was asleep. This pleased the rest, who said, “Now we shall have order: it is worth while having a strong king that we _may_ have peace and quiet.” But, when they came swimming round him next morning, to pay their respects, and to ask him to judge their disputes, he _would_ not hear them, but ate them up by scores, quiet and noisy alike, choosing the fattest. So now the frogs saw they had made a mistake, and they said, “If we _were_ once rid of King Stork we _would_ not find fault with King Log, and indeed we _could_ be content to have no king at all.” ----- [1] _i.e._ “as (there would be) if we were.” [2] Here, as very often, the Antecedent is left out, but can be supplied, “if he were here.” [3] “O! that Jupiter _would_” is a short way of saying “(we pray, desire) that Jupiter _would_.” This is a more earnest and less hopeful way of expressing oneself than “we pray that Jupiter _will_, or _may_.” If fully expressed, the sentence would perhaps be “if it were possible that one’s prayer could be granted, we _would_ pray that Jupiter would give us a king.” This is “would” of _purpose_; Par. 167. [4] (1) After “prayer” _would_ expresses _purpose_; (2) after “wish” it may be changed into “was going to,” and treated as Indicative. [5] “Who _might_ keep us in order” is put for “_that he_ might” and denotes _purpose_. [6] “If” here is the same as “since.” Hence “terrifies” is Indicative. [7] (_a_) See Par. 80; (_b_) “might,” see Par. 180. [8] “He thought he _would_” is put for “he thought he _should will_, i.e. _should like_” See Par. 173. [9] This is Indicative, if you take it to mean “he had the power;” but, if you take it to be “he would have been able (if he had pleased),” is Conditional, Consequent. See Par. 172. [10] (_a_) See Par. 80; (_b_) “_should_ croak,” notion of Purpose. >>>>188<<<< =The Indefinite Subjunctive.= Sometimes “should” is used where a Condition is _implied_ rather than expressed:— (1) “It would be unjust that I _should_ suffer for other people’s misconduct.” This is really equivalent to— (2) “It would be unjust _if_ I _should_ suffer,” &c. But it is more difficult to explain why we say— (3) “It _is_ a shame that I _should_ be thus insulted,” _i.e._ “am thus insulted.” (4) “I am sorry that my son _should_ thus misconduct himself,” _i.e._ “thus misconducts himself.” (5) “To think that he _should have_ so far disgraced himself!” _i.e._ “has so far disgraced himself.” In the last three examples _facts_ are spoken of: why then is the Subjunctive used? The answer is, that we desire here to speak of the facts, not as definite facts, but as _possibilities_. In the same indefinite way we sometimes use the Infinitive, as being an Indefinite Mood:— (6) “It is a shame _for_[1] me _to be_ thus _insulted_.” Consequently, this use of “should” may be called the _Indefinite Subjunctive_. ----- [1] “For to . . . be insulted,” is really here the Old Infinitive with “for to” instead of “to.” See Par. 402. >>>>189<<<< =Tenses of the Subjunctive.= It is usual to speak of the _Present_ and _Past_ Tenses of a Subjunctive: but, in reality, “if _he comes_” refers to _future_ time, and so does “if he _came_ or _should come_.” It may perhaps be said that, in “if he come(s), I will see him;” the Condition, though having to do with the Future, is regarded as _Present_ to the speakers. Nevertheless, the fact that the Elizabethan writers often used to say “if he shall come,” indicates that this form is more like a Future than anything else. The form “if he _should_ come” seems to be a combination of Future and Past—the Future being represented by the _shall_, and the Past by the Inflection _-d_—as though with the intention of making a Condition that should apply to no time in particular, but to all time. The same intention seems obvious in “if he _were to_ come,” where the Past time is included in “were,” and the Future in “to,” which looks “_to-_ward” the future. =The False Subjunctive.= >>>>190<<<< “If” is sometimes used not in its ordinary Conditional sense, nor, on the other hand, exactly like “since,” but rather in the sense of “assuming as a fact.” In such cases it is followed by a true Indicative (not an Indicative form of the Conditional), and the Indicative (Present or Past) is also used in the Consequent:— (1) “_If_ he _says_ that, he _is_ more ignorant than I supposed.” (2) “_If_ he _said_ that, he _was_ more ignorant than I had supposed.” This must not be confounded with the true Subjunctive. Pope seems to use the Present and the Future indifferently after “while” in— “While _lasts_ the mountain or while Thames _shall flow_.” CHAPTER VII. IRREGULARITIES. >>>>191<<<< Regularity means that which is _like a ruled line_, for “regular” means “ruled.” Irregularity, therefore, means that which is _not like a ruled line_. Language is said to be regular when it follows _straight fixed rules_.[1] ----- [1] For a Summary of the Rules of Syntax, see “RULES AND DEFINITIONS,” p. xxviii. =Irregularity of Idioms.= >>>>192<<<< For example, it is _regular_ to say, “I have a score of sheep.” Here “score” is a Noun, and therefore is regularly followed by “of.” On the other hand, it is _irregular_ to say, “I have a dozen marbles,” leaving out “of.” Now bear in mind— _Whenever language is irregular, there is some cause for the irregularity._ Language does not bend away from its straight fixed rules for nothing; there is some _cause_ that makes it bend. >>>>193<<<< In the last example there are perhaps two causes: (1) when we say, “I have a dozen,” we _confuse_ this with “I have twelve,” that is to say, we confuse the use of a Noun with the use of an Adjective. So we treat “dozen,” partly as though it were an Adjective, leaving out the “of” after it, and partly as though it were a Noun, keeping the “a” before it. We do the same thing in “I have a hundred sheep;” we ought to say, by rule, “I have a hundred (_Noun_) of sheep,” or, “I have hundred (_Adjective_) sheep;” but we keep the “a,” as though “hundred” were a Noun, and yet leave out “of” as though “hundred” were an Adjective. Thus we _mix or confuse two constructions_. (2) Another reason why the “of” is omitted after “dozen” and “hundred” is probably _the desire to be brief_. >>>>194<<<< Here then there are two causes, and they are very common causes, of irregularity: =(1) Confusion of two constructions, (2) the desire to be brief. (3) The desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction=, and (in Poetry more especially) the desire to give special emphasis to certain words, are also causes of irregularity. >>>>195<<<< =Irregularity of Words.= The “confusion of two constructions,” or rather the “reduplication of constructions,” affects the formation of _words_, as well as of _idioms_. It is very common for an Inflection to become obsolete and forgotten, and then to receive a second Inflection as an appendage, the two being blended or “confused” together. >>>>196<<<< For example (1) the old Genitive in ‘_s_, which is now retained only in our “Possessive Inflection,” had once a wider use, so that it represented our “at” or “by,” and was used for an Adverbial termination. Hence were formed: (1) “One_-s_” or “once;” “unaware_-s_;” “door_-s_;” “day_-s_;” _i.e._ “by day.” In time, the Adverbial use of the Inflection becoming obsolete, a Preposition was inserted, but the old useless Inflection was retained: (2) “At once;” “at unawares” (Spenser); “in doors;” “now-a-days.”[1] ----- [1] Occasionally there is found “by little_s_ and little_s_.” >>>>197<<<< In the same way (1) “near” was recognised as a Comparative form, from “neah” nigh: (2) “songster” was recognised as a Feminine, with the old Feminine termination _-ster_. But, as the sense of the Inflection in each word became lost, new Inflections were added: (1) “Near_-er_;” (2) “Song-str_ess_.” In this way may be explained the use of “_yours_” in “a friend of yours.” (_See_ Par. 434). The use of “yours”[1] for “your,” is in part explained by “confusion,” and in part by Law III. Law III, the “Desire to avoid harshness,” accounts for the irregular retention of the following old forms for emphasis:— (1) “I want a book, give me _one_ (emphatic form of _a_, _an_, _ane_).” (2) “Give me a book, for I have _no_(_ne_).” (3) “Keep my book, and I will keep _your_(_s_),[1] till you have done with _mi_(_ne_).” ----- [1] “Yours” was early used in the Northern Dialects. >>>>198<<<< =How to Explain Irregularities.= Just as the attraction of the earth makes a bullet deviate from the straight line in which it is discharged, so some attracting cause makes language deviate from the straight path, _i.e._ from _regularity_, into a path that is not straight, _i.e._ into _irregularity_. This may be illustrated by a diagram:— [Illustration: =↓=Attracting force:— I. Desire of Brevity. II. Influence, of some other construction. III. Desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction, &c. &c. ] First, therefore, ascertain the _regularity_ from which the _irregularity_ in question has deviated. Secondly, ascertain the _cause of deviation_, whether it be (i) desire of brevity; (ii) confusion of two constructions; (iii) desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction. (1) “He loved her _as_ his own daughter,” _i.e._, “as (he would have loved her, if she had been) his own daughter.” (Brevity). (2) “_All of_ us remonstrated,” _i.e._, confusion of the two constructions: “All[1] we remonstrated,” and “_some_, _many_, _ten_, &c. _of_ us remonstrated.” (3) “It is you that say so.” ----- [1] Compare “_All we_, like sheep, have gone astray.” >>>>199<<<< In this last example two principles are at work. The regular construction would have been— (1) “It that says so is you.” Here steps in (III) the desire to avoid the harshness of “it,” used so emphatically; hence “it” is deprived of its emphasis by being separated from its Relative “that.” (2) “It is you that says so.” Here steps in (II) “confusion” between this construction and the straightforward construction “You say so”—resulting in the idiom logically incorrect, but by process of custom stamped as perfectly good English:— (3) “It is you that _say_ so.”[1] ----- [1] See also Par. 160. >>>>200<<<< Irregularities are very common (i) with the Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs, (ii) with Adjectives and Adverbs of Number and Amount. A few of these irregularities are given below, in order to prepare the reader for dealing systematically with all irregularities in the English language. In every case the same method will be adopted, viz. to ask— I. _What would be the regular construction?_ II. _What is the cause of irregularity?_ =Relative Pronouns and Adverbs.= >>>>201<<<< 1. “=That=” is often omitted as the Object, and sometimes (rarely except in Poetry) as the Subject:— (1) “’Twas you (_that_) I saw.” (2) “’Twas you (_that_) said so, not I.” The regular construction inserts “that.” The cause of irregularity is (I)[1] “the desire of brevity,” and (II)[1] “confusion” with the straight-forward construction “You said so.” ----- [1] These Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity mentioned in Paragraph 198. >>>>202<<<< 2. “=But=” seems put for “that...not” or “who...not,” _e.g._ in— (1) “There is no one here _but_ hates you,” _i.e._ “that does not hate you.” The radical meaning of “but” is “be-out” or “with-out;” hence “except.” And therefore the regular construction is— (2) “There is no man here _but_ or _except_ (he) hate you.” Compare _Julius Cæsar_, v. 5, 35:— (3) “I found no man _but he_ was true to me.” _Brevity_ steps in and omits “he.” Also “but” is _confused_ with a Relative Pronoun, just as “as” is. (See next Paragraph). For other uses of “but,” see Index. >>>>203<<<< 3. “=So.=” The radical meaning of “so” (Early English “swa”) is “in that way;” and the radical meaning of “as” (which is a contraction of an emphatic form of “so,” Early English “all-swa,” “alse,” “als,” “as”) is “in which way,” or “in that way.” Consequently, “as” has the Demonstrative meaning of “so,” besides having its own Relative meaning. (1) “If you are busy, say _so_.” (2) “I thought he was a rascal, and he is _so_.” The Regular Construction would be— (3) “He is _it_.” But (Law III)[1] the _harshness_ of “it” in so emphatic a position has tended to irregularity; and (Law II) this construction has been _confused_ with— (4) “I thought he was a rascal and he turned out _so_, proved _so_,” &c. In (4), “so” is used in its proper sense, viz. “in that way,” and it has been confused with and substituted for “it” in Example (2), in which “so” must be parsed as “used for _it_.” ----- [1] These Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity mentioned in Paragraph 198. >>>>204<<<< 4. “=So as-to.=” (1) “The sailors furled the sails _so as_ to be prepared for the storm.” The Regular Construction would be— (2) “The sailors furled the sails _so_ (in the way) _as_ (in which way) [they would furl the sails] to be prepared for the storm.” Brevity (Law I), disliking the repetition, omits the bracketed sentence. In the same way we say— (3) “I am not _so_ credulous _as_ (I should have to be) to believe this.” The words “so as” add indefiniteness, by suggesting _condition_. If they had been omitted: (4) “The sailors furled the sails _to be_ prepared for the storm.” —the _purpose_ of the sailors would have been definitely expressed. But the insertion of “so as” implies rather that the work was of a nature tending towards a certain result, without distinctly stating the _purpose_. >>>>205<<<< 5. “=As.=” “In that way,” “in which way.” (1) “I have not such kind treatment _as_ I used to have.” (2) “Bring such books _as_ you have.” (3) “Parse such a sentence _as_ this (is).” (4) “Such _as_ it is, I give it you.” The Regular Construction would be (since “such” means “so-like,” and is the Demonstrative corresponding to the Relative “which,” _i.e._ what-like):— (5) “I have not such kind treatment _which_ I used to have.” >>>>206<<<< Hence, in Shakespeare, we often find “such” followed by “which” and “that” (Relative Pronouns):— (6) “Such an affection _which_ cannot choose but branch.” (7) “You speak to Casca, and to _such_ a man _That_ is no fleering tell-tale.” But (Law II)[1] the Regular Construction in (5) is _confused_ with— (8) “I have not kind treatment _as_ (_i.e._, in the way in which) I used to have.” ----- [1] These Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity mentioned in Paragraph 198. >>>>207<<<< The result is the irregularity in (1), which is now recognized as good English. But while this process of “confusion of constructions” was going on, many idioms were formed that have been discarded, and are not recognized as good English. We all know that it is vulgar to say— (9) “This is _the_ boy _as_ I saw yesterday.” Yet Shakespeare, using “as” for “that,” precisely in this way, writes— (10) “I have not from your eyes _that_ gentleness And show of love _as_ I was used to have.” >>>>208<<<< Hence we can explain the use of “as” in parentheses, as follows:— (11) “So you are late again, _as_ (is) usual.” (12) “_As_ I told you before, you must work before you play.” In both (11) and (12) “as” is used for the Relative Pronoun “which,” while the Antecedent (see Par. 25) must be supplied from the context, thus:— (11) in full, “So you are late again, _which_ (lateness) is usual with you.” (12) in full, “You must work before you play, _which_ (saying) I told you before.” >>>>209<<<< 6. “=As=” redundant. (1) “He was appointed _as_ general.” (2) “We will have him _as_ our leader.” (3) “I esteem him _as_ a rascal.” (4) “This shall serve us _as_ ink.” In (3) and (4) the Regular Construction would be— (3) in full, “I esteem him _as_ (I should esteem) a rascal.” (4) in full, “This shall serve us _as_ ink (would serve us).” It is more difficult to give the Regular Construction for (1) and (2), and probably the irregularities of (1) and (2) are caused not only by (I) _desire of brevity_, but also by (II) _confusion of construction_. For example, it is an easy transition to “We will _have_ him _as_” from:— (5) “We will obey him, serve him, honour him, treat him, hold him, _as_ (we would obey, serve, honour, treat, hold) our leader.” >>>>210<<<< “As,” in many similar sentences, is used to give the impression that the writer is not stating a _fact_, but _somebody else’s opinion_:— (1) “He considered pleasure _as_ (it would be considered if it were) the object of life.” (2) “He represented the results of the expedition _as_ (they would be represented, if they were) most disastrous.” In all these cases “as” may be parsed as “redundant.” The full construction should be given, or the construction that has caused the irregularity by “confusion.” For “as yet” and other uses of “as,” see Index. >>>>211<<<< 7. “=As if=,” “=as though=,” are often used where (I) the Consequent is omitted:— (1) “He loved her _as_ (he would have loved her) _if_ she had been his own daughter.” (2) “He loved her _as_ (much as he could have loved her, for he could not have loved her more) _though_ she had been his own daughter.” In both examples, Brevity is the Cause of Irregularity. >>>>212<<<< =Words of Number.=[1] Some much-used Adjectives and Adverbs of Number and Amount present many irregularities. The same word is used sometimes— 1. As a _Numeral Adjective_, answering the question “How many?” 2. As an _Adverb_, answering the question “How much?” “In how great a degree?” &c. 3. As a _Noun_, being the name of a collection, _e.g._ “score.” ----- [1] (I), (II.), (III), refer to the “Laws of Irregularity,” mentioned in Par. 198. >>>>213<<<< Hence the principal “Cause of Irregularity” here will be the “Confusion of Constructions,” viz. the Constructions of an Adjective, Adverb, and Noun. (1) “A dozen (of) pens, a hundred (of) men, half (of) the country,[1] all (of) the men, more (of) pudding, a little (of) pudding.”[2] Here the Regular Construction would have been— (2) “Hundred men, twenty men,” &c. But a feeling that each number represented a single “collection” led to the insertion of “a” without the grammatically consistent and necessary insertion of “of,” so that the Noun Construction was confused with the Adjective. In the same way, in earlier English, we find— (3) “A _score_ sheep,” “a ten furlongs.” And even in our Authorized Version of the Bible we have— (4) “About _an_ eight _days_ after these sayings.” ----- [1] Note that you cannot say “quarter the country.” Why? Because “half” is _more commonly_ used than “quarter” (insomuch that “half” is sometimes used for “part,” _e.g._ “the larger half”); and remember _irregularities feed upon custom_. It is where men have to say the same things _often and quickly_, that men are most apt to cut and clip and modify their language to suit their convenience. Hence, in Latin “venio Romam,” but “venio _ad_ Italiam.” [2] See Par. 217. >>>>214<<<< In some of these cases probably the Adjective and Noun are regarded as _one_ Compound Noun. Compare “_a_ fortnight,” _i.e._ “_a_ fourteen-night,” “_a_ twelve-month.” But in modern English the irregularity is only licensed with a few much-used Adjectives—“dozen,” “hundred,” “thousand” (perhaps “million”). >>>>215<<<< 1. “All.” (1) “All _of_ us rejoiced.” Regular Construction “All we.” Cause of Irregularity, partly (III) the _harshness_ of “all we,” partly (II) Confusion of (1) with “ten, twenty, many, &c., _of_ us.” Note the following various uses:— (2) “He rushed up _all_ out of breath,” “_all_ the better,” Adverb. (3) “_All_ is in vain: he will not help us at _all_,” Noun. (4) In “The men _all_ perished.” —“all” may be parsed as an Adjective, just as we can say “The men—twenty in number—perished.” But undoubtedly “all” owes its position in (4) to a _confusion_ of its Adjectival use with its Adverbial use, viz. “altogether.” >>>>216<<<< 2. “=Enough=:”— (1) “He has been punished _enough_,” Adverb. (2) “We have had _enough_ of wandering,” Noun. (3) “We have not _enough_ men,” Adjective, though really a Noun with “of” omitted; (II.) (4) “I have not men _enough_,” Adverb in position, Adjective in use; (II.) >>>>217<<<< “=Few=,” “=little=:”— (1) “A _few_ (of) men,” “a _little_ (of) pudding.” Adjectives, with (II.) Confusion of Noun Construction. Distinguish “a _little_ (of) pudding” from “a little,” _i.e._ “a _small_ pudding.” See Pars. 213-14. >>>>218<<<< 3. “=Many=:”— (1) “_Many_ a man has tried, but few have succeeded.” The Regular Construction would be “Many men;” but this appears to have been confused with— (2) “_Many times_ a man has tried.” The _-y_ termination of “many” has doubtless favoured this Adverbial use. There is abundant proof that in Early English “many” was used either as an Adverb, or as part of a Compound Adjective “many-one,” _i.e._ in Modern English “many-a.” (See _Shakespearian Grammar_, Par. 85.) This began in the thirteenth century. In the same way the Germans say “mancher (Adj.) mann,” but “manch (Adv.) _ein_ mann.” The insertion of “a” is common after Adjectives that are Semi-Adverbial. Compare— (3) “_What a_ man he is!” (4) “_Such a_ man as he is ought to know better.” And, in Early English:— (5) “_Each a_ man,” “_which a_ wife,” _i.e._ “_what a_ wife.” Shakespeare also has— (6) “_Poor_ (_i.e._ barely) _a_ thousand pounds.” It is rare to find “many” (like “few”) now treated as a Noun (Shakespeare has “a _many_ of our bodies”):— (6) “A _many_ (of) men.” >>>>219<<<< 4. “=More=:”— (1) “Give me some, no, much, &c. _more_ pudding.” (2) “Give me three _more_ books, one _more_ book.” Here “more” is an Adverb, and means “besides.” But it owes its position to a confusion of the Adverbial with the Adjectival use of “more.” Hence, instead of saying “Some pudding _more_, _i.e._ in addition,” we say “some _more_ pudding.” >>>>220<<<< “No,” “any,” “some,” are used as Adverbs answering to the question “How much more?” in— (3) “He slept _no more_,” _i.e._ “_no_ longer;” “did not sleep _any more_, _much more_,” i.e. “_any_, _much_, longer.” >>>>221<<<< “More” is used as a Noun in— (4) “He is always asking for _more_.” (5) “I want, (or) I said, no _more_.” Here “no” may be regarded either as an Adjective making up part of a Compound Noun, “no-more,” or perhaps, more correctly, as an Adverb modifying the anomalous Adverbial Noun “more.”[1] ----- [1] For the Adverbial use of “no,” see Index. >>>>222<<<< “=Some=:”— (1) “I had _some_ difficulty,” Adjective of Amount. (2) “I saw _some_ children,” Adjective of Number. (3) “He will come _some_ time or other,” Adjective of Indefiniteness. (4) “_Some_ one or other said so,” Adjective of Indefiniteness. (5) “_Some_ twenty men arrived,” _i.e._ “about,” Adverb. Compare, for the Adverbial use of “some,” Shakespeare’s use of the word:— (6) “I would detain you here _some_ month or two.” (7) “_Some_ hour (_i.e._ about an hour) before you took me.” And Early English (modern Scotch) use:— (8) “It is _some_ late.” “Five mile or _some_ (_i.e._ thereabouts).” * * * * * =“Each,” “every,” “one,” “none,” “other.”= >>>>223<<<< 1. “=Each=,” “=other=:”— (1) “They hated _each other_ (or) _one another_.” This is (I) a contraction for— (2) “They hated, each (hated) other,” or, “They hated, one (hated) an other.” In the same way we must explain (I) by the _Desire of Brevity_:— (3) “They inquired after—each (inquired after) other’s health.” Here, in modern English,[1] we are inclined to treat “each other” as a Compound Noun; but it is not so. “Each” is in Apposition to “they,” or Subject to “inquired” understood. ----- [1] See Par. 530. >>>>224<<<< _Caution._ It is a common fault to use “each” with a Plural Verb. Where “each” appears to be the Subject of a Plural Verb, it is really not so, but only in apposition to the true Subject, _e.g._:— (4) “They are _each_ going to their several homes.” Here also “their homes” for “his home” is hardly logically correct.[1] The following line of Pope is an example shewing that, though “all” takes a Plural, “each” does not:— (5) “_All join_ to guard what _each desires_ to gain.” ----- [1] The Latins would have used the Singular, “domum.” >>>>225<<<< 2. “=Every=” (once “ever-each,”) is used like “a” before a Numeral Adjective and Noun:— (1) “There is a lamp-post _every_ hundred yards.” (2) “He wakes up _every_ ten minutes.” In such cases probably “ten-minutes,” “hundred-yards,” are Compound Nouns like “fo(u)rt(een)-night,” “twelve-month.” See Par. 214. >>>>226<<<< 3. “=One=” (which is the same word, by derivation, as “ane,” “an,” “a”) may mean (_a_) a particular “one;” (_b_) any “one” you like; (_c_) a single “one;” (_d_) being used for “one person” or “one thing,” it has come to mean a “person,” “animal,” (_e.g._ “young _ones_,”) or “thing”:— (_b_) “_One_ knows very well that perseverance _is_ necessary for success,” Pronoun: “any one.” (_d_) “All creatures love their young _ones_,” Noun. (1) “I do not like this book; give me that _one_.” (2) “I have no book; give me _one_.” In (1) “one” is a Pronoun put for “book;” in (2) an Adjective (with the Noun to be supplied) put for “_one_ (book)” or “_a_ (book).” Sometimes the meaning of “one” depends on its emphasis. For example, in (2) “one” is unemphatic, and means “a”; but where it is emphatic, it may mean “a single one,” _e.g._ in— (3) “Lend me a book; I have not _one_ left.” >>>>227<<<< 4. “=None=,” when used as a Subject, ought to be followed by a Singular Verb, as in Dryden:— (1) “None but the brave _deserves_ the fair.” But when you are denying something about a number of persons, the Verb falls naturally into the Plural:— (2) “_None_ of my friends _were_ at home.” This arises from a confusion (II) between “_none was_ at home” and “_all were_ not-at-home.” >>>>228<<<< It is a common fault (not quite sanctioned by custom), to say:— (3) “Neither you nor he _were_ to blame,” for “_was_ to blame.”[1] This arises from a confusion (II) with— (4) “You and he _were_ both not to blame.” ----- [1] The Rule is that when two Subjects are separated by “nor,” or “or,” the Verb agrees with the latter. There is a little harshness in the correct “was.” The harshness may be _evaded_ by writing, “Neither he nor you were to blame.” Here “were” must be right, whether the Subject be regarded (incorrectly) as Plural “he nor you,” or (correctly) as “you.” >>>>229<<<< “None” was once used as an Adjective; and this usage is still retained in— (5) “Where is your book? I have _none_.” (6) “Hope have I _none_.” Here “none” is used _for the sake of emphasis_. “I have _no_ book” would not lay emphasis enough on “no.” “Book have I _no_” would be intolerably harsh. And therefore we use the old emphatic form “none;” just as we cannot say “this book is _my_,” but have to say “this book is _mine_.” “None” is Adverbial in— (7) “He is _none_ the happier for all his wealth,” _i.e._ “no one whit,” or “naught,” Adverb. >>>>230<<<< 5. “=No.=” If in the last example “the” were omitted, we should use, instead of “none,” the less emphatic form “no”:[1]— (1) “He is _no_ happier for all his wealth,” Adverb. “No” does not seem to be a Numeral Adjective in— (2) “You are _no_ soldier.” It is rather Adverbial: “You are _in no way, in no respect_, a soldier.” ----- [1] Compare “_none_ the less” with the less emphatic form of “none” in “_na_thless.” APPENDIX I. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. It is interesting to trace the processes that have shaped our modern anomalous Conditional Mood. For this purpose we will compare the Mood “as it is,” with the Mood “as it might have been.” =Conditional Mood, as it is.= >>>>231<<<< ───────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────────── ANTECEDENT. │ CONSEQUENT. ───────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────── { _sees_ ] │ { _will know_ } were to see │ — If he should see me,│he would know me. _saw_ │ — _had seen_ │ would have known ───────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────────────── =As it might have been.= >>>>232<<<< Out of the five forms of the Conditional Antecedent, three (those italicized above) are identical with the Indicative; and out of three in the Consequent, one is Indicative. Once there were many more separate Conditional forms; but they have now fallen into disuse, and the Conditional Mood is assimilated to the Indicative. >>>>233<<<< The reasons for this are (1) the general tendency in every language to drop distinctions wherever they can be dropped; (2) the “if,” expressing the Condition by itself, has enabled us to dispense, _in the Antecedent_, with the Verbal forms; but, _in the Consequent_, there being no “if,” the Verbal forms have been retained.[1] There is no ambiguity in “if he had seen me” used in the Antecedent; but, were that form used in the Consequent, _e.g._ “he had known me,” there would be danger of ambiguity. It is neither possible nor desirable to revive the old forms, but it is of use to perceive their regularity. There are two ways of expressing the Conditional: (1) by Inflections, (2) by the use of Auxiliary Verbs. Supposing the Conditional Mood were regularly formed by Inflections, it would be— ----- [1] Similarly, in the Antecedent when the “if” is omitted, the distinctive form of the Conditional must be used. “Should I, _or_, were I to, see him”—not “saw I him.” =I. A. Regular Conditional Mood with Inflections.= >>>>234<<<< ──────────────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────────── ANTECEDENT. │ CONSEQUENT. ──────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────────── { _be_ } │ { [_be_] } (If it) _were_[1] (true),│(he) _were_[2] (guilty.) _had been_ │ _had been_[2] ──────────────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────────────── Or, taking another Verb, _e.g._ “come”:— ───────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────── ANTECEDENT. │ CONSEQUENT. ───────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── { _come_[3] } │ { [_see_[4]] } (If he) _came_ │(he) [_saw_[5]] (me.) _had come_ │ _had seen_[6] ───────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────────── ----- [1] Generally used of an unfulfilled condition. [2] Still used in Poetry. [3] Rarely used, except by pedants. But “be” is still allowable as an exception: “if it _be_ true.” [4] Not used. [5] This ambiguous form of the Subjunctive is used two or three times by Shakespeare. See _Shakespearian Grammar_, Par. 361, “If I rebuked you, then I _check’d_ (i.e. _should check_) my friends.” [6] Used only in poetry, and archaic or elevated prose. >>>>235<<<< =I. B. Modern Conditional Mood with Inflections.= With the general decay of Inflections, the Conditional “if he _come_” has fallen into such disuse that it may now be called extinct. Hence the new scheme _with Inflections_ is— ───────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────── ANTECEDENT. │ CONSEQUENT. ───────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── { _comes_ } │ { (no form) } (If he) _came_ │(he) (no form) (me). _had come_ │ _had seen_[1] ───────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────────── ----- [1] Used only in poetry, and archaic or elevated prose. >>>>236<<<< =II. A. Regular Conditional Mood with “shall.”= Bearing in mind that “shall” and “should” are nearly equivalent to “am to” and “were to,” the reader will perceive the regularity of the following:— ──────────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────── ANTECEDENT. │ CONSEQUENT. ──────────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────── { _shall_,[2] } │ { _shall_ see } [_be_[1] _to_] │ If he _should, were to_ come,│he _should_ see me. _should_[2] │ _should have_ seen _have_, │ or [_had been_[1] │ _to_] │ ──────────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────── ----- [1] Rarely, or never used. [2] Used by Shakespeare. Compare “If you _should have_ taken vengeance on my faults, I never had (_i.e._ should have) lived.”—_Cymbeline_, v. i. 8. “If he shall come” is common in Shakespeare. >>>>237<<<< =II. B. Modern Conditional Mood with “shall.”= In course of time people came to think “shall” and “should” harsh words to use to any one _to whom_ (Second Person), or _about whom_ (Third Person), they were speaking. But when “shall” and “should” were preceded by “if,” the “if” removed the notion of compulsion. Consequently “shall” and “should” were replaced by “will” and “would” _in the Consequent, (with the Second and Third Persons), but not in the Antecedent_. Hence arose the following scheme:— ────────────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────── ANTECEDENT. │ CONSEQUENT. ────────────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────── _shall_ } │ { _will_ see } If he _should_, or _were_ to come,│he _would_ see me. _should have_ │ _would have_ seen ────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────── >>>>238<<<< =III. Modern Mixed Conditional Mood.= This is formed by blending the New Inflectional Mood with the New Auxiliary Mood, as follows:— ──────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────── ANTECEDENT. │ CONSEQUENT. ──────────────────────────────┼──────────────────────────── _comes_ }│ { _will_ see } { _should_ │ If he _came_, or come │he _would_ see me. _were to_ │ come │ _had come_ │ _would have_ seen ──────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────── Hence we see that the Inflectional Mood, having been assimilated to the Indicative, and being superior in brevity to the Auxiliary form, has gained the victory, as it were, in the Antecedent, where the resemblance to the Indicative does not cause much danger of ambiguity; but the Auxiliary form has gained the victory in the Consequent. APPENDIX II. ON THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. >>>>239<<<< Hitherto we have treated a sentence as composed of _words_: now we shall treat it as composed of _groups_ of words. =Sentences, Phrases; Clauses.= Def. _A group of words expressing a statement, command, or question, is called a “Sentence.”_ Def. _A group of words expressing a meaning, but not a statement, &c., is called a “Phrase.”_ Def. _A “Phrase” that includes a “Sentence” may be called a “Clause.”_ (1) “He came.” _Sentence._ (2) “To come;” “Upon his coming;” “In a short time.” _Phrases._ (3) “That he came;” “When he came;” “Because he came;” “If he had come.” _Clauses._ Note that some Phrases, _e.g._ those in (3), _include_ Sentences. But they _are not_ Sentences; for they are neither _statements_, nor _commands_, nor _questions_. Such Phrases as those in (3), are sometimes, however, called, for shortness, _Noun-Sentences_, because they _include_ Sentences. But it must be always borne in mind that they are not really sentences, though they become Sentences if the Conjunction is removed. >>>>240<<<< =Phrases and Clauses.= A Phrase or Clause may express: 1. _A Noun._ 2. _An Adjective._ 3. _An Adverb._ =1. Noun Phrases=[1] are exemplified by the italicized words in the following sentences:— 1. _To be anxious_ is useless. 2. _That he is in error_ is certain. 3. _Why you act thus_ I cannot understand. 4. I like _a rascal to be punished_. 5. _What is done_ cannot be undone. 6. _Whether he meant what he said_, it is hard to determine. 7. _Walking to school_ is being injuriously superseded by trains and omnibuses. EXERCISE. The pupil should construct other sentences on the model of each sentence above, having Noun-Phrases[1] for Subjects and for Objects. For example, beginning with (1), the pupil should make Noun Phrases out of Infinitives; then passing to (2), let him use the Conjunction “that,” and so on. ----- [1] For brevity, the word “Phrase” is used to include “Clause.” >>>>241<<<< 2. =Adjective Phrases or Clauses=:— 1. The monkey _with the long tail_. 2. The monkey _that has the long tail_. 3. A man _without principle_. 4. A man _of honour_. 5. Sing for the oak-tree, _the monarch of the wood_. 6. The light _of the sun_. 7. _The moon’s_ orbit. 8. The book _belonging to my uncle_. 9. The cow _in the paddock_. 10. The business _in which I am engaged_. 11. The painter _of that celebrated picture_. 12. This is an action _to be deplored_. 13. I have water _to wash_ (_i.e._ washing water), but none _to drink_ (_i.e._ drinking water). 14. The boy _at the top_. EXERCISE. As with the Noun Phrases, so with the Adjective Phrases, the pupil should construct other phrases according to the several models above. >>>>242<<<< 3. =Adverbial Phrases or Clauses=:—[1] >>>>243<<<< 1. _Knowing_[2] _this_ (_i.e._ since I knew this) I was not surprised. 2. _Surprised at his answer_, I knew not what to reply. 3. _When, while, after, before, as, since, I perceived my mistake_, I apologized. 4. I am living _in, near, not far from, &c. St. John’s Wood_. 5. I go daily _to, from, past, across, &c. the city_. 6. _This done_, they departed. 7. This house was built, (Cause) _owing to the increase of the owner’s family_; (Purpose) _to command a view of the river_; (Agency) _by a wealthy man_: (Instrumentality) _by foreign workmen_: (Means) _with timber off his own estate_; (Source) _out of his capital_; (Place) _near London_; (Time) _ten years ago_; (Manner) _with great haste_; (Circumstance) _amid the derision of the neighbours, in spite of the opposition of his friends, though he was in debt at the time_; (Result) _to the great detriment of his fortune, so expensively that he ruined himself by it_. 8. I am moving (Purpose) _in order to be nearer to my friends_, or (Cause) _because I am too far from my friends_. 9. He is unwise _to say this, i.e._ “for saying this.” 10. _Wherever he goes_ he prospers. 11. He is too foolish _to succeed, i.e._ “for the purpose of success.” ----- [1] Note that an Adverbial _Clause, e.g._ “when I came,” becomes, if the Conjunction is removed, a _Sentence_. [2] One of the first things to be done in the Analysis of Sentences is to understand the difference between (1) a Participle implying a Conjunction, and (as here) representing an _Adverbial Clause_, and (2) a Participle implying the Relative Pronoun “that,” and representing an _Adjectival Clause_. >>>>244<<<< Note especially the following:— 12. The soldiers disliked their general, _who seemed to take a pleasure in exposing them to hardships, i.e._ “_because_ he seemed—.” 13. (Circumstance)[1] _Admitting that your facts are correct_, I still deny your inferences. 14. (Circumstance)[1] _If he comes_, I will come. ----- [1] The _condition_ subject to which anything happens, may conveniently be called a “circumstance.” EXERCISE. Make Adverbial Phrases and Clauses on the model of the above. =Sentences.= >>>>245<<<< 1. =A Simple Sentence.=—_A Sentence that has only one Subject and only one Stating, Questioning, or Commanding Verb is a Simple Sentence_:— “John struck Thomas.” Note that “John came, but soon departed,” is not “simple,” because (though it has only one Subject) it has _two stating Verbs_; again, “John came that Robert might take a holiday,” is not “simple” because, though there is only one stating Verb,[1] yet there are _two Subjects_. ----- [1] In “Robert _might_ take,” “might take” may be (Par. 174) a stating Verb; but, when preceded by “that,” the Verb ceases to _state_. >>>>246<<<< 2. =A Co-ordinate Sentence.=—_When several Simple Sentences are connected by “and,” “but,” “so,” “then,” &c._,[1] _so that each Sentence is, as it were, independent, and of the same rank as the rest, each is called a Co-ordinate Sentence_:— “John struck Thomas, _so, and, but_, &c. Thomas struck John again.” The mark of a Co-ordinate sentence is that _it can generally stand as a sentence by itself_, preceded by its Conjunction, _e.g._:— “He made all possible haste. _For he was afraid of being late._” ----- [1] The Co-ordinate Conjunctions are _and_, _also_, _besides_, _moreover_, _too_, _for_, _accordingly_, _consequently_, _hence_, _so_, _then_, _now_, _therefore_, _but_, _however_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _or_. >>>>247<<<< 3. =A Compound Sentence.=—_A Sentence made up of Co-ordinate Sentences is called a Compound Sentence_:— “John struck Thomas, and Thomas struck John again.” >>>>248<<<< 4. =The Principal Sentence.=—_When a number of Sentences are connected by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that is not introduced by a Conjunction is called the Principal Sentence._ >>>>249<<<< 5. =Subordinate Sentences.=—_Sentences connected with a Principal Sentence by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate are called Sub-ordinate._[1] The _Sub-ordinate_ Conjunctions are “that” (introducing (1) Subject or Object, (2) Purpose, (3) Result); “because,” “when,” “how,” “since,” “as” in the sense of “since,” “after,” “before,” “while,” &c.; and they are so called because “purpose,” “time,” “circumstance,” &c., are regarded as being _Sub-ordinate_ to the statement, question, or command expressed in the Principal Sentence. “Before (Subord.) =he had heard the evidence= (Princip.) he asserted that (Subord.) =the prisoner was guilty=.” The mark of a Sub-ordinate Sentence is this, that, when preceded by its conjunction, _it cannot generally stand as a Sentence by itself_. You cannot write: “He made all possible haste. _Because he was_ afraid _of being late_.” N.B. All Sub-ordinate Sentences, when preceded by their Conjunctions, or introduced by their Relative Pronouns, become either:— (1) _Noun-Clauses_: “_That he was guilty_ is certain.” (2) Or, _Adjective Clauses or Sentences_:[2] “The boy _that cleans the boots_.”[2] (3) Or, _Adverb Clauses_: “I will come _when I can_.” ----- [1] _Implied_ Sub-ordinate Sentences are sometimes introduced without Conjunctions, by means of Interrogative and Relative Pronouns and Adverbs, _e.g._ “He asked _what John said_,” where the italicized words _imply_ the Sentence “What did John say?” See Par. 28. [2] It may be said that the italicized words are a _Sentence_ not a _Clause_. Taken by themselves, if “that” be regarded as Demonstrative, they undoubtedly constitute a Sentence: but, when attached to a Principal Sentence, they cease to make a statement, and therefore cease, strictly speaking, to be a Sentence. See Par. 239. >>>>250<<<< 6. =The Complex Sentence.=—_The whole sentence formed by the combination of the Principal and Sub-ordinate Sentences is called a Complex Sentence._ Now construct “Complex Sentences” using: 1. =Noun Phrases= or =Clauses= for Subjects, &c. 2. =Adjective Phrases= or =Clauses= to qualify the Noun Phrases. 3. =Adverbial Phrases= or =Clauses=, the Clauses being Sub-ordinate Sentences preceded by Conjunctions, thus:— “After the capture of this important city (_Adverb_[1] _of Cause or Time_), this great general (_Subject_)—the Hannibal of his day (_Adjective qualifying Subject_)—unsurpassed for military intuition and promptness of action (_Adjective qualifying Subject_), incurring the suspicion of having betrayed the town (_i.e._ “since he incurred,” therefore _Adverb of Cause_) was (_part of Principal Verb_) so completely (_Adverb_) distrusted (_rest of Principal Verb_) even by his own soldiers (_Adverb of Agency_) who had won so many battles under him (_i.e._ “though they had won,” therefore _Adverb_[2]) that he was deprived of his command, and would have been executed, but for the influence of his wife (_Adverb of Result_).” ----- [1] For brevity, the terms _Adverb_, _Adjective_, &c., are used for _Adverbial Phrase_, _Adjectival Phrase_, &c. [2] If it had been “The soldiers _that_ had won”, the Relative Clause “that had won,” &c. would have _described_ the soldiers; therefore it would have been an _Adjective Clause_. But “who” also sometimes introduces an _Adjective Clause_. EXERCISE. >>>>251<<<< Expand the following Simple Sentences into Complex Sentences by introducing Adverbial Phrases to describe _cause_, _purpose_, _material_, _agency_, _instruments_, _manner_, _place_, _time_, _circumstances_, _i.e., condition, obstacle, &c._:— 1. The house was built. 2. Napoleon died at St. Helena. 3. Charles I. was executed. 4. James II. was deposed. 5. Elizabeth was respected. 6. David killed Goliath. 7. Alfred defeated Guthrum. 8. Columbus discovered America. 9. The Spanish Armada was defeated. >>>>252<<<< =Contracted Sentences.= When two Sentences are connected by (1) the Co-ordinate Conjunctions “and” and “but;” (2) by Comparative Conjunctions, _e.g._ “as,” “than;” the Verb in the second Sentence is often omitted and sometimes the omission extends to other words:— (1) “I saw John yesterday _and_ (I saw) Thomas the day before.” (2) “He is taller _than_ I (am tall).” See “than,” Index. (3) “I have as many apples _as_ you (have apples).” In all such cases the full Sentences should be expressed if the whole Sentence is to be analysed. See Par. 209. The Sentences introduced by “than” and “as” (in this sense) are Subordinate; for “than” and “as” (in this sense) cannot stand at the head of a Sentence placed by itself. * * * * * >>>>253<<<< =Degrees of Subordination (Synthesis).= Note that a Complex Sentence may contain (1) a Principal Sentence; (2) a Sub-ordinate Sentence depending on the Verb[1] in the Principal Sentence; (3) a second Sub-ordinate Sentence depending on the Verb in the first Sub-ordinate; (4) a third Sub-ordinate depending on the Verb in the second Sub-ordinate; and so on. The degrees of sub-ordination may be indicated by lines in the following way:— 1st Degree of Sub- ordination “Socrates knew that =he knew nothing=.” 2nd „ „ „ “Socrates was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men, because =he knew that= he knew nothing.” 3rd „ „ „ “Socrates said that =he was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men, merely because= he knew that he knew nothing.” 4th „ „ „ “We are told that =Socrates said that= he was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men, merely because he knew that he knew nothing.” The process of putting a Sentence together as above is called _Synthesis_ (_syn_, together; _thesis_, putting). The reverse process of taking a Sentence to pieces again, _loosening_ its structure as it were, and exhibiting the different parts and joints of the Sentence, is called _Analysis_ (_ana_, “back again;” _lysis_, “loosening).” ----- [1] Not always on the _Verb_. The implied Sentence in a Relative Phrase may qualify a _Noun_. >>>>254<<<< =Degrees of Sub-ordination (Analysis).= Reversing the process in the last paragraph, we can take a Complex Sentence to pieces, beginning first with the Principal Sentence, then taking the first degree of Sub-ordination, then the second, and so on. Take, for example— “He said that =I did not come last Tuesday though= I had promised that I would come to see him before he left town.” 1. The Principal Verb is “said.” Read on from “said” to the first Sub-ordinate Conjunction “that.” “That” introduces the _Object_ of “said,” viz., the following Sub-ordinate Sentence: “I did not come last Tuesday, though I had promised... town.” This is a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the _first Degree_, which is therefore underlined _once_. 2. The Principal Verb in the first Sub-ordinate Sentence is “did (not) come.” Read on from this to the next Sub-ordinate Conjunction “though.” The following words, “I had promised...town,” make up a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the _second Degree_, and must be underlined a _second_ time. 3. The Principal Verb in the second Sub-ordinate Sentence is “had promised.” Read on to the next Subordinate Conjunction “that.” The words “I would come...town” make up a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the _third Degree_, and must therefore be underlined a _third_ time. 4. The Principal Verb in the third Sub-ordinate Sentence is “would come.” Read on to the next Sub-ordinate Conjunction “before.” The following words, “he left town,” make up a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the _fourth Degree_, and must therefore be underlined a _fourth_ time.[1] ----- [1] Note that, if the meaning had been “Though I had promised...town, yet he complained,” then the words “though...town” would have made up an Adverb of Circumstance, modifying “complained.” In that case, “(though) I had promised” would have been in the _first_ Degree (not the _second_) of Subordination. >>>>255<<<< =Relative Clauses.= A Relative Clause sometimes introduces (1) an _implied Co-ordinate_, sometimes (2) an _implied Sub-ordinate_ Sentence. The Sub-ordinate Sentence may form part, sometimes of (2) an Adverbial, sometimes (3) of an Adjectival Clause. (1) “I heard it from the landlord, _who_ heard it from the policeman,” _i.e._ “(_and_) he,” &c.; a _Co-ordinate Sentence_, “who” being put for “and he.” (2) “I ought not to have been beaten by John, _who_ has never beaten me before,” _i.e._ “(_since_) he has, &c.;” _Subordinate Sentence_. (Adverb.) (3) “I heard it from the boy _that_ cleans the boots,” _Sub-ordinate Sentence_. (Adjective.)[1] In Sentences (2), (3), (4), and (5) of the next Exercise the Relative introduces an Adjective Clause; in Sentence (6) “which” is the same as “and these,” and therefore the words “might be sold” make up an _implied_ Sentence _Co-ordinate_ with “she could get.” ----- [1] “That (boy) cleans the boots” may perhaps be called a Subordinate Sentence introduced by the Conjunctive force of the Relative “that.” See Par. 249, Note. >>>>256<<<< The different degrees of Subordination may be indicated in the implied Sentences of Relative Phrases by underlining, as above. For example: (1) “The man =that will not accept= what is offered to him by opportunity, often lives to seek opportunity in vain.” Here the two Sentences are (1) “That (man) will not accept what is offered to him by opportunity;” (2) “What is offered to him by opportunity?”[1] (2) “The man =that ought to have met me at the station where= I got out was not to be found.” Here the two Sentences are, (1) “That (man) ought to have met me at the station where I got out;” (2) “I got out.” ----- [1] For the originally interrogative use of “who,” “what,” “which,” see Par. 27. EXERCISE. >>>>257<<<< Express, by underlining, the Degrees of Subordination in the following Sentences:— 1. He asked me whether I had said that I should not come. 2. You would have acted wrongly if you had refused help to the friend from whom you obtained help when you needed it. 3. When I heard that the train had started before I had arrived at the station where we had agreed to meet, I at once telegraphed. 4. Though you asked me when I would come and pay you the visit that I had promised, you did not mention a definite day. 5. I confess that I was irritated when I heard that my cousin, after he had accepted my invitation, wrote to decline it, because he had been subsequently invited by some one whose society he preferred to mine. 6. The market-girl reckoned that, if her milk sold well, she could get at least six dozen eggs, which, when they were hatched and grown to be chickens, might be sold, before May came round, for as much money as would buy her the best dress that could be found in the village. >>>>258<<<< =Analysis of Sentences.= Reversing the process in Paragraph 250, we can _analyse_ a Sentence into— =I. Principal Verb.= The term Principal Verb includes the “Subjective or Objective =Supplement=,” _e.g._ in “He _was appointed general_,” “was appointed general” will be called the “Verb;” and so, in “They _appointed_ him _general_,” “appointed general” will be called the “Verb.” See the Scheme on page 168. =II. Subject.= The terms Subject and Object here include their “Complements”; _e.g._ “a rascal to be punished” is the Subject in “_A rascal_ is expected _to be punished_,” and the Object in “I like _a rascal to be punished_.” =III. Object.= The Indirect Object may either be treated separately, or be treated as an Adverb. If we can say, in “The house was built _by Thomas_” that “by Thomas” is an “Adverb-Phrase of Agency,” there seems no reason why we should not say “for Thomas” and “to Thomas” are “Adverb-Phrases of Reception.” Hence in “Give _me_ the book,” we may call “me” either Indirect Object, or an abridged “Adverb-Phrase of Reception.” The latter would probably be found, in the end, the simpler course. =IV. Adjectives=, or Adjective Phrases. =V. Adverbs=, or Adverb Phrases. >>>>259<<<< SPECIMEN EXERCISES. 1. “Not knowing the value of his prize, the cock gave away the diamond that he had found for a single grain of barley, when he saw that the jewel did nothing but shine, and was not good to eat.” I. Verb “Gave away.” II. Subject “The cock.” III. Object “The diamond.” IV. Adjectives “That he had found” qualifies Object. V. Adverbs: (_a_) of Cause. “Not knowing—prize,” _i.e._ “since he did not know.” „   „    : (_b_) of Circumstance “For a single grain of barley.” „   „    : (_c_) of Time or Cause “When he saw—to eat.” If further Analysis is required, the Adverbial Clauses may in turn be analysed, as in the following Example:— >>>>260<<<< 2. “A reader acquainted with the treasures of English literature will not unnaturally feel surprised, when he sees that so large a portion of time is devoted to the inadequate study of a few ancient authors, whose works have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of our own generation, while our English classics are comparatively neglected.” FIRST ANALYSIS. I. Verb “Will feel surprised.”[1] II. Subject “A reader.” III. Adjective “Acquainted with—literature,” qualifies the Subject. IV. Adverb (_a_) of Cause “When he sees—neglected.” „   „    (_b_) of Manner “Not unnaturally.” SECOND ANALYSIS. “He sees that so large—neglected.” I. Verb “Sees.” II. Subject “He.” III. Object “That so large—neglected.” THIRD ANALYSIS. “So large a portion—neglected.” I. Verb “Is devoted.” II. Subject “So large a portion of time.” III. Adverbs (_a_) Manner or Purpose “To the study—generation.” „   „     (_b_) Circumstance “While[2] our English—neglected.” No further Sentence remains for analysis; but it may be well to mention that, in Clause (_a_) the Relative Clause “whose works—generation,” is an Adjective Clause qualifying “authors”; and that the Phrase “of a few ancient authors” is an Adjective Phrase, qualifying “study.” ----- [1] “Feel surprised” is a Compound Verb, like “He _fell lame_,” “He _grew tall_.” [2] “While” may either mean “at the very time when,” (as perhaps here,) or “although,” or simply “but on the other hand.” In the last case “while” approaches a Co-ordinate Conjunction in meaning, for it is nearly the same as “but, on the other hand.” =Caution.= >>>>261<<<< The principal difficulty in the Analysis of Sentences consists in distinguishing between Participles implying an Adverbial Phrase and Participles implying an Adjectival Phrase. The same difficulty exists in distinguishing between Relative Phrases. As “who” (or “which”) and “that” are loosely used by many writers, the pupil must not depend on these words for help, but upon the _sense_ of each passage:— (1) “I saw a ship _sailing into harbour_,” _i.e._ “_that_ was sailing,” Adjective Phrase. (2) “_Sailing too near the rocks_ the ship went down,” _i.e._ “_because_ she sailed,” Adverbial Phrase. (3) “Yesterday I saw a schooner here, _which has now sailed away_,” _i.e._ “_and_, or but, it has sailed,” Co-ordinate Sentence. (4) “The schooner _that_ was here yesterday,” Adjective Clause. >>>>262<<<< (5) “The potent rod Of Amram’s son in Egypt’s evil day, _Waved round the coast_, up-called a pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping in the eastern wind.” In the last example, “waved round the coast” seems to mean “_when_ or _after_ it was waved,” and not “the rod _that was waved_.” Consequently it seems far better to treat the italicized words as an _Adverbial_ and not as an _Adjectival_ Phrase. But “warping” may fairly be replaced by “that came warping,” and may therefore be treated as an Adjectival Phrase qualifying “locusts.” (6) “But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest, Always from port withheld, always distressed— Me howling winds drive _devious_—tempest-tossed, Sails rent, seams opening wide, and compass lost.” Here the second line is clearly Adjectival to “me;” but “devious” is not Adjectival, it is the Supplement of the Verb “drive;” to “drive devious” is to “drive out of the way,” and is as much a Compound Verb as to “drive mad.” On the other hand the abrupt pause between “devious” and “tempest-tossed” allows us to treat “tempest-tossed” as co-ordinate with “withheld” and “distressed,” and therefore as Adjectival to “me.” “Sails rent” is of course an Adverbial Phrase, and “sails” is an “Adverbial Subject.” See Par. 135. =Phraseology of Analysis.= >>>>263<<<< The Principal Verb of a Sentence is sometimes called the Grammatical Predicate, or, simply, _Predicate_. Adjectives and Adjective Phrases are called, as the case may be, Attributive Adjuncts to the Subject or Object; and, when attached to the Predicate, Adverbs are called Adverbial Adjuncts to the Predicate. Again, Adjectives and Adjective Phrases are sometimes called “Enlargements of the Subject or Object;” and, when attached to the Predicate, Adverbs are called “Extensions of the Predicate.” This phraseology does not appear to be necessary; but, if thought desirable, it can easily be substituted for the terms “Adjective,” “Adverb,” &c. used in the Scheme appended below. >>>>264<<<< =Summary of the parts of a Sentence.= The following Summary will be a useful preparation for the “Scheme of Analysis” on Page 172, and will also illustrate the comparison of the different technical terms of Analysis. { SUBJECT =Noun=: or Pronoun; or Adj. put for Noun; or Noun Phrase.[1] In PREDICAT =Verb=. all E Sente nces. { =Object, Direct=[1] (If the Verb is Trans.) COMPLETION OF =Object, Indirect= (With some Verbs.) PREDICATE =Supplement= (If the Verb is Intrans. or Pass.) { EXTENSION OF } =Adverb=; or Adverbial PREDICATE. Phrase. Not ATTRIBUTIVE } =Adjective=; or Adjective in ADJUNCT, or Phrase. all Sente nces. ENLARGEMENT OF NOUN ----- [1] Note that the Subject or Object may sometimes consist of a Noun or Pronoun with a Complementary Infinitive, _e.g._ “I know _him to be in error_.” “_He_ was believed _to be dishonest_.” See Par. 97. >>>>265<<<< =SCHEME OF SIMPLE ANALYSIS.= For convenience, in order to preserve the order of the sentence as far as possible two columns are made for the Adverb. In order to distinguish the _Adjective_ or _Complement_ from the rest of the Subj. or Obj., the _Supplement_ from the Verb, and the Indirect Object from the Adverb, underline Adjective, Complement, Supplement, and Indirect Object. Write (_Compl._) before the _Complement_. Analyse the following passage:— “In one of the large rich cities of China there once lived a tailor named Mustapha. Being very poor he could hardly maintain his family, which consisted only of his wife and one son. This son, who was a very idle fellow, was called Aladdin. When he was old enough to learn a trade, Mustapha wished the boy to enter his shop, to learn the use of the needle; but all his father’s endeavours to keep him to his work were vain; for no sooner was his back turned than Aladdin was gone. Soon after Aladdin was thirteen years old, poor Mustapha—who was often heard to predict that his son would come to no good—fell sick and died.” ───────────┬─────────────┬───────────┬────────────┬────────────┰────────── =Adverb.= │ =Subject= │=Verb= with│ =Object= │1. =Adverb=,┃=Conjuncti │ (including │=Supplement│ (including │ or 2. ┃ on=, │=Adjective=, │ =. │=Adjective= │ =Indirect ┃(introduci │ or │ │ or │ Object=. ┃ ng next │=Complement=.│ │=Complement=│ ┃Sentence.) │ ) │ │ .) │ ┃ ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── (1) In one │a tailor │lived │ │ ┃ of the │ _named │ │ │ ┃ large │ Mustapha_ │ │ │ ┃ rich │ │ │ │ ┃ cities of│ │ │ │ ┃ China (2)│ │ │ │ ┃ there (3)│ │ │ │ ┃ once │ │ │ │ ┃ ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── Being, │he │could │his family, │(1) hardly ┃ _i.e._ │ │ maintain[│ _which │ ┃ (since he│ │ 1] │ consisted │ ┃ was) very│ │ │ only of │ ┃ poor │ │ │ his wife │ ┃ │ │ │ and one │ ┃ │ │ │ son_ │ ┃ ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── │This son _who│was called │ │ ┃ │ was a very │ _Aladdin_│ │ ┃ │ idle │ │ │ ┃ │ fellow_ │ │ │ ┃ ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── When he was│_his_ father │wished │the boy │to learn the┃but old │ │ │ (_Compl._)│ use of the┃ enough to│ │ │ _to enter │ needle ┃ learn a │ │ │ his shop_ │ ┃ trade │ │ │ │ ┃ ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── │(1) _all his_│were _vain_│ │ ┃for │ (2) │ │ │ ┃ │ _father’s_ │ │ │ ┃ │ endeavours │ │ │ ┃ │ to _keep │ │ │ ┃ │ him to his │ │ │ ┃ │ work_[2] │ │ │ ┃ ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── │_his_ back │was turned │ │no sooner ┃ │ │ │ │ than (3) ┃ │ │ │ │ Aladdin ┃ │ │ │ │ was gone ┃ ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── Soon after │_poor_ │fell _sick_│ │ ┃and Aladdin │ Mustapha │ │ │ ┃ was │ │ │ │ ┃ thirteen │ │ │ │ ┃ years │ │ │ │ ┃ old. │ │ │ │ ┃ ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── │(Mustapha) │died │ │ ┃“who” = │ │ │ │ ┃ “and, │ │ │ │ ┃ _or_ │ │ │ │ ┃ now, │ │ │ │ ┃ he”[4] ───────────┼─────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────────╂────────── │(he) . . . │was heard │ │often.] ┃ │ (_Compl._)[│ │ │ ┃ │ 3] _to │ │ │ ┃ │ predict │ │ │ ┃ │ that his │ │ │ ┃ │ son would │ │ │ ┃ │ come to no │ │ │ ┃ │ good_ │ │ │ ┃ ───────────┴─────────────┴───────────┴────────────┴────────────┸────────── ----- [1] The Auxiliaries _could_, _would_, _can_, _will_, _may_, _might_, &c. may be treated as parts of Compound Verbs. [2] This Infinitive describing the nature of the “endeavours” may be regarded as an Adjective, see Par. 100. [3] These words might be analysed still further if desired. Any subordinate sentence may be taken out of the Adjective, Adverb, or other column and may be analysed as a separate sentence. [4] It will generally be advisable to analyse a Parenthesis _after_ the rest of the sentence. APPENDIX III. HINTS ON SPELLING. >>>>266<<<< English Spelling is so irregular that no systematic rules can be laid down for it. The knowledge of the derivation of a word is often a help towards the spelling of it; but this is not always the case. The best way to spell well is to read often, and so to become familiar with words. Thus misspelt words will be detected by their _strange look_. =Change of Letters.=—The following principle will explain many of the variations in the spelling of words: =Rule.=—_A letter is often changed or doubled in passing from one form of a word to another, in order to preserve the original sound._ >>>>267<<<< =I.—y.= For example, _-y_ final preceded by a consonant, as in “happ_y_,” is changed into _i_ upon the addition of _-er_, _-est_, _-al_, _-ed_, _-ous_, or of any other affix (except _-ing_) beginning with a vowel. Otherwise the sound of the word might be altered, _e.g._ “happ_-yer_,” “gidd_-yest_.” Hence— Def_y_, def_i_-ance; eas_y_, eas_i_-est; remed_y_, remed_i_-al, remed_i_-ed; merr_y_, merr_i_-er; countr_y_, countr_i_-es. In many of these words the original termination was _-ie_, which indeed was the regular English equivalent of the French _-é_: Citie; nobilitie; felicitie; clergie. From a very early period _y_ and _i_ were interchanged (for example in the Present Participle which ended in _-inde_ or _-ynde_) so that in the _Utopia_ (1516 A.D.) we have “writynge,” “myghte,” “thynge,” “fyne.” Hence _y_ began to supersede _i_ in these terminations, so that in the _Utopia_, we find on the same page, “felicitye” and “felicitie.” By degrees, the _e_ after _y_, being found unnecessary, was dropped. It might have been expected that the same curtailment would have been attempted in the Plural: and accordingly in the _Utopia_ we find “qualityes.” But, owing perhaps to the danger of mispronunciation, “qualit-yes”—the innovation—did not succeed in supplanting the old Plural “qualit-ies.” This rule is also extended to _-y_ before other affixes, viz. _-ment_, _-ly_, _-ful_:— Necessar_i_-ly; greed_i_-ness; beaut_i_-ful. >>>>268<<<< =II.—y.= When (1) the affix is _-ing_, or (2) _-y_ is already preceded by a vowel, or (3) _-y_ terminates a monosyllable—in all these cases _-y_ remains generally unchanged:— (1) Pity-_i_ng (not “pit_ii_ng”); (2) enjo_y_-ment, valle_y_s; (3) dr_y_-ness. The reasons are in (1) the desire to avoid _ii_; in (2) and (3) _because the sound is not altered by the retention of -y_. _Exceptions._—Nevertheless, out of conformity to other words— “Dry” makes “dr_i_-er,” “dr_i_-est;” “tr_y_,” “tr_i_-al,” “tr_i_-er;” “da_y_,” “da_i_-ly;” “pa_y_,” “pa_i_-d;” “fl_y_,” “fl_i_-es;” “la_y_,” “la_i_d;” “la_y_” (Past Tense of “lie”) “la_i_-n;” “sa_y_,” “sa_i_-d;” “ga_y_,” “ga_i_-ly,” “ga_i_-ety.” N.B. Pit_e_-ous, plent_e_-ous, from “pit_y_,” “plent_y_.” >>>>269<<<< III. When a word ends in _-ie_, the juxtaposition of _iei_ in the Active Participle is avoided by changing _-ie_ into _-y_:— D_i_e, d_y_-ing; l_i_e, l_y_-ing, _but_ l_i_-ar. >>>>270<<<< =Omission of Letters.=—Rule. =-e= _final is_ (IV.) _dropped before an affix beginning with a vowel; but_ (V.) _retained before an affix beginning with a consonant._ IV. Instances of Rule IV. are— Griev_e_, griev_-ance_; fam_e_, fam_-ous_; sens_e_, sens_-ible_; judg_e_, judg_-ing_; pleas_e_, pleas_-ure_; remov_e_, remov_-able_; blam_e_, blam_-ing_; spher_e_, spher_-ical_. >>>>271<<<< _Exceptions to IV._—(_a_) _C_ and _g_, though soft (_e.g._ in “service,” “outrage”) must necessarily become hard if followed by an affix beginning with _a_, _o_, or _u_. To prevent (1) this and (2) other changes of sound, final _-e_ is sometimes retained:— (1) Servic_e_, servic_e-able_; outrag_e_, outrag_e-ous_. (2) Unsal_e_-able. >>>>272<<<< _Exceptions to IV._—(_b_) When _-e_ is preceded by _-i_, _-o_, _-e_, _-y_, it is often retained before _-ing_, _-able_. This is in order to preserve the sound:— Sho_e-ing_ (not “sh_oi_ng”); agre_e-able_ (not “agr_ea-_ble”). >>>>273<<<< The _-e_ is also retained in “dy_e-ing_,” “sing_e-ing_,” “swing_e-ing_,” in order to distinguish them from “dy-ing,” “sing-ing,” and “swing-ing.” >>>>274<<<< _Exceptions to V._:— Abridg-ment, acknowledg-ment, argu-ment, aw-ful, du-ly, judg-ment, tru-ly, whol-ly. >>>>275<<<< =Rule VI.=—_Monosyllables ending in_ =-ll= (1) _when followed by an affix beginning with a consonant, or_ (2) _when used as affixes, generally drop one_ =-l=:—[1] _Al-_most, _al-_though, _al-_ready, _al-_beit, _al-_mighty, _al-_so, _al-_together, _al-_ways, _bel-_fry, _ful-fil_, _wel-_fare, _el-_bow, _ful-_ly, _drol-_ly, _ful-_ness, re_-cal_. ----- [1] This is the shape in which the rule would suggest itself to modern Englishmen. But, in reality, the old spelling was _al_, _wel_, _el_, and this is _retained_ in “_al-_though,” “_wel-_fare,” “_el-_bow.” “_Bel-_fry” was not in reality derived from “bell” (See _Etym. Dict._) >>>>276<<<< The old affixes and prefixes with single _-l_ appear to have been so common that they assimilated to themselves other words (_e.g._ re_-cal_) in which an _l_ was really dropped. But in some words the syllable in _-ll_ has not coalesced so completely with the other syllable as to be regarded as a prefix or affix. Consequently the syllable in _-ll_ is treated as a separate word and retains _-ll_. Hence— Under_-sell_ (and several words ending in _-ness_), _tall-_ness, _small-_ness, _ill-_ness, _shrill-_ness, _droll-_ness, fare_-well_, un_-well_, be_-fell_, down_-fall_, cat_-call_. >>>>277<<<< =Doubling Letters.=—Rule VII. _If the termination of a word is a consonant preceded by a vowel_ (e.g. “-it”), _then, on receiving an affix beginning with a vowel_ (e.g. “-ing”), _the final consonant in the word is doubled_ (e.g. “-itting”), _provided that the word is a monosyllable_ (e.g. “sit”), _or a polysyllable accented on the last syllable_ (e.g. “remit”). This is _in order to preserve the sound_. If the consonant were not doubled, “hop-ping” would be confused with “hop-ing”:— (1) Hop, h_op-p_ing; thin, thi_n-n_er; fat, fa_t-t_est. ACCENT ON THE LAST. │  ACCENT NOT ON THE LAST.   forge_t-t_ing, remi_t-t_ing│    bracke_t_-ing, debi_t_-ing   infe_r-r_ing, refe_r-r_ing │    cove_r_-ing, offe_r_-ing   occu_r-r_ing, acqui_t-t_ing│    seve_r_-ing, credi_t_-ing >>>>278<<<< _Exceptions to VII._—Words ending in _-l_, although not accented on the last syllable, nevertheless double _-l_:— Trave_l-l_ing, _-l_er; counse_l-l_ing, _-l_or; reve_l-l_ing, _-l_er; marve_l-l_ing, _-l_ous; riva_l-l_ing; leve_l-l_ed; unramme_l-l_ed. Also, worshi_p-p_ing. Unparallel-ed is an exception.[1] ----- [1] Possibly, owing to the fact that “unparalleled” is of Greek derivation, containing the Greek long _e_, it may have been once pronounced “unparall_eeled_,” and spelt accordingly. EXERCISES. >>>>279<<<< I. and II. Add as many as possible of the affixes _-al_, _-ed_, _-er_, _-s_, _-ly_, _-ness_, _-ous_, _-s_, to the following words:— Lonely, employ, gaudy, daisy, decay, steady, accompany, enjoy, effigy, silly, occupy, busy, giddy, jelly, colloquy, chimney, ready, journey, shabby, annoy, prophesy, felony, try, lovely, efficacy, convey, lofty, supply, dismay, defy, gay, vary, penury, stately, day, accompany, pity, marry, plenty, continue. >>>>280<<<< IV. and V. Add as many as possible of the affixes _-able_, _-ing_, _-ly_, _-ment_, _-ous_, _-er_, _-y_, to the following words:— Love, peace, move, blame, marriage, whole, sole, decree, ease, feeble, advantage, true, spice, village, due, charge, trouble, trace, pledge, judge, guarantee, manage, abridge, disagree, excuse. >>>>281<<<< VII. Add _-ing_, _-ence_, _-er_, _-ous_ (where possible), to— Control, bargain, recal, peril, benefit, admit, ballot, danger, infer, pencil, debit, acquit, abhor, glutton, begin, poison, suffer, traitor, gambol, extol, rebel, travel, compel, level, worship, cancel, model, sever, equip, allot, riot, murder, befit, ruin, sin. =Reasons for apparent Irregularities.= >>>>282<<<< I. =-eive=, =-ieve=.—It is sometimes difficult to decide, in such words as “receive,” “believe,” &c., whether the _e_ or _i_ should come first; but the difficulty will vanish if it is borne in mind that (except after _c_) _i_ comes first:— (1) Believe, reprieve, retrieve, grieve, mischief, mischievous. (2) Deceive, deceit, conceive, conceit, receive, receipt. The reason for the exceptional spelling of _-ceive_ is that this termination represents the Latin _cap-_, French _cev-_; whereas _-ie_ is the non-Latin termination. >>>>283<<<< II. =-eed=, =-ede=.—A few compounds from the Latin =ced-= were introduced early and received the English spelling:— Succeed, proceed, exceed. These words are very common in Shakespeare’s plays. Other compounds were not introduced till afterwards, when it was no longer the custom to Anglicize the spelling of foreign words. Hence the Latin or French spelling is retained in— Accede, concede, precede, recede. These four are not found in Shakespeare’s plays.[1] The English spelling also accounts for the double _e_ in “agreeable” (Fr. _agréable_), “degree” (Fr. _degré_). ----- [1] “Preceding” is used once as an Adjective, and once as a Participle; in the latter case it is spelt “proceading.” >>>>284<<<< III. =-or=, =-our=, =-er=.—These terminations are from different sources: _-or_ is Latin; _-our_ is Latin through French; _-er_ is English. Hence— Latin: (1) Actor, collector, demonstrator. French: (2) Colour, honour, odour. English: (3) Painter, player. Note that, wherever a Noun is formed according to English and not according to Latin rules, then, though the Verb be of Latin or French-Latin origin, the termination is generally _-er_; _e.g._ “defend-er,” “extinguish-er” (the Latin Nouns would be _defens-or_, _extinct-or_); “vict-or,” but “vanquish-er.” There is a tendency, especially in advertisements, to save space by omitting the French _-u_. “Governor” (for “governour”) is now recognized as correct, and “honor” is aspiring to correctness. >>>>285<<<< IV. =Latin=: =-(a)ble=, =-ible=.—Strictly speaking, _-ble_, and not _-able_, is the Latin termination, _a_ being part of the Root. Thus the Latin word was _penetra-_, and the termination _-ble_. In the same way, in a few cases, but not many, _i_ is part of the Root, and _-ble_ is the termination:— (1) Penetra-ble, indisputa-ble, delecta-ble, indispensa-ble, inconsola-ble, indomita-ble, insupera-ble, demonstra-ble. (2) Audi-ble, ed-ible, incorrupt-ible, indigest-ible, indestruct-ible, reprehens-ible, incomprehens-ible, incompress-ible. >>>>286<<<< V. =English=: =-able=.—This termination is used with English Verbs, _e.g._ “lovable,” and also with many Latin Verbs (even where the Root does not end in _-a_), _provided that the Verb is so common as to be regarded as English_:— Latin words with English termination: Indefinable, inextinguishable, redeemable, perishable, attributable, disposable. >>>>287<<<< VI. =Latin= (1) =-(a)nt=, (2) =-ent=, represent the Latin terminations for the Active Present Participles from (1) Verbs whose roots ended with _-a_, (2) other Verbs:— (1) “Litiga-nt,” “disputa-nt,” “recalcitra-nt.” (2) “Immine-nt,” “reg-ent,” “trans-ient.” >>>>288<<<< VII. =Latin-French -ant.=—The French have but _one termination, -ant_, to represent _the two Latin terminations_. Hence, sometimes, similar words are spelt differently: where direct from Latin, _-ent_; where through French, _-ant_. (1) Transcend_ent_. (2) Defend_ant_, descend_ant_. Hence the Latin _dependens_ has, curiously enough, given rise to two English words, with different terminations: (1) “depend_ent_,” Adjective, direct from Latin, and with Latin spelling; (2) “depend_ant_,” Noun, through French, and with French spelling. Similarly, “ascendant” (though used by Pope as an Adjective) is now only used as a Noun. >>>>289<<<< VIII. (1) =-ise=, (2) =-ize=.—If _-ize_ is to be retained, it ought, in strictness, to be retained only as the affix for Greek Roots:— (1) Equalise, recognise. (2) Baptize, emphasize.[1] ----- [1] “Analyze” is a mistake. The word is Greek, but contains and justifies no _z_. It should be spelt “analyse.” >>>>290<<<< IX. (1) =-se=, (2) =-ce=.—Distinguish between (1) the termination of the _Verb_ in _-se_, and (2) the termination of the _Noun_ in _-ce_:— (1) Advi_s_e, licen_s_e, practi_s_e, devi_s_e, pri_z_e. (Verbs.) (2) Advi_c_e, licen_c_e, practi_c_e, devi_c_e, pri_c_e. (Nouns.) =Spelling List.= The following words should be noted. They may be combined in sentences for dictation, or may be set by the pupils to one another. They are purposely unarranged:— >>>>291<<<< Niece, awkward, seize, courageous, ceiling, league, colonel, leisure, almond, treasure, intrigue, kernel, clothing, grandeur, ghastly, heifer, punishment, intelligence, villains, gardener, realm, principal, mountainous, principle, friar, poniard, sergeant, abhorrent, pony, necessarily, unparalleled, quarrelling, ecstasy, cavilling, kidnapping, limiting, dignitary, practice (Noun), reprieve, continually, character, potato, pedlar, annually, anomaly, business, mischievous, indictment, onions, cabbages, vengeance, deign (Verb), embarrassment, anonymous, committee, couple, camphor, giraffe, syrup, guerilla, mosquito, verandah, azure, hammock, phosphorus, apartment, annalist, apparition, license (Verb), recede, decalogue, etymology, apparel, courteous, succeed, furlough, miscellany, scythe, morocco, chocolate, cemetery, proceed, accessory, bouquet, paroquet, exchequer, banquet, masquerade, accede, gelatine, obsequies, gazette, effigies, etiquette, balloon, encyclopædia, leopard, gudgeon, counterfeit, pigeon, menagerie, besiege, bereave, concede, inveigle, obeisance, complaisant, bivouac, neighbour, pleurisy, journeys, quarantine, unique, cylinder, symptom, hydrophobia, rubies, valleys, mimicking, noticeable, milliner, sepulchre, available, sedentary, peremptory, pelisse, analyst. APPENDIX IV. HINTS ON PUNCTUATION. >>>>292<<<< =Stops, or Marks of the Division of Sentences.= 1. Full Stop (.) 5. Note of Interrogation (?) 2. Colon (:) 6. Note of Exclamation (!) 3. Semi-colon (;) 7. The “dash” or “break” (—) 4. Comma (,) 8. Marks of Parenthesis ( ) 9. Inverted commas, or, Marks of Quotation (“ ”) >>>>293<<<< =Use of Stops.=—The meaning of a sentence often depends on the pauses after certain words. These pauses are represented by marks, sometimes called (from their effect) _Stops_, and sometimes (from their appearance) _Points_. The Latin for “point” is _punctum_, and accordingly the arrangement of _points_ in a sentence is called =Punctuation=:— “John,” said Thomas, “would come if he could.” Omit the _points_ in the foregoing sentence, and it becomes ambiguous. >>>>294<<<< =The Comma.=—The Comma (meaning “that which is cut off”) marks the smallest “cutting off,” or division of a sentence. =I. Rule.=—_When a word is separated from its grammatical adjunct by any intervening phrase, the phrase should be preceded and followed by a Comma_:— { “The _traveller_, after alighting from his Verb   horse, _entered_ the inn.” separated “His _conduct_, according to his own account, from   _is_ inexcusable.” Subject. “The _king_, wearied by the woman’s importunity, _granted_ her request.” Verb { separated “He _endeavoured_, in every possible way, from   _to undermine his rival_.” Object. Verb { “_When_, after hearing your explanation, separated   _I promised_ to forgive you, I _believed_, from   in accordance with your assurance, _that_ Conjunction.   this was your first offence.”[1] Verb { “_Now_, thought he, he had succeeded.” separated “He _frustrated_ all the efforts his friends from   were making for him, _by his silly_ Adverb.   _vanity_.” ----- [1] The Conjunction “that,” not being capable of much stress, nor allowing much pause after it, often dispenses with the comma:— “Remember that in almost all business, it is best to make haste slowly.” >>>>295<<<< II. Hence the Comma is often used before and after an Adverbial Clause, including a Subordinate Sentence, whether the sentence be (1) introduced by a Conjunction, or (2) implied in a Participle:— (1) “I replied, _as soon as I had recovered my presence of mind_, that I could not consent.” (2) “I replied, _on recovering my presence of mind_, that I could not consent.” >>>>296<<<< A Comma will therefore necessarily be inserted _between two Conjunctions_— “It was said _that_, _when_ the Capitol was built, a human head was discovered amid the foundations.” “It cannot be denied _that_, _if_ this statement is true, your brother has acted most culpably.” When a Subordinate Clause or Adverbial Phrase comes at the beginning of the sentence, the Comma is inserted after it, _if the Clause or Phrase precedes the Subject of the Principal Verb_ (see Par. 306):— (1) “_When I recovered my presence of mind_, I replied, &c.” (2) “_On recovering my presence of mind_, I replied, &c.” (3) “_Having recovered my presence of mind_, I replied, &c.” (4) “_To be brief_, there are but three courses open to us.” (5) “_The colonel having fallen_, the major took the command.” >>>>297<<<< III. The Comma is often used between co-ordinate sentences connected by Conjunctions:— “_He went back to his home, and I went forward on my journey._” In accordance with the Rule in Par. 294,— >>>>298<<<< IV. When a number of co-ordinate words have the same grammatical adjunct, all but the last are followed by a Comma:— (1) “_John_, _Thomas_, and _Henry_ came.” (2) “I saw _John_, _Thomas_, and _Henry_.” (3) “He was _dutiful_, _kind_, and brave.” (4) “He is acting _wisely_, _justly_, and mercifully.” (5) “She _loved_, _honoured_, and obeyed her husband.” >>>>299<<<< But, if words are in _pairs_, then _each pair_ (even the _last_) is followed by a Comma:— (6) “_To carp and to criticize_, _to slander and to rebuke_, _to warn and to discourage_, are very different actions.”[1] ----- [1] The reason is that in this case “and” is not inserted before the last _pair_. Hence the termination is somewhat abrupt; and, after an enumeration of the _pairs_, the reader requires a pause, as though to insert “these”: “—— (these) are very different actions.” >>>>300<<<< But sometimes, where “and” is repeated between a number of Co-ordinate Nouns the writer may regard them (1) as a mere list of names, _all of one kind_, requiring rapid enumeration, and therefore may omit the comma, or (2) as expressing _different_ notions and may therefore insert commas. Compare— (7) “Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gain.”—_P. L._ ii. 109. (8) “Where all is cliff, and copse, and sky.”[1]—_Scott_. No doubt the omission of the comma here, as in Par. 306, is more easy _before the Verb_, when the reader is hurrying on to the Verb, than after the Verb, where pauses are more natural. ----- [1] Quoted by Mätzner. >>>>301<<<< V. A Noun used Vocatively or Appellatively must necessarily have no grammatical adjuncts, and should therefore (unless uttered very passionately; Par. 313) be marked off by Commas:— “Your conduct, Thomas, surprises me.” >>>>302<<<< VI. In all the above Examples the principle is the same, that the Comma denotes _separation from the grammatical adjunct_. But sometimes the Comma denotes the _omission_ of the grammatical adjunct:— “To carp is easy; to criticize, difficult.” >>>>303<<<< VII. When a Subject is a lengthy Phrase, it is often separated from the Verb by a Comma, especially when the Subject-Phrase contains some Noun that might at a hasty glance be supposed to be the Subject of the Verb. The object of the Comma is to indicate that _not the word immediately preceding the Verb, but the whole of the preceding phrase is the Subject of the Verb_:— (1) “_To resent injuries inflicted on the weak and helpless_, is the duty of all.” (2) “_That he made a very great mistake_, is clear.” >>>>304<<<< VIII. A Comma is sometimes employed when a statement or speech is introduced as the _Object_ of a Verb, to mark a pause before the statement. But this is scarcely necessary or justifiable, _except where the statement is in Apposition to a previous Noun_:— (1) “Who does not know the well-known proverb, that seeing is believing?” (2) “Some people seem scarcely aware of this _principle_, that all men are better contented to make progress in small matters than to remain at a stand in great.” Where the Noun in Apposition intervenes between the Verb and its Object, the Comma is justifiable on the principle stated above, Par. 294; where there is no intervening Noun, the Comma is unjustifiable. >>>>305<<<< IX. It has been seen, from Example (5) in Par. 298, that, when the same Object follows several Verbs, the Comma is _not_ inserted after the last _Verb_; but, when the same Object follows several Prepositions, the Comma _is_ inserted after the last _Preposition_:— (1) “I am desirous _of_, and earnestly hoping _for_, an amicable settlement.” (2) “I am sent by, and acting as the representative _of_, a large number of my fellow-citizens.” The reason is that a Verb, being a more emphatic word than a Preposition, allows a greater stress to be laid upon it, and a longer pause after it. The Preposition, not allowing this, requires the aid of a Comma to denote the necessary pause. The purpose of the pause is to summarise, as it were, what has preceded, and to indicate that the Object is the Object not of the last Preposition alone, but of all the Prepositions. >>>>306<<<< =Omission of the Comma.=—I. When (1) an Adverb _follows_ its Verb, or when (2) a subordinate sentence _follows_ its principal Verb, there is not so much need of a pause or division, and consequently the Comma may be dispensed with. Compare— { “Very gradually, his health and strength returned.” (1) “His health and strength returned very gradually.” { “As soon as he caught sight of me, he ran away.” (2) “He ran away as soon as he caught sight of me.” >>>>307<<<< II. When the Subject-phrase is short, and the omission of the Comma produces no ambiguity, it is omitted:— (1) “What you say is very sensible.” (2) “To be ignorant is to be weak.” >>>>308<<<< III. _Caution._—The Comma ought not to be inserted (1) before “that” introducing an Object-phrase, nor (2) before “that” introducing a Subject after “Preparatory _it_.” Avoid the following:— (1) “The ambassador _replied_, _that_ no interference was needed.” (2) “It was the common _belief_, _that_ the house was haunted by the ghost of a murdered woman.” >>>>309<<<< =The Colon and Semicolon.=—The _Colon_ (meaning “limb” or “member”) is used after a “member” of a sentence; that is, after a portion that has a complete sense by itself. The Colon is therefore used to shew some close relation between two or more sentences by combining them in one. The relation indicated may be _consequence_, _cause_, _antithesis_, _similarity_, &c.:— “How the door was opened no one knew: on the evening of the robbery it had been locked as usual.” >>>>310<<<< The _Semicolon_ (“half-member”) is used between co-ordinate statements where a shorter pause is desired than that marked by the Colon. Generally, where there are _more than two_ co-ordinate statements _in a graphic description_, the Semi-colon would be preferred to the colon:— “After a terrific struggle, the infantry were forced back into the gates; the combined fleet and army opened fire upon the city; and preparations were made for an immediate assault.” >>>>311<<<< If the Co-ordinate Conjunction is inserted, the Semi-colon is generally preferred to the Colon:— “Trial by jury is popularly attributed to Alfred the Great; _but_ this is only an instance of the common tendency to associate popular institutions with popular names.” =The Full-Stop= requires no comment. >>>>312<<<< =The Note of Interrogation= is used, not only after questions asked for information, but also after “questions of appeal,” where no answer is expected:— “What can be toilsome in these pleasant walks?” _Paradise Lost_, x. 179. “O Grave! where is thy victory? O Death! where is thy sting?” —_Pope._ >>>>313<<<< =The Note of Exclamation= is used (1) after Vocatives; (2) after words or sentences uttered with sudden emotion; (3) very rarely after semi-interrogatory exclamations:— (1) “Go, _wondrous creature!_ mount where science guides; Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides.” —_Ib._ (2) “But _hark!_ he strikes the golden lyre; And _see!_ the tortur’d ghosts respire, See, _shady forms advance_!” —_Ib._ (3) “What sounds were heard, What scenes appear’d, O’er all the dreary coasts!” —_Ib._ >>>>314<<<< =The Dash= is used (1) to mark a very abrupt break in the sentence, often introducing some quite unexpected word; (2) in a long sentence, to mark a return to the thread of the principal sentence:— (1) Conceal, disdain—_do all things but forget.”—Ib._ “Oh come! oh teach me nature to subdue, Renounce my love, my life, myself—_and you_.” —_Ib._ (2) “The strong-headed, manly, sharp-tempered, secular carpenter, with his energetic satisfaction in work, his impatience of dreamers, and his early passion for Hetty’s earthly loveliness” (then follows a long description of the principal characters in ‘Adam Bede’) “—_these, with the slighter_, but equally true outlines with which the picture is filled up, form one of the truest and most typical groups of English life I have ever seen delineated.”—_Hutton._ >>>>315<<<< =Brackets= are used to mark the insertion of a Phrase or Sentence that is allowed to interrupt another sentence:— “Yesterday, Thomas (_you know whom I mean_) assured me that you were no longer in England.” This kind of insertion is called a _Parenthesis_, _i.e._ a “side-insertion” (_para_, aside; _enthesis_, insertion). Such expressions as “said he,” “replied I,” &c., are generally marked off, not by brackets, but by commas. =Inverted Commas=, or =Marks of Quotation=, require no comment. SCHEME OF PARSING.[1] Owing to the confusion and ambiguity caused by the use of different abbreviations in Parsing Exercises, the following list is given below:— >>>>316<<<< ABBREVIATIONS. _Active _ = _Act._ =Number _ = _Nr.= =Adjective _ = _Adj.=[2] =Object _ = _O.= =Adverb _ = _Adv.=[2] _Participle _ = _Part._ _Antecedent _ = _Ant._ _Passive _ = _Pass._ _Apposition _ = _App._ _Past Tense _ = _P. T._ _Auxiliary _ = _Aux._ _Person _ = _Pers._ _Cognate _ = _Cogn._ _Phrase _ = _Phr._ _Comparative _ = _Compar._ _Plural _ = _Pl._ _Complement _ = _Complem._ _Positive _ = _Pos._ _Complete _ = _Compl._ _Possessive _ = _Poss._ _Conditional _ = _Cond._ =Preposition _ = _Prep.= _Conjunction _ = _Conj._ _Present _ = _Pres._ _Conjunctive _ = _Conj^{ve}._ _Pronoun _ = _Pron._ _Direct Object _ = _D. O._ _Relative _ = _Rel._ _Future _ = _Fut._ _Retained Object_ = _Ret^{d.} O._ _Imperative _ = _Imper._ _Singular _ = _Sing._ _Impersonal _ = _Impers._ =Subject _ = _S.= _Incomplete _ = _Incompl._ _Subjunctive _ = _Subj._ _Indicative _ = _Indic._ _Superlative _ = _Superl._ _Indirect Object_ = _Ind. O._ _Supplement _ = _Suppl._ _Indefinite _ = _Indef._ =Tense _ = _T.= _Infinitive _ = _Inf._ _Transitive _ = _Tr._ _Interrogative _ = _Interr._ =Verb _ = _V.= _Intransitive _ = _Intr._ _Verbal _ = _Vl._ =Mood _ = _M.= _Vocative _ = _Voc._ =Noun _ = _N.= _Voice _ = _Vc._[3] ----- [1] For explanation of all the technical terms in this “Scheme,” the pupil is referred to the “Glossary of Grammatical Terms,” page xvii, where will also be found references to the Paragraphs in the Grammar, giving fuller explanations. [2] _Adjectival_, _Adverbial_, and other Adjectives, may be distinguished by adding _-l_, thus: _Adj^{l.}_, _Adv^{l.}_, &c. “Clause” may be written _Cl_. [3] _Voice_ need seldom be expressed, as it is implied by _Active_ or _Passive_. >>>>317<<<< I. =NOUNS.=—Mention (i) FORM; (ii) USE. i. FORM: _Singular_ or _Plural_. ii. USE: (1) _Subjective_; (2) _Possessive_; (3) _Vocative_; (4) _Objective_. iii. SUBDIVISIONS OF EACH USE: 1. _Subjective._ (_a_) Subject, Partial or Complete, of a Verb; (_b_) in Apposition to some Subject; (_c_) Adverbial Subject, or Subject Absolute; (_d_) Supplement to a Verb. 2. _Possessive._ (No Subdivision; always defines some Noun.) 3. _Vocative._ (No subdivision.) 4. _Objective._ (_a_) Object, Partial or Complete, or Cognate, or Indirect, or “Retained;” (_b_) in Apposition to some Object; (_c_) Adverbial Object; (_d_) Supplement to a Verb. >>>>318<<<< II. (_a_) =PRONOUNS= (ordinary).—i. ii. iii. same as Nouns; iv. stands for what Noun? II. (_b_) =PRONOUNS RELATIVE.=—i. ii. iii. same as Nouns; iv. has _for Antecedent_—? II. (_c_) =PRONOUNS CONJUNCTIVE.=—i. ii. iii. same as Nouns; iv. joins what sentences? >>>>319<<<< III. =ADJECTIVES.=—Mention (i) FORM; (ii) USE. i. FORM: Positive, Comparative or Superlative Degree. ii. USE: (i) joined to what Noun or Pronoun? (2) Supplementary to what Verb? >>>>320<<<< IV. =VERBS.=—(i) NATURE; (ii) FORM; iii. USE. i. NATURE: _Transitive_ or _Intransitive_. ii. FORM: Mention (1) _Voice_; (2) _Mood_; (3) _Tense_ and “_State_”; (4) _Person_; (5) _Number_. iii. USE: _A._ (_a_) has for Subject—? (_unless Infin._) (_b_) has for Object—? (_unless Intr. or Pass._)[1] (_c_) may have Subjective Supplement—? (_if Intr. or Pass._) (_d_) may have Objective Supplement—? If in the Infinitive Mood, the Verb may be used as— _B._ (_a_) _Noun_; Subject or Object (Complementary or otherwise) of—? (_b_) _Adverb_; modifying—? (_c_) _Adjective_; qualifying—? ----- [1] A Passive Verb may have a “Retained Object.” >>>>321<<<< V. =PARTICIPLES.=—(i) _Nature_; (ii) _Form_; (iii) _Use_. i. NATURE: _Transitive_ or _Intransitive_. ii. FORM: (_a_) _Active_ or _Passive_. iii. USE: (_a_) joined to what Noun or Pronoun? (_b_) implies what Conjunctive word? _A._ If Active (see IV. above), may have Object, &c. _B._ If Passive (see IV. above) may have Supplement. >>>>322<<<< VI. =VERBAL NOUNS.=—(i) _Nature_; (ii) _Form_; (iii) _Use_. i. NATURE: _Transitive_ or _Intransitive_. ii. FORM: _Active_[1] or _Passive_. iii. USE: _A. Noun-Uses._ See I. above. _B. Verb-Uses._ See IV. above. ----- [1] The “State” of the action, whether “Complete” with _having_, or “Incomplete,” without _having_, might also be mentioned. But these forms are often used indiscriminately. >>>>323<<<< VII. =ADVERBS.=—Modify what _Verb_, _Adjective_, _Adverb_, or _Sentence_?[1] Many Adverbs are used as Conjunctions, in which case call them Conjunctions or Conjunctive Adverbs, and parse them as Conjunctions. Some Adverbs are used in three different ways: (1) _Interrogatively_; (2) in _dependent Interrogation_, or _Conjunctively_; (3) _Relatively_. ----- [1] It is so seldom that a Noun is modified by an Adverb (and the ellipsis of an Adjective is so probable in such cases), that a Noun is not here included in list of words modified by the Adverb. See Par. 45. The Degree of Comparison of the Adverb is also omitted. >>>>324<<<< VIII. =PREPOSITIONS.=—Have what _Object_? Prepositions are sometimes used as (1) _Adverbs_; (2) _parts of Compound Verbs_, and, when thus used, must not be parsed as Prepositions. >>>>325<<<< IX. =CONJUNCTIONS.=—Join what two sentences together? PART II. _DIFFICULTIES AND IRREGULARITIES IN MODERN ENGLISH._ >>>>326<<<< =CHAPTER I.= PROSE. Paragraphs 191—230 contained a few examples of Irregularities, shewing the method by which Irregularities must be explained. The present Chapter is intended to enumerate more fully and systematically the difficulties in Modern English Prose. The method of explanation will not be so fully given as before, in Part I.; but the pupil must bear in mind that in explaining these, and all other irregularities in English, and indeed in explaining any irregularity in any language, there is but one method:— I. _Ascertain the Regular Construction._ II. _Ascertain the cause of Irregularity._ The following is a key to the arrangement adopted in this Chapter. But only those idioms are selected that present difficulty to an English student:— >>>>327<<<< =Syntax of Words and Sentences.= SYNTAX OF WORDS; OR, THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 1. _The Subject_, “It” (328-32). For the Infinitive used as Subject, _see_ 3, _c_, below. 2. _Agreement of Verb with Subject_ (334—9). 3. _Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases._ (_a_) Uses or Cases of Nouns (340-6). (_b_) Prepositions: “against” (349); “at” (350—5); “by” (353—7); “for” (358—64); “of” (365—372); “on” (373—5); “to” (377—9); “but” (380—1); used before Adverbs (382—3). (_c_) The Infinitive, used (1) as Subject or Object (386—9); (2) Adverbially (390—402). (_d_) The Participle (404—12). (_e_) The Adverb (413—20). 5. _The Adjective_, “The” (421—6); “a” (427—9); the Possessive Objectively used (432—4); Noun with Preposition Adjectively used (436); Appositional use of “of” (437—9). SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 1. _Co-ordinate Sentences._ Co-ordinate Conjunctions (440—443). 2. _Subordinate Clauses._ Condensed Clauses (444—7); Subject and Object Clauses (448—54); Adverbial Clauses (455—8); Conditional Clauses (459—71); Concessional Clauses (472—7); Result, Purpose (478—82); Clauses of Comparison (483—97); Adjective Clauses (497—500). For a full Alphabetical Index referring to each idiom explained in this and other Chapters, see page 327. Without the aid of this Index, the reader will not find it easy to refer to a particular idiom. For example, the Conjunctional use of “but” will not be found under “but” as a Preposition. But a reference to “but” in the Index will at once guide the reader to the right paragraph. >>>>328<<<< =“It” Used as Subject.=[1] 1. “=It=” is often used for (1) “the time, season,” &c.; (2) “matters, affairs”:— (1) “_It_ will soon be November.” (2) “_It_ will come to a quarrel.” This use has its origin in the earliest period of the language. It is explained not only by (I) desire of brevity, but also by the desire to express some unknown cause of inexplicable results: “_it_ snows, _hails_, _thunders_,” &c. Hence also in Early English, even up to the Fifth Period, “_it repents_, _shames_, _yearns_, _pities_, me.” The same tendency is observable in Latin to express feelings that are _not controlled by the person_, by means of _Impersonal Verbs_. A relic of the old usage is “methinks,” _i.e._, “it seems to me.” Compare Shakespeare:— “Where _it thinks_ (seems) best unto your royal self.” A similar explanation applies to “if (it) you _please_,” which is illustrated by Shakespeare’s “So (it) _please_ him (to) come.” ----- [1] For the Infinitive used as Subject, _see_ Par. 386. >>>>329<<<< “It” is also used to prepare the way for the Subject. (See Par. 151):— (3) “_It_ is said that he will come.” (If the sentence ran “that he will come is said,” an undue emphasis (III)[1] would be laid on “is said.”) (4) “_It_ is necessary to make a choice.” More rarely “this” and “that” are used _after_ the Subject for the purpose of recapitulation:— (5) “To fail after a third attempt—_that_ indeed would be disgraceful.” “It” is also used to prepare the way for the Object:— (6) “I do not think _it_ right to take this course.” (7) “I can make _it_ clear that I am guiltless.” ----- [1] The Roman numbers in brackets refer to the “Laws of Irregularity,” Par. 198. >>>>330<<<< “It” often prepares the way for a clause introduced by the Conjunction _that_:— (8) “_It_ was then that the cavalry charged,” _i.e._, “the cavalry’s charging was then.” (9) “When was _it_ that they were in prison?” (The redundance of _it_ here is shewn by the fact that in the last example, which is modernised from Robert of Gloucester, the author omits the _it_:— (10) “When was that they were in prison?”) Sometimes the Conjunction may be “whether”:— (11) “_It_ is doubtful whether he will succeed.” >>>>331<<<< _It_ stands for “the person,” and is the Antecedent of a Relative Pronoun in— (12) “Who was _it_ that said so?” (13) “Thou art _it_ that hath cut Rahab.” In the earliest English (Anglo-Saxon) version of the Gospel, “it,” or rather the Saxon equivalent of “it,” is not placed first, and we find St. John vi. 63 in this form:— (14) “Spirit is _it_ that giveth life.” But as early as Wickliffe the _it_ had been separated from its Relative, and had been placed at the beginning of the sentence. (15) “_It_ is the Spirit that quickeneth.” >>>>332<<<< In consequence of this change of position, the Verb agrees with the Preparatory Subject “it.” Thus, instead of— (16) “You were _it_ that he laughed at,” we say— (17) “_It_ was you that he laughed at.”[1] ----- [1] See Pars. 158—61. This construction is said not to be found in the earliest English, Mätzner, ii. page 25. * * * * * >>>>333<<<< A Noun is sometimes used as the Subject or Object of some Verb understood, connected with another Verb by “and”:— (1) (There were) “A few more struggles, and all was over.” (2) (We must walk) “A mile further, and we shall be at our journey’s end.” >>>>334<<<< =Agreement of Verb with Subject.= 1. The Verb sometimes has the Plural Inflection to agree with an _implied_ Plural Subject:— (1) “Nor yew nor cypress _spread_ their gloom,”[1] _i.e._, “yews and cypresses do not spread.” (2) “Neither you nor your brother were mentioned,” _i.e._, “you and your brother were not mentioned.” It would be intolerably harsh to write, however correct it might be— (3) “Neither you nor your brother _was_ mentioned.” _Evade_ the difficulty by writing:— (4) “Neither your brother nor you were mentioned,” so that the Verb may either agree with the Grammatical Subject “you,” or with the _implicit_ Subject “your brother _and_ you.” ----- [1] Campbell, quoted by Mätzner. >>>>335<<<< 2. A Subject is sometimes introduced without a Verb, in a parenthesis, the Verb having to be supplied by repetition— (1) “His faults, not his recent _misfortune_, _have alienated_ him from us.” where “has alienated” must be repeated after “misfortune.” >>>>336<<<< 3. The Verb is in the Singular after a number of Nouns as Subject— I. When the Nouns collectively express _one notion_:— (1) “Much _blood and treasure was wasted_ in these wars.” (2) “The _poetry and eloquence_ of that age _deserves_ our study.” In these cases the Nouns are often preceded by one Adjective, as above “much,” “the.” II. When the _last Singular Noun_ (coming at the end of a climax) is _prominently emphatic_:— (3) “Honour, justice, _religion itself is_ derided by such policy.” III. When the Verb _precedes_ a number of Subject Nouns, the _first of which is singular_. (4) “Blessed _is_ the _womb_ that bare thee and the _paps_ which thou hast sucked.” IV. When the Verb is followed by a _Complementary Subject in the Singular Number_:— (5) “To inferiors, gentleness, condescension, and affability _is_ the only true _dignity_.” >>>>337<<<< 4. A Collective Noun in the Singular may be used with a Plural Verb, where the notion of a number of _individuals_ is more prominent than the notion of a collective _whole_:— (1) “The crew _are_ rushing to the boats.” (2) “The whole family _are_ in tears.” (3) “The majority of the inhabitants _are_ ready to petition against his return.” (4) “The army _are_ anxious for a war.” But where the notion of _unity_ predominates, the Singular of the Verb is used:— (5) “The whole nation _rouses_ itself like one man.” (6) “The army _is_ mainly _composed_ of raw recruits.” >>>>338<<<< There is an apparent inconsistency in— (7) “The army—which a month ago _was_ pining for peace—_are_ now, to a man, clamorous for war.” (8) “This people, who _knoweth_ not the law, _are_ cursed.” But this is explained (III)[1] by the harshness of using a Plural Verb after a _Relative_ with a Singular Antecedent. Where the Plural Verb _closely_ follows the Noun of Multitude, the meaning of multitude naturally affects the Verb, but the intervention of the Relative Pronoun[2] diminishes the effect of the Noun’s Plural meaning. ----- [1] The Roman numbers in brackets refer to the Laws of Irregularity Par. 198. [2] The effect of the intervention of the Relative is seen in the, strictly, ungrammatical passage of Pope, where the Third Person is used for the old Second: “_Thou_ great first Cause, least understood: Who all my sense _confin’d_ To know but this, that Thou art good.” >>>>339<<<< The following examples (Mätzner, ii. 144) admirably illustrate the use of the Singular where the notion of unity, and of the Plural where the notion of plurality, is the more prominent:— (9) “There _goes_” (unity) “a pair that only _spoil_” (mutual action necessarily implying plurality) “one another.” (10) “The stork-assembly _meets_” (unity) “for many a day. Consulting deep and various” (notion of plurality introduced) “ere _they take_ Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky.” =ADVERBIAL PHRASES.= =I. The Uses of Nouns.= >>>>340<<<< The Object is used (see Par. 129) to denote _extent_, _distance_, _duration_, or _point of time_:—[1] (1) “A short _distance_ from the town was a small stream.” (2) “One summer’s _day_ I was walking in the country.” (3) “I shall expect you this _day_” (point of time) “three _months_” (distance or interval of time.)[2] (4) “I saw him five _days_ ago.”[3] (5) “He bathes _summer_ and _winter_.” ----- [1] Only a few unusual idioms are mentioned here. For the more ordinary idioms, the reader is referred to Par. 127—131. [2] In Old English (Layamon i. 344) a preposition “on” or “in” would be inserted before “months.” [3] In old English, “days” was sometimes made the Subject in a Parenthesis: “I saw him, _gone is five days_,” “ago” being for “agone,” the Passive Participle of “go.” >>>>341<<<< In Early English this was expressed by what is now the Possessive Inflection, so that the last Example would have then run— (6) “He bathes summer_es_ and winter_es_.”[1] In the same way they used “night_es_,” “day_es_,” “year_es_,” &c. In later times the Inflection was replaced by a Preposition “on,” or “an,” or “a-”; but sometimes we find the new Preposition introduced and the old Inflection retained, _e.g._ in “now-a-day_s_.” And this explains “in door_s_,” “of late year_s_,” “o’night_s_.” The old Inflection is retained, or has been introduced, in “alway_s_,” “sometime_s_,” “sideway_s_,” “need_s_.” ----- [1] Morris’s _Accidence_, page 194. >>>>342<<<< From a confusion (II) of “at three years of age” and “he was three years (Object) old” (see Par. 129), there has arisen the following irregularity:— (7) “_At_ three years, nine months, _old_.” Here “three-years-old,” “nine-months-old,” must be now regarded as Compound Nouns. >>>>343<<<< The Object is also used to denote _price_:— (8) “Mutton is _eight-pence_ a pound.” (Here “pence” is not the Subjective Supplement. “At” might be inserted before “eight.”) The distributive use of “a pound” in the last Example demands attention. It may be compared with— (9) “I ride once _a day_.” (10) “He gave them five shillings _a-piece_, or _a man_.” In Early English (Morris’s _Accidence_, page 195) this “a” is seen to be the old Preposition “on,” “an,” or “a.” It is _not_ (though it might seem to be) the Indefinite Adjective. >>>>344<<<< The Object is also used with Comparatives, to denote the _amount of excess or defect_:— (11) “He is _a trifle_ taller than my brother.” (12) “_The_ sooner, _the_ better.” In (12) “the” is not the Definite Adjective; it is a Use or Case of the old Relative or Demonstrative Pronoun (our “that”), and the meaning is “By _what_ (in what degree) sooner, _by that_ (in that degree) better.” (13) “_Thi_, (or _thy_) sooner, _thi_ better.” >>>>345<<<< A Prepositional force implied in the Adverbial Phrase “on this side” explains the use of the Object in:— (14) “On this side (of) the _Tweed_.” >>>>346<<<< The Object is irregularly used for the Subjective form in:— (15) “_Whom_ say ye that I am?” The reason is, obviously, (II) _Confusion_ with the regular construction:— (16) “_Whom_ say ye me to be?” But, doubtless, euphony (the same feeling that makes the French say “c’est _moi_” and English children “it’s _me_”) is the reason for such irregularities as Shakespeare’s:— (17) “No mightier than thyself or _me_.” (18) “Is she as tall as _me_.” (19) “It is _thee_ I fear.” Milton has “Than _whom_.” Perhaps, “than” and “as” were regarded as quasi-Prepositions. Pope (_Sat._ viii. 275) has— “And lin’d with Giants deadlier _than ‘em_ all.” =II. Prepositions.= >>>>347<<<< The English Prepositions originally represented _local_ meanings, _i.e._ they indicated rest or motion in _place_. For example, “of,” “off,” meant “motion from;” “by” meant “neighbourhood,” and so did “with;” “for” meant “before.” By degrees the uses of the Prepositions were extended to denote the relations of _time_ as well as of _space_. For example, “before” and “after” are used of both relations. But sometimes a Preposition assumed two forms, one to denote space, the other to denote time, _e.g._ “to” for space, “til” or “till” for time. See Par. 376. >>>>348<<<< Then the uses of the Prepositions were still further extended to denote other relations, _e.g._ _agency_, _instrumentality_, and the like. For example, we now say that a box is “made of (_i.e._ out of, motion from) wood.” But there is no reason why we might not have used, instead of “of,” some Preposition denoting “neighbourhood,” _e.g._ “with” or “by.” And here also (as with “to” and “till” above) the Preposition sometimes assumed two forms, one to denote the original local relation, _e.g._ “off,” “the leaves are falling _off_ the trees;” another to denote the secondary relation, _e.g._ “the light _of_ the sun.” Hence, in explaining the uses of Prepositions, the student should go back at once to the radical meaning of _rest_ or _motion_, and thence should trace the derived meaning, whatever it may be.[1] ----- [1] Before the Pupil deals with Prepositions and their metaphorical meanings derived from their local meanings, he should thoroughly master the meaning of a Metaphor, and be able to expand a Metaphor into a Proportion or Simile. See _English Lessons for English People_, page 125. “=A=,” “_a-_piece;” see Par. 343: “_a-_ground,” “_a-_sleep,” for “on ground,” “on sleep;” Par. 127. >>>>349<<<< 1. “=Against=,” now generally restricted to space, but still rarely (once commonly) used of _time_:— (1) “We shall not be ready _against_ the day of battle.” It is more commonly used in modern vernacular English as a Conjunction (like “after,” “before,” used for “after that,” “before that”):— (2) “We shall not be ready _against_ (that) he comes.” >>>>350<<<< 2. “=At=,” meaning “neighbourhood,” was early used to denote “proximity of value,” “equivalence,” or “price”:— (1) “The home is valued _at_ a thousand pounds.” (2) “He lends money _at_ a high rate of interest.” (3) “We are travelling _at_ a great pace.” Hence it was used in Adverbial Phrases, where “estimated,” “rated,” can be supplied from the context:— (4) “(Estimating your compensation) _At_ (the) _least_, you will surely receive half the value of your loss”: so, “_at_ most.” >>>>351<<<< Hence it denotes (not “consequence,” like “on,” but) “_immediate_ proximity, consequence, or dependence”:— (5) “He fires up _at_ a word”: “_At_ the word he vanished.” (6) “The tiger cleared the avenue _at_ a bound.” (7) “He lies _at_ the king’s mercy”: “He is removable _at_ pleasure.” >>>>352<<<< Hence “instrumentality,” mostly of _games at_ which one may be regarded as present:— (8) “He plays _at_ cricket, football, chess, draughts,” &c.: “He is beaten _at_ his own weapons.” >>>>353<<<< Note that “at” is used with reference to _points_, while “on” and “in” are used with reference to _places_. Hence “at” is used for a _point_ of time, but “on,” “in,” or “by” for a _space_ of time:— (9) “_On_ Monday,” “_at_ dawn”; “_by_ day,” “_at_ sunset”; “_in_ the afternoon,” “_at_ noon.”[1] (10) “_At_ first”; “_at_ last”; “_at_ length.” So also of place, “at” is used for small places regarded as points, “in” of large places regarded as spaces:— (11) “_In_ London”; “_at_ Clifton.” Hence, metaphorically:— (12) “Distinguished _in_ war, literature, &c.;” “Skilful _at_ jumping, dancing, &c.” ----- [1] “_At_ night” really means “_at_ night-fall.” >>>>354<<<< “In” denotes the _sphere_ of action regarded as _influencing_ the agent, _e.g._ “_in_ wrath,” “_in_ anger,” “_in_ haste.” “At” denotes the _point at_ which one rests, without the notion of _influence_, _e.g._ “_at_ ease,” “_at_ peace,” “_at_ liberty,” “_at_ large,” “_at_ rest,” “_at_ leisure”:— (13) “He that marries _in_ haste will repent _at_ leisure.” >>>>355<<<< 3. “=By=,” meaning originally “near the side of,” _i.e._ neighbourhood, is used to denote “time” (“_by_ four o’clock”), “instrumentality,” and “agency.” From the notion of “instrumentality,” it came to express “manner,” “number,” &c.:— (1) “They sell corn _by_ the bushel, drink beer _by_ the gallon,” &c. (2) “He is dying _by_ inches, is wise _by_ fits,” &c. (3) “The citizens streamed out _by_ hundreds.” >>>>356<<<< In Old English, the _repetition_ of an action, _e.g._ “streamed” in the last Example, was sometimes expressed by _repeating_ the Adverbial phrase “by hundreds,” so that the sentence ran— (4) “The citizens streamed out _by_ hundreds, _by_ hundreds; _by_ one and _by_ one; _by_ thousand and _by_ thousand; _by_ little and little,” &c. So even Pope:— (5) “Loth to enrich me with too quick replies, _By little and by little drops_ his lies.” When some of these phrases were condensed for brevity’s sake, the first “by” was omitted:— (6) “They streamed out one _by_ one.” (7) “The water oozed out drop _by_ drop.” (8) “He is growing stronger year _by_ year.” (9) “The army is diminishing little _by_ little.” >>>>357<<<< From false analogy, _i.e._ Confusion (II) with “They emigrated _by_ hundreds,” we say, even speaking of a single person— (10) “He emigrated _by_ himself.” But even in the Earliest English we find, not the Adjective “self” (_i.e. same_) and the Pronoun “he,” “he-self,” in Apposition to the Subject, but a kind of Adverb formed out of the Dative Case of “he.” Consequently “by himself” is simply a Prepositional equivalent of the old Case-Adverb. >>>>358<<<< 4. “=For=,” radical meaning “before,” “in front of;” hence (as a champion may fight _in front of_, or _in the place of_, the person he is championing) “instead of,” _i.e._ in the stead or place of,[1] “as”:— (1) “She passed _for_ his sister.” (2) “This was meant _for_ a joke.” ----- [1] Hence “I buy an apple _for_, _i.e._ in the place of, or sell it _for_, _i.e._ for the sake of, a penny.” >>>>359<<<< Hence, “for the purpose of,” and hence, “considered for the purpose of,” or “having regard to”:— (3) “Fit _for_ food.” (4) “Small _for_ his size.” (5) “These apples are too sour _for_ eating,” _i.e._ “for the purpose of eating, the apples are too sour.” Hence, “for the sake of,” “because of”:— (6) “All kept away _for_ fear of infection.” (7) “_For_ shame,” _i.e._ “(I cry alack) because of shame.” Some exclamation has to be supplied, and was often inserted in Old English. >>>>360<<<< It is easy to see how, after a negative, “for” may assume the meaning of “despite of”:— (8) “He was not liked _for_ his good temper,” or (9) “He was disliked _for_ all his good temper.” Hence, even where there is no negative preceding, “for” might be thus used:— (10) “I shall succeed (_and you will not prevent me_) _for_ all your tricks.” It is fair to say, however, that in Old English “for” is used in the sense of “prevention,” without any negative preceding.[1] ----- [1] It has been suggested that “for” might derive a meaning or _opposition_ from its radical meaning of “before,” “in front of.” See _Shakespearian Grammar_, page 103. >>>>361<<<< From the notion of “purpose,” “for” came to be used, even in Early English, with words denoting future _time_:— (11) “I have food stored up _for_ (the purpose, or need, of) many years.” (12) “I will repeat the Psalter daily _for_ a year.” In the same way, “for” is used of _space_, with a notion of motion towards a _purposed_ Object— (12_a_) “I am setting out _for_ Paris.” >>>>362<<<< Hence “for” came to be used of time and space, without any notion of purpose, but with the mere notion of _extension_:— (13) “We have loved one another _for_ many years.” (14) “_For_ fifteen weary miles they plodded onward.” (15) “_For_ a short time.” Hence (II) by Confusion (where there is no notion of “extension”):— (16) “He is now sleeping, _for_ the first time since last Monday.” (17) “Be sensible, _for_ once.” >>>>363<<<< The use of “for” after “but” is to be explained by reference to the radical meaning of “but,” _i.e._ “except” (see Par. 381):— (18) “He would have died _but for_ me,” _i.e._ “_except_, or _only_, (that it happened otherwise) _because of_ me.” >>>>364<<<< “For,” in the sense of “in front of,” _i.e._ “in behalf of,” is often used _at the beginning_ of a sentence, to call attention to that about which one is going to speak:— (19) “_For_ his part, he is indifferent.” Hence— (20) “_As for_ him, he is indifferent,” _i.e._ “(So far) as (one may speak) _or, i.e._ in behalf of, about, him.” _In the middle_ of the Sentence “for” is not now so common as it was once, _e.g._ in Bacon’s time: “(The counsel of Rehoboam) was young counsel _for_ (_as regards_) the persons, and violent counsel _for_ (_as regards_) the matter.” “For to,” see Par. 402. >>>>365<<<< 5. “=Of=,” having originally the force of _off_, is still used with this meaning in— (1) “Within ten miles _of_ (_i.e._ from) the coast.” (2) “_Of_ late.” “_Of_ old.” “_Of_ a child.”—Mark ix. 21. (3) “Upwards _of_ (_i.e._ rising _from_) ten years.” From saying, logically, “ten _of_ us,” _i.e._ “ten _out of_ our number,” we have come to say, illogically— (4) “All _of_ us.” >>>>366<<<< “Of” is also used with Verbs signifying “motion from”: (_a_) deprive, bereave, strip, rob, cheat, defraud; (_b_) rid, deliver, acquit; (_c_) cleanse, purge, cure; (_d_) beware. Also with Adjectives signifying emptiness. This use explains— (5) “Void _of_ sense.” “Clear _of_ debt.” “She was delivered _of_ a child.” >>>>367<<<< “Of,” from meaning “motion from,” comes to mean (6) “out of,” (7) “belonging to,” (8) “resulting from”:— (6) “This box is made _of_ wood.” “He comes _of_ good parentage.” “Evil must come _of_ evil.” (7) “The light _of_ the sun,” _i.e._ “the light _off_ or _from_ the sun.” (8) “The canal is full _of_ water,” _i.e._ “as the _result of_.” “He did it _of_ malice aforethought.” “She died _of_ a fever.” “It smells _of_ musk.” “_Of_ his own accord.” “_Of_ course,” _i.e._ “as _the result of_ the ordinary course of things.” Compare Bacon’s— (8_a_) “If Time, _of course_ (_i.e. as the result of its ordinary course_) alter things to the worse.” >>>>368<<<< From meaning “resulting from,” “of” comes to mean (9) “on account of,” (10) “because of”:— (9) “I accuse him _of_ treason.” (10) “He is glad _of_ success, afraid _of_ death.” >>>>369<<<< Hence, from meaning “that which comes from, has to do with, belongs to, or concerns,” “of” has come to mean “concerning,” “about”:— (11) “What _of_ John? Tell me _of_ his adventures.” (12) “I am going _of_[1] an errand.” Lastly, from meaning “about,” it comes to mean “as regards”:— (13) “Light _of_ foot.” “Hard _of_ heart.” ----- [1] This might be explained by (8) “as the result of.” >>>>370<<<< Only in vernacular English is “of” now used for “during,” a use that springs naturally from the meaning “coming from,” “belonging to,” _i.e._ “in,” or “on”:— (14) “I can’t get up _of_ a morning.” (15) “_Of_ a sudden.” But this was once more common. Compare Shakespeare’s— “My custom always _of_ the afternoon.” >>>>371<<<< Since the action _comes of_, or from, the agent, “of” may be, and once was, commonly used where we use “by”:— (16) “He was despised and rejected _of_ men.” (17) “That it might be fulfilled which was spoken _of_ the Lord.” (18) “When he was demanded _of_ the Pharisees.” >>>>372<<<< The Partitive use of “of” without a preceding Noun, Pronoun, or Numeral Adjective, is now rare:— (19) “He gave us (_some_) _of_ his best.” (20) “The dogs eat (_some_) _of_ the crumbs that fall from their master’s table.” “What sort _of_,” “A rascal _of_ a cabman,” &c. See Par. 438. >>>>373<<<< 6. “=On=,” “=Upon=.” Since one event can happen _on the top of_ another, or can be _based upon_ certain conditions it is easy to understand the use of the Preposition in— (1) “_Upon_ my arrival I will give you an interview.” (2) “He acted thus _on_ your suggestion.” (3) “_On_ hearing this, he rushed out of the house.” (4) “They surrendered the city _on_ these conditions.” (5) “Pillage was prohibited _on_ pain of death.” >>>>374<<<< As we speak of being _supported_ or _sustained_ by bread, which we call the “staff of life,” we naturally use “on” in the metaphorical expressions— (6) “He lives _on_ bread, feeds _on_ success,” &c. Since an oath is taken “over” or “on” a Bible, sword, &c., it was natural to swear— (7) “_On_ the faith of a Christian.” “_On_ my honour.” “_Upon_ my word.” Since an action may spring “out of” a feeling, or be based “on” a purpose, we can say— (8) “He did it _of_ malice,” but “_on_ purpose.” >>>>375<<<< “On” is often abbreviated into “a-”:— (9) “A-board,” “a-sleep,” “a-live,” “a-ground.” Shakespeare also has— (10) “A-land,” “a-sea,” “an-end,” _i.e._ “on end.”[1] ----- [1] Even Pope has— “A little house with trees _a-_row.” >>>>376<<<< 7. “=Till=,” which is now used only of _time_, was once used of _space_:— (1) “They went _til_ Snowdon.” (2) “_Tille_ him came his son Richard.” >>>>377<<<< 8. “=To=,” meaning “toward,” is sometimes used, without a Verb of motion, to denote “neighbourhood” or “equivalence,” where now “for” would be more commonly used:— (1) “I call God _to_ (_i.e._ as) witness.” In the last Example, motion may possibly be implied in “call;” but there is no motion implied in— (2) “The seven had her _to_ wife.” >>>>378<<<< “To” seems to mean “up to,” “as far as concerns,” “as to” in— (3) “_To_ all appearance he is guilty.” >>>>379<<<< “To” was early used (in the sense of neighbourhood) for “toward” or “about” of _past_ time, as well as of future, _e.g._ “_to-_eve” (yesterday evening). This explains the modern— (4) “I saw him _to-_day.” “=As to.=” See Pars. 487—489. >>>>380<<<< “=But.=” See Alphabetical Index. When used as a Preposition, “but” should be followed by the Objective form; but, probably owing to _confusion_ between the Prepositional and the Conjunctive usage, “but,” even when a Preposition, is often followed by the Subjective form:— “And was not this the Earl? ’Twas none but _he_.”—_Philip Van Artevelde._ >>>>381<<<< In explaining the many idiomatic usages of “but,” two things should be borne in mind; (1) that the radical meaning of “but” is “leaving out,” and that it was a Preposition; (2) that a negative is often omitted, for shortness, before it. The transition from the Preposition to the Conjunction is well illustrated by the following modernised examples from Layamon:— (1) “_Buten_ læve,” _i.e._ “_without_ leave.”—(_Preposition._) (2) “He saw that the Britons must fall _buten_ heo ræd haveden,” _i.e._ “_without_, or, _unless_ they had counsel (rede).”—_Subordinate Conjunction._ (3) “If you do this, well; _bute_ (i.e. _otherwise_), he will never deliver Evelin to thee.”—_Co-ordinate Conjunction._ The omission of the negative was facilitated by the blending of the negative _ne_ with the Verb, so that _nam_ meant “am not.” (4) “_N_abbe we _buten_ the west end,” _i.e._ “we have _but_ the west end.” (5) “_N_a_s_ he there bute one night,” _i.e._ “he was there _but_ one night.” >>>>382<<<< 9. Prepositions are sometimes used with Adverbs (used as Nouns) for their Objects:— (1) “What kind of country is it _between here_ and Dover?” (2) “The light comes _from behind_, not _from above_.” (3) “_Until_ quite _recently_.” “_Since then._” “_For once._” “_Of yore._” The older and preferable forms “Whither?” “Whence?” seem in danger of being supplanted by the modern “Where-to?” “Where-from?”— (4) “_Where_ does this road lead _to_?” >>>>383<<<< Sometimes the Preposition precedes not an Adverb, but an Adverbial Phrase:— (5) “The mountain trembles _from on-high_.” (6) “_From beneath-the-ground._” “_From beyond-the-seas._” (7) “Not _till about-six-years-afterwards_.” “_Till within-a-few-weeks-of-his-death._” (8) “It was sold for _under-half-its-value_.” >>>>384<<<< 10. The Object of a Preposition is sometimes omitted, (1) when the Object is a Relative Pronoun, (2) when the Preposition completes a Verb in the Infinitive:— (1) “The will (that) I told you _of_ is lost.” (2) “He lent me his horse to escape _upon_.” Such sentences as (2) are found without the Relative Pronoun in Old English; it seems best to consider the Preposition in such cases as part of a Compound Verb—“escape on,” like “ride on.” In Shakespeare we should often find “thereon” inserted—“to escape thereon.” >>>>385<<<< “One another,” “each other,” have now come to be regarded as Compound Pronouns:— (1) “They looked at _one another_, or, _each other_.” But the explanation of the construction is as follows: “They looked one at another, or, each at other”—“one” and “each” being in Apposition to “they,” while “other” is the Object of “at.” See Pars. 223, 531. =Preposition omitted=; see Pars. 127—131. =The Infinitive.[1]= ----- [1] For convenience, the Infinitive, even when not Adverbial, is discussed here. >>>>386<<<< The “to” is omitted, not only after the Auxiliary Verbs, but also in a few very common idioms:— (1) “Better (_to_)[1] wait a while.” (2) “You had better (_to_) be quiet.” Here “had” is Subjunctive, meaning “would have;” and the sentence would be in full— (2) “You would have (find) it better (_to_) be quiet.” (3) “I had rather (_to_) be a doorkeeper,” _i.e._ “I soon_er_ (‘_rathe_’ (Adj.) meant ‘early,’ ‘soon’) would have,” _i.e._ “I prefer (_to_) be a doorkeeper.” “To” is also omitted after “have” in— (4) “I must have you (_to_) attend.” (5) “You will have your father (_to_) blame you.” It is impossible to tell whether “Please help me” is for (1) “May it please you to help me,” or for (2) “Help me, please,” which is an abbreviation of “Help me, if you please, or, so please you.” “Do,” O.E. _don_, originally meant “cause,” _e.g._ “_do_ me drenche,” “_cause_ (some one) _to drench_ me.” About the thirteenth century it began to be used for simple emphasis, and in the fifteenth century, was regularly used thus. In “How _do_ you _do_,” the first do is the ordinary one, O.E. _don_, the second is O.E. _dugan_ “to be good, or worth.” (MORRIS). ----- [1] This was the Infinitive, not the Imperative. >>>>387<<<< The omission of “to” after such Verbs as _let_, _bid_, _make_, _dare_, _see_, _hear_, _feel_, may be explained (1) by the desire of brevity manifesting itself, specially in the use of words so common as these are; and (2) by the fact that old constructions (_i.e._ the Old Infinitive without “to”) are to be looked for in common words. (See Par. 95, 96.) >>>>388<<<< But this explanation does not explain the omission of “to” after such uncommon words as “view,” “behold,” “mark,” “watch,” “observe,” “perceive,” &c. The explanation here is perhaps as follows: when the “to” form of the Infinitive came in, the construction would become— (7) “I observed him _to come_.” But, side by side with this, there would be the Old Participial or Verbal construction:— (8) “I observed him _coming_ or a-_coming_.” In (7) the Object of the Verb is a _fact_, viz. “the fact that he came.” In (8) the Object of the Verb is a _person_. But between these two constructions a compromise or confusion of thought was made, in which it was left uncertain whether the _fact_ or the _person_ was the more prominent; and, to represent this confusion of thought, there was made (II) a compromise or confusion of language, in which (I brevity) “to” was omitted as in (8), and “come” was substituted for “coming,” as in (7), the result being— (9) “I observed him _come_.”[1] The confusion between the Infinitive and the Participle or Verbal would be facilitated by the similarity of sound between the old Infinitive in _-en_, and the Participle in _-nd_, or the Verbal in _-ng_. See Pars. 585—6. ----- [1] This Infinitive would be rendered in Latin and Greek by a Participle. >>>>389<<<< The “to” is often omitted after “than,” where it can be supplied from some other clause in the sentence:— (1) “Sooner than (I am prepared to) make this concession, I am prepared to go to law.” (2) “I will (_i.e._ wish; Par. 93) (to) die sooner than (to) desist.” =III. Infinitive with “to.”= (1) “I was given _to_ understand by him.” >>>>390<<<< The Active form is— (2) “He gave me to understand,” where “me” is the Indirect Object, and “to understand” the Direct Object, of “gave.” Consequently the _correct_ Passive form would be— (3) “To understand was given me.” But “give to understand” being loosely treated as a Compound Verb, “me,” in (2), has been taken as the Direct Object of the Active; and therefore the same Person, “I” in (1), has been made the Subject of the Passive. >>>>391<<<< This may be illustrated by— (4) “So am I given in charge.”[1] The modern meaning of “I am given in charge” would be “I am placed in custody.” But, in the foregoing example, “to give-in-charge” is treated as a Compound Verb meaning “to charge,” “to commission,” so that the sentence means, in Shakespeare, “I am charged, or instructed.” ----- [1] 2 _Henry VI._ ii. 4, 80. >>>>392<<<< “To” follows naturally after “come,” but expresses not a purpose, but a _result_, in— (5) “How came you _to be left_ behind?” (6) “It came _to pass_.” After several Intransitive Verbs of the feelings, _e.g._ “wonder,” “rejoice,” “sorrow,” “to” followed by a Verb is used, or “at” followed by a Verbal Noun:— (7) “I wondered, rejoiced, laughed, &c., _to see_ him there,” _i.e._ “at seeing.” (8) “I blushed, was ashamed, angry, sorry, &c., _to hear_ it.” >>>>393<<<< After Adjectives, the Infinitive is sometimes used to limit the scope of the Adjective, “to” being used very much like “in”:— (9) “Sad _to relate_,” _i.e._ “in relating,”[1] rather than “for the purpose of relating.” (10) “He was the first _to come_,” _i.e._ “in coming.” (11) “You are unwise _to speak_ so hastily,” _i.e._ “for speaking.” (12) “This was strange _to hear_, after all his professions.” ----- [1] Compare “mirabile dictu.” >>>>394<<<< “To” is also used after many Nouns resembling or implying _Verbs that would naturally take “to” after them_:— (13) “I have no wish, hope, ambition, desire, &c., _to succeed_.” (14) “Give me your promise _to obey_.” >>>>395<<<< Somewhat different is the use of “to” after Nouns preceded by “the”:— (15) “He had _the_ sense _to perceive_ his mistake,” _i.e._ “the sense necessary, or enough, to perceive.” Some Adjectives, such as “necessary,” “fit,” have to be supplied in such cases:— (16) “I have _the_ pleasure, honour, &c., _to inform_ you,” _i.e._ “the pleasure, honour, that goes so far as _to_,” &c.[1] ----- [1] This Infinitive appears to describe the “honour,” “pleasure,” &c., and therefore rather to be Adjectival than Adverbial. >>>>396<<<< In all the above Examples there are two causes for the use of “to” instead of “at,” “for,” “of,” &c. (1) A Transitive Verb is often _implied_; (2) “to” being constantly used with the Gerundive of purpose, came to be used with the Infinitive (used for the Gerundive) even where there is no sense of purpose. See Par. 94; also 585—6. >>>>397<<<< “=So as to.=” “To” is often found after “so...as”:— (17) “Be so kind as _to_ excuse me.” This might have been written without “so...as:” “Be kind to excuse me,” _i.e._ “Be kind to the extent of excusing me;” and this idiom is actually found, only with “enough” added:— (18) “Be kind enough _to_ excuse me.” In Early English “so” was added in the sense of “to that extent:” “Be _so_ kind _to_ excuse me.” Afterwards, to join together the two parts of the sentence, the Relative form of “so,” viz. “as” (see Par. 203), was inserted. =“To” in Questions and Relative Clauses.= >>>>398<<<< There appears to have been an old Interrogative use of the Infinitive, of which we still retain remnants in such expressions as— (1) “Where _to begin_? How (to) _excuse_ myself?”[1] In dependent questions this Infinitive was, and is, very common:— (2) “I know not where _to begin_, nor how _to excuse myself_.” No doubt this idiom is facilitated by the analogy of “I know not the place _to begin_, nor the way _to excuse_ myself,” which may be compared with the Noun-use of “wherewith,” _e.g._ “I have not the wherewith _to keep_ a carriage,” “I must know the _how_ and the _why_.” Add— (3) “I know not whether _to term_ it a fault or a misfortune.” (4) “The difficulty is _how to teach_ him that he needs teaching.” ----- [1] Although the words are not inserted, yet one _feels_ that this is a short way of saying: “Where (am I) to begin? How (am I to) excuse myself?” >>>>399<<<< The sentence “I have no money _to_ buy food” is logically correct, but is felt to be unsatisfactorily incomplete. It has therefore been completed in different ways: (_a_) “I have no money _to buy_ food _with_, or withal, or therewith;” (_b_) “I have no money _with which_ I _may buy_ food;” and the confusion between (_a_) and (_b_) has resulted in— (1) “I have no money with _which to buy_ food.” (2) “I have no object _for which to_ strive.” (3) “I want a place _in which to feel_ at rest.” >>>>400<<<< =The Infinitive in Exclamations.= The Subject, not the Object,[1] is usually found before the Infinitive in exclamations:— (1) “_I to_ be so happy!” “_He to_ desert me!” ----- [1] Compare the use of a Subject used absolutely with the Participle, where Latin and Greek usage would prepare one to expect some other form. Milton uses the Object with the Participle Absolute; but this is a Latinism. See Par. 408. >>>>401<<<< =The Parenthetical Infinitive.= This is an Infinitive of purpose:— (1) “_To_ tell you the truth, I was not up,” _i.e._ “in order to tell you the truth (I must say that), I was not up.” (2) “_To_ be brief, or, not to be tedious, the expedition failed.” (3) “_To be sure_ he is not very clever, but he is very kind-hearted.” (4) “Will you help me?” “_To be sure_ I will.” The meaning of “to be sure” seems to be “certainly,” but used in (3) _concessively_, in (4) _emphatically_. Compare “to wit,” _i.e._ “to know (the truth.)” The Subject of the Infinitive, in “to be sure” and in “to wit,” appears to be the _person addressed_, “that _you_ may be sure,” “that _you_ may wit.” >>>>402<<<< =The Infinitive with “for to.”= In the Bible, the old Infinitive with “for to” is still found:— (1) “What went ye out _for to see_?” In Old English this Infinitive was used as Complement to a Noun, in the Object clause, just like the Infinitive with “to,” _e.g._— (2) “A many of rude villains made him _for to_ bleed.” (3) “If he will not suffer my people _for to pass_.” We still, unconsciously, use this idiom, _e.g._— (4) “It is rare for a man to starve in this country.” Here the meaning is, not that “starvation is rare _for a man_” (for of course a man can only starve once), but that “_a man’s being starved_, or, _that a man should be starved_, is rare.” But, as this idiom is completely forgotten, we seldom use it, except where “for” _might take_ for its Object the Noun preceding the following Infinitive, as in— (5) “The night is too dark _for_ us _to travel_.” Here “us” _may be_ called the Object of “for.” But, in reality, the sentence owes its origin to the old use of “for to.” It is impossible to treat “for” as governing a Noun Object in the first or third, and it is difficult in the second, of the two following Examples:— (6) “He was too much accustomed to deeds of violence _for_ the agitation he had experienced _to be_ of long continuance.”—SCOTT.[1] (7) “The wind sits fair _for_ news _to go_ to Ireland.” (8) “He belonged to a race that was too much detested—outside the cities—_for_ him _to hope_ anything from charity.”—_Spectator_, 1874. ----- [1] Mätzner, Vol. iii. page 58. =The Complete Infinitive.= >>>>403<<<< Hopes and wishes about what is completed are necessarily reserved for cases where one has failed, and not fulfilled one’s purpose. Hence with Verbs of _hoping_, _wishing_, _intending_, the old and correct use of Complete Infinitive (which it is most desirable to retain) expresses _an unfulfilled purpose_:— (1) “I hoped _to have succeeded_, but I failed.” (2) But, on the other hand, “I hoped _to succeed_, and I succeeded.” So with some other Verbs:— (1) “I could _have repeated_ all Homer by heart once,” _i.e._ “if any one had challenged me, but no one did.” (2) But, on the other hand, “I could _learn_ a hundred lines in an hour once,” _i.e._ “and I sometimes did.” >>>>404<<<< =IV. The Participle.= The Participle qualifying a Noun is sometimes incorrectly used, instead of a Verbal Noun qualified by a Possessive Adjective or Possessive form of the Noun, _e.g._ “In consequence of the _king saying_ this” for “In consequence of the _king’s saying_ this.” “Trusting to the certainty of the old _man_ (for _man’s_) _interrupting_ him.” This is rare, and not to be imitated. Putting “me” instead of “king” or “man” above, you see the incorrectness of the idiom. It is not now English to say “in consequence of me saying this”: “my” would be required in both cases. >>>>405<<<< The Passive Participle is perhaps allowable in this construction, _e.g._— (1) “He insisted on the _match being deferred_,” instead of, “the _match’s being deferred_.” (2) “In consequence of this _motion having been brought forward_ without due notice.” These are not exactly Participles. For example, (1) does not mean “He insisted on the match when it was being deferred,” or, “that was being deferred:” but “He insisted on _the-match-being-deferred_,” _i.e._ “the deferring of the match.” This (which may be called the _Noun-use_ of the Participle)[1] is a Latin construction, alien to the genius of the English language; the native Verbal use should be retained, wherever euphony and clearness allow:— (3) “He insisted on the _man’s being reprimanded_.” ----- [1] It is sometimes called the _Gerundive_ use of the Participle. _Gerundive_ means “describing that which is to be done.” The Latins had a special form for the _Gerundive_. See Glossary. =The Participle with Conjunctions.= >>>>406<<<< The Participle is ambiguous; see Par. 66. “Walking” may mean “_though_ he walked,” “_because_ he walked,” &c. Partly to prevent ambiguity, and partly by (II) Confusion of Construction, we blend together (_a_) “_Walking_ on the ice I slipped,” and (_b_) “_While_, or _when_, I _was walking_ on the ice, I slipped;” and, combining the clearness of the latter with the brevity of the former, we say— (1) “_While_, or _when_, walking on the ice, I slipped.” (2) “_Though_ walking very carefully, I slipped.” >>>>407<<<< It would be convenient to say “_because_ walking;” but “because” and “since”[1] are not used with Participles. We sometimes, however, use “as” in this way, generally with “being,” more rarely with other Participles:— (3) “He was exempted from serving on the jury, _as being_ over sixty.” (4) “Our remaining horse was unfit for the road, _as_ wanting an eye.” (5) “_If conquered_, I am at least not disgraced.” (6) “I should never have attempted it _unless_ persuaded by you.” (7) “I always failed _till_ helped by my brother.” ----- [1] “Since” is used, as a Preposition, with a Verbal Noun as its Object, but not with a Participle. “If” and “unless” are rarely used with Active Participles. >>>>408<<<< =The Participle used Absolutely with Subject.= In Early English the Objective form of the Pronoun was used, _e.g._ by Wyckliffe:— (1) “_Him_ speaking these things,” _i.e._ “while he spoke.” Milton (probably imitating the classical usage) uses “him” and not “he” in— (2) “_Him_ destroyed . . . all this will soon follow.” =The Participle used Absolutely.= >>>>409<<<< Some Participles, through frequent use in certain expressions, have come to be used even where the Noun or Pronoun qualified by them has been dropped out, so that some of them have almost the force of Prepositions:— Regular Construction. (1) “_Concerning_[1] you the decision is as follows.” Irregular   „ (1) “We talked for some time _concerning_ the arrangements.” Regular    „ (2) “_Considering_ the circumstances, I do not think him to blame.” Irregular   „ (2) “_Considering_ the circumstances, it was thought that he was not to blame.” _Respecting_, _regarding_, and _touching_ are thus used. More rarely we have— (3) “_Talking_ of books, here is a very rare book.” (4) “_Judging_ from his own behaviour, he cannot be a desirable companion.” (5) “_Granting_ that you are right, what do you infer from this?” (6) “_Assuming_ that he is guilty, what ought to be done?” ----- [1] Here “concerning” may be said to qualify “decision.” >>>>410<<<< In most of such cases the Infinitive might be substituted for the Participle; and it is possible that the old sound of the Infinitive “talken” being like the sound of “talking,” may have facilitated the introduction of the latter: but it is more probable that the direct cause of the construction is (_a_) the frequent use of the Participle regularly, and (_b_) its retention when the Pronoun is changed:— (_a_) “_Talking_ of books, I must tell you, &c.” (_b_) “_Talking_ of books, there is a very fine copy of,” &c. “In talking,” or “a-talking” (compare the French “en attendant”), might also naturally be contracted into “talking,” and might then be confused with the Participle. =The Participle with Implied Noun.= >>>>411<<<< It is scarcely correct, though not very uncommon, to say— (1) “_Having_ disposed of his first argument, his second argument remains to be considered,” instead of “we have to consider.” (2) “My farm consisted of twenty acres of excellent land, (_I_) having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor’s good will.”—GOLDSMITH.[1] ----- [1] Mätzner, Vol. iii., page 80. >>>>412<<<< Where a Possessive Adjective is used, _e.g._ “his,” it may be sometimes said that “his” is the same as “of him,” and that the Participle qualifies “him,” which is implied in “his”:— (3) “_Having finished_ his breakfast, _his_ thoughts began to run on dinner.” (4) “_Repulsed_ at all points, _their_ courage grew cold.” Adjectives, as well as Participles, are thus used:— (5) “Once _free_ from debt, _his_ best course is to emigrate.” Such an expression as the following is by no means to be imitated:— (6) “He has a certain grandeur of soul, which cannot be contemplated _unmoved_,” _i.e._, “by any-one unmoved.” =V. Adverbs.= >>>>413<<<< Some Adjectives appear to be used as Adverbs, _e.g._— “He ran _fast_.” The explanation of these forms is as follows: In Early English an Adverb was often formed by adding _-e_ to an Adjective, _e.g._ “bright” Adjective, “bright_-e_” Adverb. In Modern English the _-e_ has been dropped (with many other Inflections), but several of the old Adverbs are retained, _e.g._ “quick,” “sweet,” &c. “=There=” redundant; see Par. 152. >>>>414<<<< “=So=” is used (1) for an Adjective, (2) for a Noun. The explanation of this is as follows: “So” means “in this way,” and is a less emphatic form of “also,” “all-so.” Hence— (1) “He is an Englishman, and _so_ (also) are you,” _i.e._, “and you _also_ are an Englishman.” (2) “I am sorry, and _so_ (also) is he,” _i.e._, “he _also_ is sorry.” In time this restricted use of “so” (restricted to indicate the repetition of a previous statement) was forgotten, and “so” was used in other constructions, _e.g._— (3) “The prince (for _so_ he was) threw off his mask.” (4) “The blest to-day is as completely _so_ As who began a thousand years ago.” In the two last Examples “so” must be parsed as put for “prince” and “blest” respectively. In “I thought _so_, did _so_, said _so_,” “so” may often be treated as an Adverb, and also in “It is _so_,” _i.e._ “matters are _in that condition_.” >>>>415<<<< _So_ sometimes used, not for the preceding Noun, but for something _like_ (“in the same[1] way as”) the preceding Noun, _i.e. for a preceding Noun modified by some Adverb, such as “about,” “nearly”_:— (1) “I am going out for a minute or _so_ (_about a minute_.)” ----- [1] See Par. 203. >>>>416<<<< “=Other=” is used for “other-how”[1] (compare “other-wise”) in the expression— (1) “I must help you some how or _other_.” ----- [1] “How” is used as a Noun in “I must know the _how_ and the _why_.” See Par. 398. >>>>417<<<< “=No=” is often used with Comparatives, _e.g._ “_no_ better,” _i.e._ “in no degree better,” and hence— (1) “We saw him _no more_,” where the Adverb “no” modifies the Adverb “more.” “No,” (“na,” or “ne”) was used for “not” (“no-whit,” “naught”) in Old English, and is as correct as “not” in:— (2) “Whether he comes or _no_, it matters little.” >>>>418<<<< “=Why=” and “=well=” are used as expletives: (1) “Why?” appears to have been originally thus used as an exclamation of impatience or surprise, equivalent to “Why do you say this? Why are you surprised? Why are you acting thus?” (2) “Well” seems to mean “This having been well settled,” and is used in the sense of “enough of this,” “to pass on,” &c., in order to prepare the way for a new point:— (1) “Snakes! _Why_, there are no snakes in Ireland.” (2) “_Well_, now let us come to more practical matters.” >>>>419<<<< Some Adverbs, especially those of place, are used with Nouns almost like Adjectives, except that they rarely come before the Noun:— (1) “_God above_ knows best.” (2) “What is the cause of your _arrival here_? I thought your _education abroad_ would prevent your _return homeward_.” It is allowable to put the Adverb first in “The _above argument_.” Byron also writes “The _then_[1] _world_,” “My _almost drunkenness_ of heart.” Shakespeare has “thy _here-approach_,” “our _hence-going_,” “till Harry’s _back-return_.” ----- [1] This construction, sanctioned by Byron and Thackeray, is too convenient to be given up. >>>>420<<<< =Adverbs repeated.=—Many Adverbs are repeated, sometimes to denote repetition, sometimes for emphasis. Thus we use “_again_ and _again_,” “_in_ and _in_” (of horse-breeding), “_over_ and _over_,” logically; for the repetition of the action requires the repetition of the Adverb. But we also illogically use “through and through,” “out and out,” and Pope has:— “Know there are rhymes which _fresh_ and _fresh_[1] applied.” This explains “_by_ and _by_.” “By” meant “near,” either of space or time. Hence “_by_ and _by_” meant “very near,” either of space or of time. Chaucer uses it of space and speaks of “two knights sleeping _by and by, i.e. close by_.” But we now use it only in the sense of “very soon.” In early English (Layamon ii. 447) we find “_with_ and _with_” for “_again_ and _again_.”[2] ----- [1] So a dinner is served up “_hot_ and _hot_.” [2] The later text has one “with” only. ADJECTIVES. “The” and “A.” >>>>421<<<< “=The=” is often used to denote “that which is known as,” _e.g._— (1) “_The_ hero differs from _the_ brute.” “_The_ earth” means “the planet, _known_ as earth,” “the earth _known_ as distinct from the sea,”[1] &c. “Earth” means “our Parent Earth” personified:— (2) “_The earth_ is larger than _the moon_.” (3) “_Earth_ smiles around, with boundless bounty blest.” We still use “the” before a Noun denoting a class, to _define_ the individual selected out of that class— “_The_ Prophet Daniel”; “_the_ Astronomer Adams”; _i.e._, “the astronomer _known_ by the name of Adams.” Also, in the case of foreign titles, _e.g._— “_The_ Tycoon So-and-so”; “_the_ Consul Appius”; “_the_ Centurion Paullus.” ----- [1] Bacon says “_The_ (_substance known as_) _matter_ is in a perpetual flux.” >>>>422<<<< But a familiar title is treated as a _part of the proper name_, and therefore dispenses with “the.” Compare— “_The_ Centurion Paullus,” with “Captain Smith.” “King Edward,” with “_the_ Emperor Napoleon.” In the earliest English, before this distinction was recognized, “the” was inserted before “king,” “bishop,” &c.; but Chaucer often omits “the.” >>>>423<<<< Some epithets are _distinctive_ of certain persons. For example, “Alfred” is _known_ as “_the_ Great;” Wellington as “_the_ victorious;” “Minos” as “_the_ inflexible.” (1) In cases of great notoriety, “the” may come after its Noun; (2) in other cases before its Noun:— (1) “Alfred _the_ Great is wrongly supposed to have established the form of trial by jury now existing among us.” (2) “_The_ classical Addison did not disdain to write a commentary on the ballad of ‘Chevy Chase.’” On the other hand, an epithet (like a title) is often treated as though it were part of the name, especially in Poetry, _e.g._ “_god-like_ Turenne,” and “the” is consequently omitted. See Par. 523. >>>>424<<<< Sometimes a proper name is used for a type of character; _e.g._ “Rupert” is used for “a dashing, impetuous leader.” In such cases “the” may be prefixed, and we can say— (1) “Lord Derby was called _the_ Rupert of debate.” (2) “He was _the_ Thersites (_i.e._, wrangling reviler) of the assembly.” “The” is used before names that are regarded not so much as names as epithets, _e.g._— “_The_ Thames (river);” “_the_ Atlantic (ocean);” “_the_ Mediterranean (sea);” “_the_ (range called) Chilterns;” “_the_ (district known as) Crimea, Tyrol, Netherlands,[1] Levant, Palatinate.” “The” is omitted before names of towns, countries, and isolated mountains, all of which may be regarded as _individuals_ requiring “proper names,” _e.g._ “Paris,” “England,” “Snowdon,” “Saddleback.” “The” in “_the_ Rigi,” “_the_ Matterhorn,” “_the_ Schreckhorn,” &c. is probably of foreign origin. ----- [1] “The Netherlands”=“The Low Lands.” >>>>425<<<< “The” is the old Demonstrative and Relative Pronoun “by how much” and “by so much” (See Par. 344) in— (1) “_The_ sooner he leaves, _the_ better for everybody.” >>>>426<<<< There is no fixed rule as to repeating “the” between two Nouns, both of which are intended to be defined. Compare— “He arose and rebuked _the_ winds and _the_ sea,” St. Matthew, viii. 26, with St. Luke viii. 25, “He commandeth even _the_ winds and water.” “The” is perhaps more often omitted than inserted, provided the omission causes no ambiguity:— (1) “_The_ prince and princess are expected;” “During _the_ first and second centuries.” >>>>427<<<< “=A=” is used before “dozen,” “hundred,” “thousand,” “million,” “few,” “great many;” all these words being half Nouns, inasmuch as they are preceded by “a,” and half Adjectives, inasmuch as they are not followed by “of.” See Par. 193. Anomalous uses of “a,” or rather of Numerals preceded by “a,” arose very early:— “A(n) 5 mile;” “a(n) 2 furlong;” “a(n) seven mile;” “a(n) twelve year.” Here, as in “a sennight (seven-night)”, “a fortnight (fourteen-night)”, (Shakespeare uses “one seven years”), the Numeral and the Noun seem to form a Singular Compound Noun. But we sometimes meet with “_a nine_, or _a ten_, of men,” where the Numeral by itself is treated as a Noun. >>>>428<<<< “=A=” _appears to have_ (_but has not_) the meaning of “one” in— (1) “Five-pence _a_ quart,” “_a_ year,” “_a_ man.” For in Early English the Preposition “on,” “in,” or “an” was used in such cases:— (2) “Once _in_ or _on_ the year;” “I fast twice _in_ the week;” “if he sin against thee _on day_ seven times.” Hence “a” must here be regarded as an old Preposition. >>>>429<<<< “A” (like “the” above) is used before names, when the name represents a character, _e.g._ “_a_ Crœsus,” _i.e._ “a man of immense wealth.” “_A_ little.” See Par. 217. With many Adjectives that from use or termination approach Adverbs, “a” is often placed after, instead of before, the Adjective, _e.g._ “many _a_,”[1] “what _a_,” “such _a_,” “half _a_.” In Early English we also find “each _a_,” “which _a_.” Hence, though we cannot say “severe a man,” we can say “_so_ severe, _too_ severe, _as_ severe, _a_ man.” “A” is for “one” in “all of _a_ sort, _a_ piece.” Compare:— “And surely, Heav’n and I are of _a_ mind?”—POPE. ----- [1] See _Shakespearian Grammar_, Paragraph 81; See also Par. 218 above. =Other Adjectives.= >>>>430<<<< _Very_ once meant “genuine” (Lat. _verus_). Hence it came to mean “itself,” “themselves,” &c.; _e.g._— (1) “Your _very_ looks betray you.” The Adjective _follows_, instead of dividing or preceding, “something,” “anything,” “everything,” and other similar Compounds of “thing.” The reason seems to be that in Early English these words were sometimes used Partitively and followed by “of,” thus:— (1) “Of Nazareth may _something of good_ be?” WYCKLIFFE. This has been shortened into— (2) “I have heard _something good_.” >>>>431<<<< The Superlative form of the Adjective is sometimes used as a Noun, _e.g._— (1) “He plunged into the _thickest_, _hottest_, of the fray.” This is easily explained by the confusion (II) with such expressions as “the _best_ (_fish_) of your fish,” “the _finest_ (_streets_) of your streets.” Here the Noun can logically be supplied, and the construction (owing to its convenient brevity (I)) has encroached, where, logically, it is unjustifiable. A few Adjectives of French origin follow their Nouns, accordance with French usage, _e.g._ “heir _apparent_,” “blood _royal_,” “prince _regent_.” In poetry the transposition is common, for emphasis. See Par. 515. =Possessive Adjective, &c.= >>>>432<<<< The following curious idiom requires explanation:— (1) “That ugly face _of his_ quite frightened the child.” The regular construction would have been “that ugly face _of him_;” and, in the same way, instead of saying— (2) “This news _of John’s_ is very strange.” (3) “A friend _of mine_ is here.” —the regular construction would be “this news of John,” “a friend of me.” >>>>433<<<< In (3) it may be said that “mine” is put for “my friends;” but this explanation will scarcely apply to (2), and certainly not to (1): “that ugly face of his (faces)!” The truth is that “of him” and “of me,” used Possessively, are intolerably harsh; and ambiguity also might often result from the regular construction; for “this news _of John_” would naturally mean “_news about_ John.” Consequently, partly to avoid the _ambiguity_ caused by the double meaning of “of” (viz. “belonging to” and “about”), and partly to avoid _harshness_ of sound, we adopt the following illogical but serviceable device to make our meaning clear; we retain the Possessive “of,” but we also add the Possessive _’s_. Thus we combine the _French Prepositional Idiom with the English Inflectional Idiom_. >>>>434<<<< A similar desire to avoid _harshness_ (III) has made us add an illogical but euphonious _’s_ to “your” and “our,” which are severally the Possessive Inflections of “you” and “we.” “Your” sounds harshly at the end of a sentence, and requires some modification. Then steps in (II) confusion between “this is your” and “this is John_’s_, William_’s_, the man_’s_,” &c. “Your” has been treated as though it were a Noun, and has been changed into “your_’s_” or “your_s_.” But, _logically_, “your_’s_” is as absurd as “_of of_ you;” for “your” means “of you,” and the addition of _’s_ adds a superfluous “of.” >>>>435<<<< “These forms were confined in the 13th and 14th centuries to the Northern Dialect, and are probably due to Scandinavian influences.”—MORRIS. The more ordinary form in the Southern Dialect omits the _s_. “I wol be _your_ in alle that ever I may.”—CHAUCER. The vulgar _yourn_ is an old provincial form, and exemplifies the same tendency, viz., to emphasize an unemphatic termination, where emphasis is required. =(Prepositions in Adjective Phrases).= >>>>436<<<< A Phrase consisting of a Preposition between two Nouns (especially when the former Noun is preceded by “the” or “a”) often has the force of an Adjective, the Relative being implied, _e.g._— (1) “A bird (_that is_) in the hand is worth two (_that are_) in the bush.” Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether the Preposition is thus used to connect two Nouns, or to connect a Verb with an Adverbial phrase; _e.g._ “Send back the horse from the Red Dragon” may mean— (1) “Send back _the-horse-from-the-Red-Dragon_,” _i.e._, “the horse that has come from the Red Dragon,” or: (2) “_Send-back_ the horse _from-the-Red-Dragon_,” _i.e._, “send back from the Red Dragon my horse.” In the same way there is an ambiguity in— (3) “Did you see my _agents-at-Portsmouth_?” (4) “_Did you see_ my agents _at Portsmouth_?” >>>>437<<<< “=Of.=” When a name is given to a place, the name being regarded as the name of _a person_, and the town, land, castle, &c., as _belonging to_ the person, the Preposition “of” was used in early times to denote the relation between the two:— (1) “The city _of_ London”; “the isle _of_ Wight”, “river _of_ Cydnus” (Shakespeare); “the lake _of_ Gennesareth.” Hence, in the same way, “of” is used after other words denoting a _class_, to prepare the way for the particular name of the _individual_:— (2) “The month _of_ May”; “the hour _of_ three”; “the feast _of_ Tabernacles”; “the year _of_ Jubilee”; “the name _of_ George”; “the cry _of_ ‘breakers!’”; “the play _of_ ‘Hamlet’”; “the art _of_ medicine”; “the element _of_ fire”; “the virtue _of_ resentment.” >>>>438<<<< It is not so easy to explain— (3) “He is a _jewel-of-a_ man.” (4) “This _scamp-of-a_ coachman.” Probably “of” is here partitive, as in “What _sort_, _kind_, _of_ man is he?” The “man” is the _class_; the “sort” or “kind” is a _part_ of the class, and therefore is naturally followed by the partitive “of.” The answer to this question will necessarily be some _part_ of the _class_ “man:” he is “a good sort, bad sort, rascally sort, precious sort, _of_ man;” hence, for shortness, “He is a rascal, or jewel, _of_ man.” But, owing to the Semi-Adverbial use of “What,” “What sort,” the Indefinite Adjective “a” is inserted before “man” (see Par. 219), so that the notion of _class_ is lost, and “a man” appears to denote an individual, and “what sort of,” “a jewel of,” &c., come to be regarded as Compound Semi-Adverbial Adjectives. >>>>439<<<< The use of “of” after “whole,” “all”:— (5) “The _whole-of_ the day;” “all _of_ us,” —may be accounted for as a natural extension of, and (II) confusion with, similar expressions, _e.g._ “half, quarter, &c., _of_ the day;” “ten, eleven, almost all, &c., _of_ us.” =SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.= =Co-ordinate Clauses.= >>>>440<<<< “=And=” sometimes joins a sentence to a previous sentence _implied but not expressed_. It is often used in passionate exclamations:— (1) “(Is it true?) _And_ will you then desert me?” “=And=” sometimes comes between an Adverb repeated twice, the repetition having the force of emphasis:[1]— (1) “More _and_ more;” “worse _and_ worse.” ----- [1] See Par. 420. >>>>441<<<< Remembering that “by” means “near” of space, but also may mean “near” _of time_, we can understand— (2) “By _and_ by,” _i.e._ “near, very near (of time),” or, “very soon.”[1] An Adverb, when introduced emphatically, might be emphasized by the repetition of the Verb and Object with “and”: “I must see him, and _see_ him quickly.” Instead of this, “that” was often in early times substituted for the previous phrase (just as “it” is a preparatory substitute for a sentence or phrase; see Par. 151):— (1) “I must see him, _and that_ quickly.” ----- [1] Both “by and by” and “presently” (owing to the natural habit of exaggerating one’s readiness) have come to mean much less than they once meant. “Presently” used to mean “at once.” =Relatives used Co-ordinately.= >>>>442<<<< “_What_” is sometimes used instead of “both” and “and”:— (1) “_What_ with his persuasive eloquence, and _what_ with the presence of his armed followers, he soon overcame all opposition.” This might naturally be explained as a condensation of “Reckoning _what_ he effected with,” &c.; but, more probably, “what” is to be treated as a kind of Noun meaning “part,” and used Adverbially, like “partly.” Compare “some_-what_.” “What” had come, very early, to be used as a Noun, so that men could say, not only “some_-what_,” but also “a little _what_.”[1] ----- [1] _Shakespearian Grammar_, page 5. Compare in Latin “quum—tum,” “qua—qua.” >>>>443<<<< “=Whether=” is sometimes used with “or,” not to introduce an indirect question, but (like “what” above) as a Co-ordinate Conjunction, to mean “both...and;” “either...or”:— (1) “The landlord reserves all game, _whether_ birds _or_ ground-game.” The full construction would be “whether it be;” but “whether” has so completely assimilated itself to “either” in such expressions that it seems best to parse “whether” as used for “either,” and “birds” as Object, in Apposition to “game.” SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. =Condensed Clauses.= >>>>444<<<< 1. Some Conjunctions are formed from Prepositions or Adverbs followed by “that,” _e.g._ “after (that),” “before (_that_),” “now (that).” In such cases “that” is often omitted:[1]— (1) “Now (_that_) we have arrived,” But— (2) “On the day _that_ thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.” (3) “The instant (_that_) he saw me, he retired.” ----- [1] In Shakespeare, “that” is used after “when,” “while,” “whether,” “because,” “if;” and also after the Prepositions _in_, _for_. >>>>445<<<< 2. Conjunctions used with Participles: see Par. 406. Conjunctions are also used with Adjectives and Nouns, the Verb being omitted:— (1) “This news, _if_ (it be) true, will alter our plans.” (2) “_Though_ (he was) honest, he was not trusted.” (3) “_However_ thoughtless (he may be), he is at least not deliberately mischievous.” (4) “_Although_ (he is) a rascal, yet he’s a very amusing rascal.” In parsing Conjunctions so used, the Verb should be supplied. >>>>446<<<< 3. “=As=” is used with Nouns, (1) sometimes for “as being,” _i.e._ “since he is;” (2) sometimes it seems loosely used for “like,” “in the character of”:— (1) “_As_ (being) a foreigner, he claims our special consideration.” (2) “_As_ (in the character of) an author, he did not succeed.” (3) “They regarded him _as_ (in the character of, like) an adventurer.” Such sentences can generally be reduced to their regular construction by bearing in mind the radical meaning of “as,” viz. “in that way” or “in which way,” or, as here, “in the way in which”:— (1) In full, “He claims our special consideration _in the way in which_ a foreigner (would naturally claim it).” (2) In full, “He did not succeed _in the way in which_ an author (would be said to succeed).” (3) In full, “They regarded him _in the way in which_ (they would regard) an adventurer.” With “possible,” after Conjunctions, ellipses are very common:— (1) “Come as soon _as_ (it is) possible.” (2) “Come _if_ (it be) possible.” >>>>447<<<< “=That=” sometimes implies a _principal_ Verb before it in passionate exclamations:— (1) “Oh, (I would) _that_ I had wings like a dove!” (2) “(To think) _That_ it should come to this!” =Object Clauses.= >>>>448<<<< “That” (the Conjunction) often introduces a Clause as the Object of a Compound Transitive Verb _implied_[1] in a previous sentence. For example, “I am sure,” “I had no notion,” “I have some hope,” “I have evidence,” all suggest the question “Of what?” after them. “That” is here equivalent to “of the fact that.” Distinguish the above use of “that” from its use when introducing a Clause in Apposition to a previous Noun, as in the following Examples:— (1) “They made an agreement _that_ they would share equally.” (2) “The axiom, _that_ a whole is greater than its part, seems so true that its statement seems, at first sight, unnecessary.” ----- [1] Compare the use of the Infinitive after the implied Transitive Verb Par. 392. >>>>449<<<< On the other hand, “that” seems used for “for _that_,” “in _that_,” “because,”[1] after Verbs of rejoicing, sorrowing:— (1) “I am sorry _that_ (_i.e._ because) he failed.” Also, in parentheses after “not”:— (2) “I must go now, not _that_ (_i.e._ because) I want to go, but I have an engagement.” In— (1) “Did you see John?” “Not _that_ I recollect—” “that” is a Relative Pronoun, and the Antecedent must be supplied from the previous sentence: “not (a seeing) _that_ I recollect.” ----- [1] Compare Latin “quod.” >>>>450<<<< “=But that=,” in its radical meaning, was “except that;” hence “barring,” “to the contrary of.” This explains— (1) “I cannot be persuaded _but that_ (to the contrary of the belief that) he meant mischief.” (2) “We did not know _but that_ (to the contrary of the knowledge that) he might come.” Here “but” was originally a Preposition having for its Object the sentence following it. >>>>451<<<< Sometimes “what” is used for “that”:— (3) “Not _but what_ he meant mischief,” _i.e._ “I do not admit, however, anything to the contrary of his meaning to do mischief.” This may possibly be a confusion arising from the grammatical constructions:— (4) “He says nothing _but what_ is true.” (5) “Not a man (was there) _but what_ cried shame.” (6) “Not a tree _but what_ has suffered from the frost.” From these uses, “not but what” perhaps came to be used ungrammatically to mean “without any exception,” “without any doubt;” but I have been unable to trace this construction. Yet it seems to be illustrated by the change from the _Relative_ “that” in “For all _that_ you did,” to the _Conjunctive_ “that” in “For all _that_ you tried so hard.” See Par. 475. >>>>452<<<< In time the “that” was omitted for brevity; and then “but” (though really a Preposition with the meaning of “prevention”) appeared to be an ordinary Conjunction:— (6) “Not _but_ there are who merit other palms.”—POPE. which originally would have meant, “I do not say anything _but_ (_i.e._ to the contrary) that there are,” &c., but it gradually came to mean “I deny it not; _but_, so far from denying, I admit that there are,” &c. (7) “Never dream _but_ (_i.e._ anything _but_, _except_, or _to prevent_ that) ill must come of ill.”[1]—SHELLEY. (8) “Who knows, _but_ (anything _but_, _except_, or _to prevent_ that) he’ll come yet?” ----- [1] Mätzner. >>>>453<<<< Hence, after “doubt not,” “but” came to be used regularly with its ordinary adversative force, so that there is no difference between— { (9) “Doubt not _that_ God will help you,” and (10) “Doubt not, _but_ God will help you.” (11) “It cannot be denied _but_, or _that_, he is a rascal.” The curious inconsistencies of idiom are illustrated by comparing— (1) “He is all _but_ perfect,” and (2) “He is anything _but_ wise.” In (1) the meaning is “He is altogether (perfect),” “all except (being absolutely) perfect;”[1] in (2) the meaning is “He is anything _except_ wise.” ----- [1] Compare ὅσον οὐ. >>>>454<<<< =The Prepositions= “=of=” and “=about=” are (rarely) used before Object-sentences:— (1) “He tells us a good deal _about_ why he travelled, but nothing _of_ how he travelled.” The Adverb “where” is not only used as a Noun (Par. 398), but also as a Noun and Relative Adverb together:— (1) “He lives about ten miles from _here_.” “From _where_?” (2) “He lives ten miles from _where_ I am living,” _i.e._ “from the _place in which_ or _where_ I am living.” =ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.= >>>>455<<<< “=That.=” Instead of “when” used Relatively, sometimes the Relative Pronoun “that” is used (Par. 444):— (1) “He never (at no time) sees me _that_ (at which time) he does not mock me.” Compare, in Early English— (2) “Scarcely was this speech finished _that_ (_i.e._ when) they saw Hengist approach.”[1] ----- [1] Layamon, ii. 262. >>>>456<<<< “=But=” being used after negatives to intensify an affirmative, _e.g._ “This is _nothing but_ the truth,” came to be irregularly used, in Shakespeare’s time, after Negative _Comparatives, e.g._ “This is _no_ more but the truth.” This seems to be a (II) confusion between “nothing but” and “no more than.” Hence (in colloquial English), after “not,” “no sooner,” “scarcely,” and other words _implying_ a negative, “but” is used, partly as an Adversative Conjunction, and partly with a Relative force:— (1) “No sooner did he hear her _but_ he burst into a passion.” (2) “I had scarcely gone a mile _but_ I met him again.” In the last Example the negative is _implied_: “I had not gone a mile.” In Modern English it will be advisable to treat “but,” when thus used, as an Adversative Conjunction, as though the sentence ran, “He had not fully heard her; _but_ (before fully hearing her) he burst into a passion.” >>>>457<<<< “=Since=” once meant “later-than,” hence “after,” hence “because;” (Early English, _sith than, i.e._ “later than.”) “=Until=” is the same as “unto;” “til” being often used for “to” in Early English. Par. 376. “=That=,” used for “because:” see Par. 449. “=That=” is used for “so that” in impassioned questions:— (1) “Is he an oracle, (so) _that_ we are to regard him as infallible?” (2) “What were you doing, (so) _that_ you were not in time to-day?” >>>>458<<<< “=Forasmuch as=” and “=Inasmuch as=” = “for that,” “in that,” _i.e._ “because.” “As,” in virtue of its radical meaning, is often interchanged with “that:” Par. 205. The “as _much_” appears intended to emphasize, and give importance to, the cause. “=Seeing=,” like “concerning,” “considering” (see Par. 409), has come to be used as a Conjunction, meaning “since.” The Regular Construction would be— (1) “_Seeing_ that you are a foreigner, I will strain a point for you.” Hence comes the Irregular Construction, by confusion:— (2) “_Seeing_ that you are a foreigner, you are entitled to special consideration.” =Conditional Clauses.= >>>>459<<<< “=If=” is sometimes used of a supposition made for the sake of argument; hence of a concession; hence (190) of an _admitted fact_:— (1) “_If_ I _am_ poor, yet I am honest.” “If” (like other Conjunctions; Par. 445) is often used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs, the Verb being omitted:— (1) “_If_ somewhat _slowly_, he at least did his work thoroughly.” (2) “_If_ not _to-morrow_, we shall at all events arrive next day.” “On condition,” “in case,” “provided,” “supposing,” are often used as Conjunctions, “that” being omitted after them:— (1) “_In case_ (that) you come early, we will have a long walk.” (2) “_Provided_ (that) you agree, it matters little who disagrees.” “In case (that)” and “provided (that)” may be treated as Conjunctions; or, in the last Example, “you agree” may be regarded as a Subject-clause used absolutely, and qualified by the Participle “provided.” >>>>460<<<< “=So that=” is sometimes used to express _condition_:— (3) “You may go where you like, _so that_ you are back by five.” In Elizabethan and earlier English the Subjunctive would here be used:— (4) “It is a pleasure to see the errors of others, _so_ always _that_ this prospect _be_ with pity,” _i.e._ “yet _in such a way in which way_ the prospect may be with pity.” >>>>461<<<< “=So as=” is less common in the sense of _condition_, and is now restricted to vernacular English. But Shakespeare has— (5) “_So as_ thou livest in peace, die free from strife.” Sometimes neither “that” nor “as” is inserted in Elizabethan English (the Verb being in the Subjunctive):— (6) “_So_ it _be_ new, there’s no respect how vile.” This brief idiom is still used colloquially, with the Indicative for the Subjunctive. >>>>462<<<< =The Imperatives= “suppose,” “admit,” “grant,” “say,” are used to introduce conditional clauses:— (1) “_Say_ I fail at first, I have another chance.” >>>>463<<<< =A question= may be used to introduce a Condition, thus:— (1) “Did you not know his intention? Then, of course you were surprised.” It is an easy transition from this to the use of the Conditional Mood (Indicative form in Antecedent, the “shall-form” in Consequent), _retaining the Interrogative arrangement of the words_:— (2) “_Did I not know_ his intention, I should of course be surprised.” This also explains the Interrogative arrangement of the “shall-form” in the Antecedent:— (3) “_Should you see_ him, you would find him much changed.” The original use of Interrogatives to express Condition may explain the following:— (1) “_Whether_ he said it or denied it, the facts remain the same,” _i.e._, “Whether said he it, or denied it? In either case the facts remain the same.” (2) “_Whoever_ said this, it was a mistake,” _i.e._, “Who in the world said this? It was at all events a mistake.” (3) “_However_ hard it may be, you must try,” _i.e._ “_In whatever degree_[1] it may be hard (_in that degree, i.e._ none the less) you must try.” In Early English this use was more common:— “_Knew I her name_, I were happy.” ----- [1] “How” and “why” are old cases of “who.” >>>>464<<<< “=As=” seems used for “though” in— (1) “Young _as_ I am I cannot be deceived by this.” The fuller construction is “As young as I am,” and this appears to be an abbreviation of “(Be I) as young as I am,” _i.e._ “though I be.” >>>>465<<<< “=Should=” and “=would=” are often used where a Condition is implied though not expressed:— (1) “I wish summer _would_ come.” This is a confusion between “I _should_ be glad if summer _would come_” and “I wish summer _to come_.” (2) “I am willing that he _should_ receive the money.” Confusion of (1) “_I am willing_ that he _shall_” and (2) “I _should be willing_, if, or that, he _should_.” (3) “It is shameful that he _should_ be treated thus.” Confusion of (1) “It is _shameful_ that he _has been_” and (2) “It _would be shameful_, if, or that, he _should be_.” (4) “It is not strange that he _should_ have succeeded.” Confusion of (1) “It _is_ not _strange_ that he _has succeeded_” and (2) “It _would not have been_ strange, if, or that, he _should have succeeded_.”[1] (5) “It will be better that I _should_ withdraw.” Confusion of (1) “It _will be better_ that I (_shall_) _withdraw_” and (2) “It _would be better_, if or that, I _should withdraw_.” ----- [1] See Par. 236, note. >>>>466<<<< “=Unless=” was once “on less,” and followed by “than,” _e.g._— (1) “This cannot be, _on less than_ (_i.e._ on a less condition than this, viz. that) we gain the battle.” The notion of comparison falling out of sight, the Conjunctive “that” was substituted for “than,” and lastly “that” was omitted for brevity. >>>>467<<<< “=But=,” meaning radically “except,” was very early used for “if not,” with the Subjunctive. We still retain this use in— (1) “It never rains _but_ it pours.” (2) “Ten to one _but_ he comes.” This last sentence is a confusion of “I lay ten to one _that_ he comes” and “I’ll pay you ten to one _if_ he does _not_ come,” _i.e._ “_except_ or _but_ he comes”:— (3) “Beshrew my soul _but_ I do love,” &c., _i.e._ “if I do not love;” compare our “I’ll be hanged _but_” &c. >>>>468<<<< “=But that=” is to be explained as “except because”:— (1) “_But that_ he has a family, he would have left England long ago.” Just as “as” (Par. 205) is used for the Relative Pronoun “that,” so “but” is used for “that not”:— (2) “There is no one _but_ hates me,” _i.e._ “_that_ hates me _not_.” >>>>469<<<< “=But=” (“except,” “unless,” “if not”), used without a Verb, generally in connection with some Preposition, _e.g._ “but for,” “but to,” &c., may be explained either as a Preposition governing an Adverbial phrase, or as a Conjunction with the Verb omitted:— (1) “_But_ for you, we should have failed,” _i.e._ “_if_ it had _not_ been (otherwise) for (because of) you, we should have failed.” (2) “To whom can he be referring _but_ (_i.e. if_ he is _not_ referring) to his brother?” >>>>470<<<< “=Without=” is sometimes used for “unless”:— (1) “He will not come _without_ he’s compelled.” But this is not to be imitated. >>>>471<<<< “=Save=” seems originally to have been used as a Passive Participle, like “except,” “provided,” &c., with a Noun used as a Subject absolutely.[1] But now (like “except”) it is used as a Preposition, and is followed by an Object. ----- [1] “All the conspirators _save_ only _he_.”—_Julius Cæsar._ =Concessional Clauses.= >>>>472<<<< A Concessional Clause is sometimes expressed by the old Subjunctive used interrogatively (Par. 463) without any Conjunction:— (1) “_Be_ it a trifle, it should be well done.” (2) “Which refuseth to hear the voice of the charmer, _charm_ he never so wisely,” _i.e._ “(though) he (should) charm so wisely (as) never (he charmed before).” (3) “He will never equal his brother in singing, _sing_ he ever so well.” >>>>473<<<< The last Example, which is the modern idiom, appears to have arisen from a misunderstanding of the old negative. We say, colloquially, “He was ever so ill;” but the correct (though old-fashioned) idiom would be “He was _never_ (before) so ill (as then),” or “he was so ill as (he was) never before”:[1]— (4) “_Were_ you a millionaire, you could not afford such expense as this.” (5) “_Come_ who may, I am not afraid,” _i.e._, “(though there may) come who(soever) may (come).” ----- [1] The full idiom is found in Layamon, vol. iii. page 4, where it is said that soldiers assembled, “swa muchel swa per nevere ærer,” _i.e._ “so many as _never_ before.” >>>>474<<<< Here the Antecedent “understood” is the Subject of “come;” but sometimes the Subject of the Verb is omitted, as in the following:— (6) “_Do_ (I) what I may, I cannot persuade him of my innocence.” (7) “_Say_ (you) what you will, you will fail.” In such sentences as the last it is not easy to tell whether the Verb is Subjunctive or, as in Par. 462, Imperative. “However,” as a Co-ordinate Conjunction, is a contraction of “however it be,” sometimes found in the form “how-be.” Compare “howbeit,” “albeit.” >>>>475<<<< “=For all that=,” in the Antecedent part of a sentence, naturally acquires the meaning of “although,” when there is a negative in the Consequent. The transition can easily be traced:— (1) “He will not change his mind _for_ (_i.e._, because of, to oblige) you.” (2) “He will not change his mind _for all_ your efforts, or, _for all_ that you can do.” In the last Example “that” is a Relative Pronoun, having for its Antecedent “all;” but it is an easy transition (the “all” being irregularly retained for emphasis) to the use of “for all that” as a Conjunction, where “that” is Conjunctional (as in “after that,” “before that;” see Par. 444: and compare the change of “not but _what_” into a Conjunction; Par. 451):— (3) “He will not change his mind _for all that you tried_ so hard to persuade him.” >>>>476<<<< This emphatic use of “all” in Concession Clauses may be illustrated by its use in “although,” _i.e._ “all-though,” which is sometimes written “though-all” in Early English. Compare also “al(l) be it,” _i.e._ “(though) _it be all, i.e._ altogether true that.” In Early English we sometimes find “all-if” used like “all-though.” >>>>477<<<< “=Notwithstanding=” is rarely used as a Conjunction:— (1) “_Notwithstanding_ (that) he is so rich, he is excluded from respectable society.” This Conjunction is, by derivation, a Participle used absolutely with a Subject sentence: “The fact that he is so rich _not withstanding, i.e._ being no obstacle, he is still excluded,” &c. =Result; Purpose.= >>>>478<<<< A result following an action is naturally expressed by stating that “the action was done _so_ (_i.e._ in such a way) _that_ (in which way) the result followed.” Hence “that” and “as” (both of which mean “in which way”) are Conjunctions naturally used to introduce sentences expressing result. “=That=” was once used for “so that,” and is found so used in Shakespeare:— (1) “A sheet of paper Writ on both sides the leaf, margent and all, (So) _That_ he was fain to seal on Cupid’s name.” This irregularity (of which (I) “brevity” is a sufficient explanation) was common in Early English, and might perhaps explain— (2) “He never sees me _that_ he doesn’t mock me.” But “that” here is more probably “when.” See Par. 455. >>>>479<<<< “=As=” is used after “so,” to denote, not exactly resultant _facts_, but results regarded as _possible_ or _future_; hence “as” is used before Infinitives:— (1) “He was so kind _as_ to promise.” This is nearly the same as “he was so kind that he promised,” but not quite so strong.[1] ----- [1] Compare the use of ὥστε[Greek: ôste] with the Infinitive to denote _possible consequence_, and with the Indicative to denote _fact_. See Par. 204. >>>>480<<<< In Elizabethan English “as” is used, where we use “that,” before an Indicative:— (2) “Thou hast given the house of York such head _as_ thou shalt reign but by their sufferance.” (3) “Such signs of rage they bear _as_ it seemed they would debate with angry swords.” (4) “If a man have that penetration of judgment _as_ he can discern what things are to be laid open.” This use of “as” is now a vulgarism. >>>>481<<<< “=So that=” (= “in that way, in which way”) naturally expresses purpose with the Mood of Purpose:— (1) “Work _so_ (in that way) _that_ (in which way) you may earn your bread.” >>>>482<<<< “=Lest=” is a contraction for “by which the _least_ or _less_” (compare the Latin “quominus”). “Be careful _lest_ you may make a mistake, _i.e. by which_ (care) you may _the less_ (probably) make a mistake.” =Clauses of Comparison.= >>>>483<<<< “=As=” is a contraction of “all-so,” “alse,” and means sometimes “in which way,” sometimes (like “so”) “in that way.” Consequently “as” is, by derivation, an emphatic form of “so.” Hence the words are sometimes very similarly used:— (1) “He is not _so_ clever as you.” (2) “He is _as_ clever as you.” The reason for altering “so” into “as” (except after negatives) is, perhaps, that the notion of _similarity_ favours the repetition of the _same_ word. But the “not,” introducing the notion of _dissimilarity_, favours the retention of the old _dissimilar_ forms. Sometimes both forms are retained:— (1) “_So_, or _as_, far as I know.” >>>>484<<<< Any Relative Adverb (compare Latin “quum... tum,” “qua...qua,” and the use of “what with... what with,” Par. 442) may naturally be used with its correlative to express “both...and.” Hence the following idiom:— (1) “_As_ (_in the way in which_) he was first in the field, _so_ (_in that way_) was he preeminent in the council-hall.” >>>>485<<<< “As” (Par. 205), being often used to express Relative Adverbs, came sometimes to be used for the Relative Pronoun:— (1) “Tears such _as_ (_i.e._, which) angels weep.” (Shakespeare uses “which”[1] and “that” thus, after “such”):— (2) “He is the same _as_ or _that_ he always was.” (3) “Bring such books _as_ you have.” ----- [1] Even Pope has:— “Let _such_ teach others _who_ themselves excel.” >>>>486<<<< “As,” in a Conditional Sentence, often has a Consequent implied after it:— (1) “He looks _as_ (he would have looked) if he had seen a ghost.” The “if” was sometimes omitted, the Condition being expressed by the old Subjunctive; and this omission is still sometimes found in modern poetry, _e.g._ in Byron’s:— (2) “And half I felt _as_ (_if_) they were come To tear me from a second home.” “_As_” = “in the character of:” see Par. 446. >>>>487<<<< “=As=” is used with “yet,” to remind the hearer that the statement _is limited_ to a certain time, and does not extend beyond it. Compare— { “I have never been beaten _yet_.” (1) “I have never been beaten _as yet_,” _i.e._, “_so_ _far as concerns_ past time, but not the future.” This use of the word was common in Early English with dates:— (2) “He died _as_ in twelve hundred year and eight _and no more_.” Here the “as” and “no more” seem to have the same force, viz. that of _limitation_. Compare— (3) “He wished to chastise him discreetly _as_ (_i.e._, so far as he could, only) by word and not by deed.” (4) “You must be very secret _as_ in this case,” _i.e._, “so far as concerns this case.” In the last Example and many others, “as” is equivalent to our “just.” Compare— (5) “Though in mysterious terms judg’d, _as_ then, best,” (MILTON) _i.e._, “just then,” “at that precise time.” >>>>488<<<< There seems to be a different use of “as,” still current in some parts of England, _e.g._, Derbyshire, where the word implies that a time mentioned is not vouched as accurate by the speaker, but is merely mentioned by another:— (6) “He says he will come _as_ to-morrow.” >>>>489<<<< “As” is generally used in the sense of _limitation_ before “for” and “to”:— (7) “_As to_ your affairs, you must decide; but _as for_ myself, I shall remain neutral.” >>>>490<<<< “=The=” is not the ordinary Adjective, but a form of the Demonstrative and Relative Pronoun, meaning “by how much,” “by so much,” in— (1) “_The_ sooner he comes, _the_ better it will be,” _i.e._, “_by how much_ the sooner he comes, _by so much_ the better it will be.” “The” is to be parsed in the same way in “_the_ more,” “_the_ less,” &c. See Pars. 344, 571. >>>>491<<<< “=More than=,” from its ordinary use in “more than man,” came to be used as part of a Compound Verb in— (1) “He _more-than-hesitated_, he refused.” Beware of supposing that you can supply a Verb before “more than,” _e.g._ “He refused more than hesitated;” that is not the meaning here: the meaning is “He did _something-more-than-hesitate_.” In the same way, “more than” is part of a Compound Adjective in— (2) “This is _more than ridiculous_, it is immoral.” Compare Byron’s use of “less than woman” as a Compound Noun in— (3) “Go! let thy _less-than-woman’s_ hand assume the distaff.”[1] ----- [1] Mätzner. iii. 410. >>>>492<<<< “=Than=,” when followed by a Noun or Pronoun, requires care; for, as the sentence following “than” is generally abridged, it is impossible to tell whether the Noun or Pronoun is Subject or Object, till we have supplied the implied Verb or Preposition:— (1) “I like you better _than_ (I like) Thomas,” Object. (2) “I like you better _than_ Thomas (likes you),” Subject. { Thomas (_respects you_),” (3) “There is no one re-   Subject. spects you more _than_ (_he respects_) Thomas,”   Object. >>>>493<<<< “=Than=,” meaning “in which degree,” “whereas,” may loosely be used like “whereas,” and join together two sentences in which the _principal Verb is not the same, e.g._ “_Whereas_ John _has given_ good counsel, there _is_ no counsel better;” _i.e._— (1) “There _is_ no counsel better _than_ John _has given_.”[1] It would seem easy to explain the above Example (and many others of the same kind) by supposing the Relative Pronoun “that” to have dropped out after “than,” _i.e._ “than (is the counsel that) John has given;” but the use of “than” without the Relative Pronoun in Early English is so common that this easy explanation does not seem to be correct. Compare:— (2) “This is as fine a horse _as_ I have ever seen,” _i.e._ “_As_ (in what degree), whereas I have ever seen (a fine horse), this is as fine a horse.” ----- [1] See Layamon, iii. 275 for a precisely similar example. >>>>494<<<< After “than” the Conjunction “that” is sometimes omitted, perhaps for euphony as well as for brevity:— (3) “Rather _than_ (that) he should be punished I would make any sacrifice.” >>>>495<<<< “Other,” conveying a notion of comparison, is followed by “than”:— (1) “This boy is no _other than_ my long-lost son.” But here it is difficult to supply the Verb omitted after “than.” It seems as though it would logically be “_Whereas_ my long-lost son (is of a certain nature) John is no _other, i.e._ in no way different.” But more probably the sentence is formed by Confusion, on the analogy of “no taller _than_, shorter _than_, &c.;” “other” being felt, _by its termination, to have a comparative force_. >>>>496<<<< “Than” in this phrase (and sometimes in others) has occasionally assumed the force of a Preposition, _e.g._ in Shakespeare:— (2) “Elect no other king _than him_.” (3) “And lin’d with giants deadlier _than ‘em_ all.”—POPE. Hence sometimes “other _but_” or “other _from_” is used for “other _than_.” “Who _else than_,” though supported by Byron’s authority, (and though “else” is, by derivation, an Adverb meaning “otherwise,”) is scarcely to be imitated; it is more customary to say “who _else but_.” =Adjective Clauses: Relative Pronouns.= >>>>497<<<< The use of “the...that,” with a Superlative between them, seems to require explanation. Compare— (1) “He is _the_ old man _that_ I saw yesterday.” (2) “He is _the oldest_ man _that_ I know.” In (1) the Antecedent of “that” is “old man,” and you can substitute “old man” for “that” thus: “He is the old man which old man I saw yesterday.” But substitute similarly in (2), and what is the result? “He is the oldest man which oldest man I know.” This is at once felt not to be the meaning: the meaning is “He is the oldest man _of the men that_ I know.” How then account for (2)? The explanation appears to be as follows: It was usual (and logical) to say (_a_) “He is the oldest man in England _among my friends, acquaintances_, &c.” But “a man among my acquaintances” is the same thing as “a man that I know.” Hence came (_b_) “He is the oldest _man-that-I-know_.” But “man that I know” is a sort of Compound Noun, and the Antecedent of “that” is not “oldest man” but “man.” An Antecedent is rarely implied in a Possessive Adjective:— “_Theirs_ is the fault, who began the quarrel.” But this is common in Shakespeare: see _Shakespearian Grammar_, Par. 218. >>>>498<<<< “=But=” when used for the Relative and “not,” is generally Subject. It is rare to find:— “Who ne’er knew joy _but_ friendship might divide.”—POPE. >>>>499<<<< “=That=” is (rarely) used for “for which,” “why,” in— (1) “This is the reason _that_ I sent for you (for).” In early English the different uses of “that” were more numerous; the word represented (2) “where;” (3) “when;” (4) “with which:”— (2) “In the place _that_ they were.” (3) “At the first sight _that_ (_i.e._ when) men see the souldan.” (4) “With the loudest voice _that_ (_i.e._ with which) they could.” >>>>500<<<< “=That=” in “It is you that...:” see Par. 159. From the Relative use of “that” in “It is you that,” we must distinguish the Conjunctive use in— (1) “It was then _that_ the Danes first came to England.” Here the words “that the Danes...England” are equivalent to “The Danes’ invasion of England;” “it” is redundant (see Par. 162), and the sentence is “The Danes’ invasion was, _i.e._ took place, then.” But “that” seems not a Conjunction but a Relative Pronoun in— (1) “It was of you _that_ I spoke.” This is the same as— (2) “It was you _that_ I spoke of, or mentioned,” where “that” is clearly Relative. Hence it would seem that “It was of you that I spoke” is a transposition of “It that I spoke of was you.” On the other hand, in “It was owing to you _that_ I failed,” the meaning is “My failure was owing to you,” and “that” would appear to be a Conjunction. CHAPTER II. POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. >>>>501<<<< The object of ordinary Prose is to give information, but the object of Poetry is to give pleasure. Hence Poetry is (1) archaic; (2) irregular; (3) terse. I. Poetry is archaic, because pleasing associations are often connected with many old-fashioned words and forms that may have fallen into disuse in Prose, as not being the fittest to give information. II. Poetry is irregular, because it is more “passionate”[1] than Prose. Hence it readily breaks the rules that bind Prose, wherever these rules hamper the expression of passion. III. Poetry, disliking lengthiness, abridges _grammatical_ constructions (though it expands, and dwells on, ornament, _e.g._ preferring the expanded form of the Simile to the compressed form of the Metaphor). Pope speaks of: “Prose swell’d to verse; verse _loit’ring into prose_.” The reader should commit to memory the following description of the Thames (as it was) by Denham, a model of terse yet varied clearness, repeatedly imitated by Pope:— “Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; Strong without rage, without o’er-flowing full.” ----- [1] Poetry, according to Milton, ought to be “simple,” “sensuous,” _i.e._ appealing to the senses, “and passionate.” =I. Poetical Archaisms.= >>>>502<<<< Archaisms may be (1) of _words_; (2) of _constructions_. Archaic _words_ are such as “hallowed,” “sojourn,” “woe,” “ire,” “wrath,” “a-weary,” “ken,” &c. “Thou” for “you” Singular, and “ye” for “you” Plural, are also archaic. >>>>503<<<< Instances of Archaic _Construction_ are— (1) “Meseems,” “methinks,” _i.e._ “it seems, thinks,[1] to me.” ----- [1] “To think” once meant “to seem:” see Par. 328. >>>>504<<<< The use of the Subjunctive to express a wish:— (1) “_Perish_ the man whose heart is backward now.” (2) “Ruin _seize_ thee, ruthless king.” (3) “To White’s a bull _be_ led.” (4) “‘And _rest we_ here’ Matilda said.”—SCOTT. >>>>505<<<< The use of the Subjunctive to express a Conditional Antecedent, and of other old Conditional forms:— (1) “His spear, to equal which the tallest pine _Were_ but a wand.”—_Paradise Lost_, i. 294. (2) “Else I often _had_ (should have) been miserable.” (3) “I am content, _so_ (_i.e._ “so that,” “provided that,” Par. 460) thou wilt have it so.” (4) “And into strange vagaries flew, “_As_ (if) they would dance.”—_Ib._ vi. 615. >>>>506<<<< More rarely the Subjunctive is used with Conjunctions of _time_:— (5) “_Ere_ thou _go_.” (6) “Ridotta sips and dances till she _see_.” —POPE. >>>>507<<<< The old Interrogative (without “do”) is used for the modern lengthy form. This is both archaic and terse:— “Gives not the hawthorn-bush a sweeter shade?” “Breathes there a man with soul so dead?” >>>>508<<<< “Him,” “them,” are used for “himself,” “themselves.” This again is terse as well as archaic:— “The poor contents _him_ with the care of heaven.” —POPE. >>>>509<<<< The old use of the Interrogative, or semi-Interrogative Pronoun, where the moderns use the Relative and Antecedent:— “_Who_ builds a church to God, and not to fame Will never mark the marble with his name.” —POPE. This use, being (III) terse, is a favourite use with Pope (though his style is by no means archaic) and is extended to sentences that cannot be resolved into question and answer. In Pope it is perhaps an imitation of Latin usage:— “To help _who_ want, to forward _who_ excel.” “In _who_ (_i.e._ those that) obtain defence, or _who_ defend.” >>>>510<<<< The Relative, in Milton, often precedes the Antecedent, according to Latin usage:— “_Whom_ they hit, none on their feet might stand.” —_Paradise Lost_, vi. 592. >>>>511<<<< The old demonstrative use of “he” combines archaism and “sensuousness,” _i.e._ picturesqueness, in— “_He of Tusculum_” for Cicero; “_He of Marengo’s field_” for Napoleon I., &c. “The demonstrative character of this Pronoun is seen in such expressions as ‘_He_ of the bottomless pit.’”—MORRIS. >>>>512<<<< “Or” is used for “either”:— “But they _or_ underground, or circuit wide With serpent error wandering.” —_Paradise Lost_, vii. 301. =II. Poetical Irregularities.= >>>>513<<<< The Subject is sometimes put first, because it is uppermost in the Poet’s mind; then, after a pause, a Pronoun is introduced, as the legitimate subject of the Verb. It is as though the Poet were half in doubt whether to speak _of_ a thing as _Subject_, or _to_ it _Vocatively_:— (1) “_The Pope he_ was saying the high, high mass.”—SCOTT. (2) “_The smith_, a mighty man is he.” >>>>514<<<< The Verb is sometimes (_a_) placed after the Object, sometimes (_b_) before the Subject. The arrangement is subordinated to emphasis. In the following Example the Subject “stalk” seems to gain emphasis from its position, and so does the Verb “breathes”:— (1) “So from the root _Springs_ (_b_) lighter the green _stalk_, from thence the leaves More aery; last, the bright consummate flower _Spirits_ odorous (_a_) _breathes_.” _—Paradise Lost_, v. 480. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb, and the Subject after the Verb, the whole sentence being reversed:— (1) “_Such resting found the sole_ Of unblest feet. _Him followed_ his next _Mate_.” —_Ib._ i. 238. >>>>515<<<< The Epithet is often placed after the Noun. Indeed, great license is assumed by Poetry as to the position of the Epithet; for this reason, that the Epithet is used as a substitute for Participles, Verbs, Conjunctions, &c. (see Par. 525), so that it has a larger and more varied use than in Prose:— (1) “They ended parle, and both addressed for fight _Unspeakable_.”—_Ib._ vi. 297. (2) “A stream of nectarous humour issuing flowed _Sanguine_.”—_Ib._ vi. 333. (3) “Nor from the Holy One of Heav’n Refrained his tongue _blasphémous_.”—_Ib._ vi. 360. Even a Noun in Apposition may be placed before the Noun with which it is in Apposition:— (1) “_Two broad suns_, their shields Blazed opposite.”—_Ib._ vi. 305. (2) “_All heart_ they live, all head, all eye, all ear.” —_Ib._ vi. 350. >>>>516<<<< The irregularities of Poetry, though very numerous and manifold, can generally be readily explained by reference to the meaning, which ought to be rather made more clear than less clear by the irregularity. The following is a good instance of “passionate” irregularity. Satan is speaking, under the influence of strong “passion,” pouring forth “words interwove with sighs,” and, though his meaning is clear, his sentence cannot be grammatically analysed:— “Thrice he assayed, and thrice, in spite of scorn. Tears such as Angels weep burst forth: at last Words interwove with sighs found out their way. ‘O Myriads of immortal Spirits, O Powers Matchless, but with th’ Almighty—and that strife Was not inglorious, though th’ event was dire, As this place testifies, and this dire change Hateful to utter: but,’” &c.—_Ib._ i. 622. Here the speaker is led away by “passion” into a Parenthesis, which prevents him from continuing the address he had begun to the “immortal Spirits.” Many of the Irregularities of Poetry will find their place under head III., “terseness;” see Pars. 517—532. >>>>517<<<< =III. Poetical Abridgments.= Poetry chooses short forms of words, _e.g._ “questionless” for “unquestionably;” “altern,” “marge,” “scarce,” “vale,” for “alternately,” “margin,” &c. >>>>518<<<< The Verb “is,” or “was,” is sometimes omitted:— (1) “Dagon (_was_) his name.” “Cruel (_was_) his eye.” >>>>519<<<< Sometimes the Subjunctive “be” is omitted:— (1) “Woe (_be_) to the man.” “Peace (_be_) to his bones.” >>>>520<<<< The Relative Pronoun is omitted, even when it would be the _Subject_, if it had been expressed:— (1) “’Tis distance (_that_) lends enchantment to the view.” (2) “What is this (_that_) absorbs me quite, Steals my senses, shuts my sight?” >>>>521<<<< The Conjunction “that” is used for “so that”:— “With high woods the hills were crowned With borders long the rivers: (_so_) _that_ earth now Seem’d like to heav’n.” —_Paradise Lost_, vii. 329. >>>>522<<<< The Adjective is used for the Adverb, partly to avoid the lengthy Adverbial form, partly because Poetry dwells rather on _distinguishing marks_ than on _methods_, and therefore prefers _Adjectives_ to _Adverbs_:— (1) “While the billow _mournful_ rolls.” (2) “My wedding bell rings _merry_ in my ear.” (3) “Hope springs _eternal_ in the human breast.” (4) “Less _winning_, soft less amiably mild.” In the last Example certainly, and probably in the others, the Adjectives should be parsed not as Adjectives, but as Adverbs. In Old English it was common to form an Adverb by adding _-e_ to the Adjective, _e.g._ “bright,” Adjective; “bright_e_, Adverb.” See Par. 413. >>>>523<<<< “The” is often omitted before an epithet, the epithet being treated as part of the name:— (1) “See _god-like Turenne_ prostrate on the dust.” (2) “On such a stool _immortal Alfred_ sat.” Also before names of rivers, which, in Poetry, are often _personified_:— (3) “Firm reedy Simois:” “The flies and gnats of Nile.” >>>>524<<<< “Neither” is omitted preceding “nor”:— (1) “Helm nor hauberk’s twisted mail.” (2) “Sigh, nor word, nor struggling breath.” >>>>525<<<< Poetry dispenses, as far as possible, with dependent[1] Conjunctional sentences and Relative Pronouns, avoiding them by means of (_a_) Apposition, (_b_) Adjectives and Participles, (_c_) Parentheses, or co-ordinate sentences:— (_a_) “Next Chemos (who was) _th’ obscene dread_ of Moab’s sons.” —_Paradise Lost_, i. 406. (_a_) “The fiend, _Mere serpent_ in appearance, . . where he might find The whole included race, his _purposed prey_.” _Ib._ viii. 416. (_a_) “(He) each perturbation smooth’d with outward calm _Artificer_ (_i.e._, since he was an _a_.) of fraud.” _Ib._ iv. 121. ----- [1] This is in accordance with Milton’s dictum that Poetry must be “simple.” >>>>526<<<< (_b_) “See that your _polish’d_ arms be primed with care,” that is, “be polished _and_ primed.” COWPER. (_b_) “Lely on _animated_ canvas stole The sleepy eye which spoke the melting soul.” POPE. That is, “the canvas _that_ assumed animation under his pencil.” (_b_) “And reck’nest thou thyself with spirits of Heav’n, _Hell-doom’d_?”—_Paradise Lost_, ii. 167. That is, “_whereas_, or _though_, thou art hell-doomed.” (_b_) “(while) _Alive_, ridiculous; and (when) _dead_, forgot(ten).” —POPE. >>>>527<<<< (_c_) “Hell Grew darker at their frown, _so matched they stood_.” —_Paradise Lost_, ii. 719. (_c_) “Eve separate he spies, Veil’d in a cloud of fragrance where she stood, _Half-spied—so thick the roses blushing round_ _About her glowed_.”—_Ib._ ix. 426. That is, “_or rather_ only half spied, _because_ the roses,” &c. (_c_) “Down he fell . . . Reluctant, but in vain . . . . _a greater power_ _Now ruled him_.”—_Ib._ ix. 576. >>>>528<<<< Hence Poetry prefers the Participle Absolute to a Conjunctional sentence, and occasionally even places the Participle before its Noun:— “An Iris sits . . . . and, _unworn_ _Its steady dyes_, while all around is torn By the distracted waters, bears severe Its brilliant hues.”—_Childe Harold._ >>>>529<<<< The _Epithet_ is substituted for the thing denoted Thus Milton uses “the dank” for “water;” “the dry” for “land.” This is both terse and “sensuous”:— (1) “Below the chestnuts, when their buds Were glistening to the breezy _blue_.” TENNYSON. (2) “Neither keen Nor _solid_ might resist that edge.” _Paradise Lost_, vi. 323. >>>>530<<<< The principal Verb is omitted, and the question is expressed by the Infinitive (possibly an old form; Par. 398):— (1) “Why longer dwell on horrors?” “Why still delay?” The desire to be terse produces countless irregularities in Poetry, even in a polished and fastidious Poet such as Pope. His meaning is transparent, but his grammar is (pardonably) most irregular:— (1) “O’er the pale marble shall they join their heads And drink the falling tears _each other_ sheds.” POPE. (2) “Though there’s a difference in each other’s loving.”—_Hamlet_, First Quarto. >>>>531<<<< We are accustomed, in Prose, to the condensed expression (see Par. 223)—“they loved _each other_;” but this is a condensation of “and drink the falling tears—_each_ (shall drink the tears that the) other sheds.” Practically, no doubt Pope regards “each other” as a Compound Pronoun. (3) “Who has the vanity to call you friend But wants the honour, _injur’d_, to defend.” —_Ib._ That is, “to defend _you_ when you are injured.” (4) “Who first taught souls enslav’d, and realms undone, Th’ enormous _faith of many made for one_?” —_Ib._ That is, “the abnormal belief that the governed are made for the governor.” (5) “And on the washy ooze (the waters) deep channels wore; _Easy_ (_i.e._, an easy task), ere God had bid the ground be dry.” —_Paradise Lost_, vii. 304. (6) “’Gainst Pallas, Mars; (_’gainst_) Latona, Hermes arms.” —POPE. >>>>532<<<< Terseness is aided by the license of making (_a_) Verbs out of Nouns, (_b_) Transitive Verbs out of Intransitive:— (_a_) “And as they please They _Limb_ themselves.” —_P.L._ vi. 352. That is, “endow themselves with limbs.” (_a_) “Hell saw Heav’n _ruining_ from Heaven.”—_Ib._ vi, 868. “Part, huge of bulk, Wallowing unwieldy, enormous in their gait, _Tempest_ the ocean.” —_Ib._ vii. 412. (_b_) “The terms we sent were terms of weight And _stumbled_ many.” —_Ib._ vi. 624. (_b_) “_That be assured_,” _i.e._, “know that for certain.” —_Ib._ ii. 685. APPENDIX I. ON THE GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. =Chronological Summary.= >>>>533<<<< A.D. 450—547. The English language was brought into Britain. It adopted a very few Celtic terms, and one or two Roman local names. A.D. 596. Christianity was introduced, and with it several Latin ecclesiastical terms. A.D. 878. Cession of Northumbria, East Anglia, &c., to the Danes, and— >>>>534<<<< A.D. 1017—’42. A Danish dynasty reigns in England. Hence the introduction of several Scandinavian terms and a general unsettling of Inflections in the Northern Dialect.[1] Hence (in part at least)— A.D. 1100. The “Period of Confusion” begins, first affecting the _orthography_ of Inflections, and afterwards _dispensing with_ the Inflections. ----- [1] It has been asserted that, even in parts of the North where no traces of Danish influence can be suspected, the inflections were becoming unsettled. But there is difficulty in proving the _absence_ of Danish influence. >>>>535<<<< A.D. —.[1] The Norman Conquest introduced, _in course of time_, some terms belonging to the church, chivalry, the law, the chase, and cookery. Norman-French was established as the language to be used in the law-courts and the records of state. For some time the nobility retained French as their language, and hence the English was little influenced by the French; but, by degrees, the coalition between the nobles and commons in King John’s time, the loss of Normandy in the same reign A.D. 1204, and the French wars of Edward III. A.D. 1339, brought about a degradation of the French from “French of Paris” to the French after the school of “Stratford atte Bowe” (Chaucer, _Prologue_, l. 125), and, still lower, to the French “of the ferthest ende of Norfolke” (_Piers the Plowman_, Passus v. 238, Ed. Skeat). By degrees, French was not only debased but disused. Hence, not to conciliate the lower class, but to suit the higher— ----- [1] The date is purposely omitted lest the reader should be led to suppose that any sudden change took place in A.D. 1066. The Norman Conquest _was very slow in its results on English_. >>>>536<<<< A.D. 1362. An Act of Parliament directed that all pleadings in the law courts should be conducted in English and not French, inasmuch as French had become “much unknown in the realm.” Naturally, when the higher classes adopted English as their native tongue, there came at once an influx of Norman-French words, and an increased degradation of the English Inflections. >>>>537<<<< A.D. 1500. The revival of the study of Latin Literature introduced a vast number of Latin words direct from the Latin. The English Inflections were now lost, but the _sense of Inflections_, and the consequent license, remained. >>>>538<<<< A.D. 1600. A reaction set in against the excessive Latinisms and licenses of the sixteenth century. This reaction was aided by— >>>>539<<<< A.D. 1660. The Restoration, which brought French influence to bear on the language, partly in words, but more by favouring a lighter structure of sentences, and increased regularity in grammatical construction. >>>>540<<<< A.D. 1800. The study of chemistry, geology, zoology, &c., has introduced a vast number of scientific terms, mostly compounded from the Greek. =The Vocabulary.= >>>>541<<<< =Celtic.=—The Celtic words introduced into our language directly are very few. They mostly relate to (1) coarse dress and rough household work or agriculture; (2) to wild scenery:— (1) Breeches, darn, clout, mop, pillow, cradle, crock, mattock, kiln, basket. (2) Crag, glen, pool. >>>>542<<<< The Norman-French introduced some of these words borrowed from the old Gallic; most of these are of Class (1), but some relate to (3) petty trade:— (1) Bonnet, bucket, button, chemise, mitten, gown, ribbon, bag, basin, barrel, pot, varlet, vassal, rogue, car, cart, gravel, marl, bran. (3) Bargain, barter. >>>>543<<<< =Danish.=—Several words in common use, _e.g._ “scold,” “shy,” “sly,” “fellow,” “cake,” “call,” “cast,” are of Scandinavian origin, as also is _-by_ in “Der_by_,” “Apple_by_,” &c., meaning “town.” “Are,” the 3rd Pers. Plur. Pres. of “be” is also Danish. >>>>544<<<< =French.=—French words came into the language in small numbers until the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; then they were plentifully introduced, _e.g._ in Chaucer’s time. The earlier importations were mostly terms of war, religion, and literature. But in the fourteenth century there was an influx of the technical terms of law, art, commerce, medicine, astrology, and the other sciences; and these technical terms (compare the history of Latin technical terms, such as “influence,” “triumph”) when incorporated in the language often assumed metaphorical and wider meanings.[1] ----- [1] See _English Lessons for English People_, Paragraph 37, page 51. >>>>545<<<< =Latin= (First Period), A.D. 43—426.—From the Roman occupation we have borrowed _-cester_ (“camp”), _e.g._ in “Glou_-cester_,” “_Chester_,” “Dor_-chester_,” &c.; also the words “street” and “wall”[1] (_vallum_). ----- [1] I have Mr. Skeat’s authority for inserting this word, as probably borrowed from the Latin; cf. Welsh _gwal_, “a rampart.” >>>>546<<<< (Second Period), A.D. 596—1200.—The introduction of Christianity introduced (_a_) a number of religious technical terms, _e.g._ “preach”[1] (_prædicare_), “mass” (_missa_), &c., together with a few names of (_b_) food, _e.g._ “butter;” (_c_) trees, _e.g._ “fig;” (_d_) animals, _e.g._ “camel;” (_e_) weights and measures, _e.g._ “pound,” “ounce,” “inch.” ----- [1] “Preach” has come to us through the French; but it in also found in A.-S. “predician”—both from the Latin “predicare.” >>>>547<<<< (Third Period), A.D. 1200—1400.—Indirectly through the French; see above. French words were not _freely_ admitted into the language till the upper classes began to adopt English as their native tongue, _i.e._ till A.D. 1300—1350. In the earlier text of Layamon’s “Brut” (A.D. 1205) there are only about 112 Norman-French words throughout the whole of the poem. See the lists of Norman-French words in Morris’s _Historical Outlines_. >>>>548<<<< (Fourth Period), A.D. 1500—1660.—Direct importation of Latin words, through the revival of the study of Latin Literature. Many of these words have changed their meaning, either (1) _narrowing_ their meaning (_e.g._ “extravagant” no longer means “wandering outside,”[1] but simply “wandering beyond the due bounds of expense”), or (2) _extending_ their meaning (_e.g._ “influence” no longer means “the power that _flowed_ from the stars _on_ to men,” but “any modifying power”), from a narrow technicality to a broader and metaphorical meaning. ----- [1] “The _extravagant_ and erring spirit.”—_Shakespeare._ >>>>549<<<< A few French “words of society” and military terms were introduced during the eighteenth century. Later introductions have been for the most part technical terms of philosophy and science, formed from the Greek. =Inflections.= >>>>550<<<< Six Periods may be marked out in the growth of the English language: I. A.D. 450—1100; II. A.D. 1100—1250; III. A.D. 1250—1350; IV. A.D. 1350—1500; V. A.D. 1500—1600; VI. A.D. 1600 to present time. >>>>551<<<< =First= or “=Synthetical Period=,” A.D. 450—1100.—This may be called the “Inflectional or _Synthetical_ Period;” for during this period the language shewed a power of _construction_ (_syn_, con; _thetical_, structional) so as to represent Tense, Person, Number, Gender, Case, &c., by Inflections. In particular, the distinction was carefully observed between— T o L o v e . Gerund, or Noun Infinitive. Infinitive of Purpose. Active Participle. =lufi-an= (_to_) =lufi-anne= =lufig-ende=. >>>>552<<<< But already, towards the end of this period, there seems to have arisen, partly perhaps owing to the influence of the Danish invaders, some confusion among the Inflections, and a tendency to simplify them by assimilation. See the extract from the Gospel of St. Mark in Par. 558. It has been asserted (but see Par. 534, note) that, apart from Danish influence, there was a tendency (_a_) in the North to discard Inflections while retaining old forms; (_b_) in the South to cling to Inflections while freely modifying forms. >>>>553<<<< =Second Period=, or “=Period of Confusion=,” A.D. 1100—1250.—This may be called the “Period of Confusion;” for during this period (perhaps partly in consequence of political confusion) the language began to assimilate forms by _confusing_ sounds and Inflections. In particular, the vowel sounds of Inflections were assimilated so that _a_, _o_, and _u_ frequently became indistinguishable by being all changed into _e_.[1] ----- [1] The same confusion of vowels and diphthongs is found in the Greek MS. of the New Testament. >>>>554<<<< The following changes are some of those mentioned as occurring in this period by Dr. Morris (_Historical Outlines_, p. 52), to which the reader is referred for fuller information on this subject:— 1. Dative _him_ used for Accusative. 2. The _n_ in _min_, _thin_, dropped before Consonants, but retained in the Plural and Oblique Cases. 3. The Infinitive (even in the South) often drops final _-n_. _To_ is sometimes used before ordinary, as well as before Gerundial Infinitives. 4. The Gerundial or Dative Infinitive often ends in _-en_ or _-e_ (the ordinary Infinitive ending) instead of _-enne_ (_-anne_). 5. The Present Participle (Southern) ends in _-inde_ (instead of _-ende_), and is frequently used for the Gerundial Infinitive, _e.g._ “to swim_inde_” used for “to swim_ene_.” The Participle Passive often drops _-n_. 6. Nominative Plural Inflections in _a_ or _u_, and Dative Plurals in _-um_, were supplanted by _-e_ or _-en_. Genders began to be confused. 7. _Shall_ and _will_ began to be used as Future Auxiliaries. >>>>555<<<< A specimen of the tendency to drop Inflections is given in the two following extracts from the earlier and later texts of Layamon, the earlier written about A.D. 1200, the later about A.D. 1250:— 1. Early ... “Up heo duden heora castles gaten.” 2. Later ... “Up hii dude hire castles geate.” 3. Modern ... “Up they did their castle’s gates.” Note also the approximation to modern usage in the dropping of the _o_ in “heo,” “heora.” A similar approximation may be noted in the following Example (in which observe “alse,” the later form of “al-swa”):— 1. Early ... “And ferden ut _swa_ stille _swa heo_ stelen wolden.” 2. Later ... “And werde ut _so_ stille _alse he (?hi)_ stele wolde.” 3. Modern ... “And they marched out as still as (if) they would steal.” >>>>556<<<< =Third=, or “=Analytical Period=,” A.D. 1250—1350.—As the First Period was called _Synthetical_, so the Third may be called _Analytical_, the tendency being developed to _take the language as it were to pieces_, dropping Inflections and using existing words, _e.g._ Prepositions and Auxiliary Verbs, to replace them. The Present Participle in _-inge_ appears about A.D. 1300, and the ordinary Infinitive takes “to” before it. French words now became so common as to be estimated at 4 per cent. of the Vocabulary. >>>>557<<<< =Fourth=, or “=National Period=,” A.D. 1350—1500.—This period witnessed the decay of the last refuge of many Inflections, viz. final _-e_. During the earlier part of the period, _-e_ was used according to rule, and represented— (1) The mark of (_a_) the Plural Adjective; (_b_) the Definite Adjective:— (_a_) “smalë fowles;” (_b_) “the gret_ë_ see.” (2) The mark of the Adverb, _e.g._ “bright_ë_” (brightly). (3) The mark of the Infinitive, and of the Past Tense:—[1] “Him thought_ë_ that his hertë wold_ë_ brek_ë_.”[2] ----- [1] It represented the Plural of Past Tense of Strong Verbs, the Singular and Plural of the Past Tense of Weak Verbs, also some Cases of Nouns, &c. [2] Chaucer, quoted by Morris, _Historical Outlines of English Accidence_. >>>>558<<<< But, towards the end of this period, the use of final _-e_ became uncertain. Also the Present Participle in -_ing_ (_inge_) had now become the usual form. Before this period many Passive Participles of Strong Verbs dropped the final _-n_; and it is curious to observe that the anti-inflectional tendency reached lengths from which it has retrograded in modern English. Thus the _-n_ or _-en_ was dropped not only in _fought_, _bound_, _shrunk_, _sunk_, but also in _spoke_, _broke_—curtailed forms that are found even in Milton and Shakespeare, but are not accepted in modern English. Chaucer (who drops _-n_ as a rule) even uses “be” for “been.” Note that we retain some of these old Participial forms as _Adjectives_: “a _molten_ image;” “our _bounden_ duty;” “a _foughten_ field;” “a _drunken_ man;” “a _sunken_ ship.” It may be useful to compare the early part of this period, when English had been just recognized by royal edict as the language of the realm, with the language of the First or “Synthetical Period.”[1] =St. Mark i. 6, 7; 34.= ────────────────────────┬────────────────────────┬──────────────────────── WYCKLIFFE, A.D. 1380. │A.D. 1000.[2] │About A.D. 1150. ────────────────────────┼────────────────────────┼──────────────────────── And John was clothid │And Iohannes wæs gescryd│And Iohannes wæs │ │ ge-scryd with heeris (_a_) of │mid oluendes hær_um_ │mid olfendes camelis, │ (_a_) │ hær_e_,(_a_) and a girdil _of_ (_a_) │& fell_en_ (_a_) gyrdel │& fell_en_ (_a_) gyrdel skyn │ │ abowte his leend_is_; │wæs ymbe his lend_enu_. │waes embe his lend_ene_ and he eet locustus, │& gærstap_an_ & │& garstap_en_ & and hony _of_ (_a_) the │wud_u_ (_a_) hunig he │wud_e_ (_a_) hunig he wode, │ æt. │ æt. and prechide, seyinge │& he bod_u_de & ewæth. │& he bod_e_de & ewæth. A streng_e_re than I │strengr_u_ (_c_) │strengr_e_ (_c_) kymth │ cymth[3] │ _schal_ (_c_) _come_ │æfter me │æfter me. aftir me, │ │ of _whom_ (_b_) I │_thœs_ (_b_) ne eom ic │_thas_ (_b_) ne æm ich knel_inge_ │ │ (_d_) │wyrthe │wurthe am not worthi for to │that ic his sceon_a_ │that ic his scon_e_ undo │ (_a_) thwang_a_ │ (_a_) thwang_e_ the thong _of_ (_a_) his│bug_ende_ (_d_) uncnytte│bug_ende_ (_d_) schoon. │ │ un-cnette. —— │—— │—— And he suffride hem │& hi sprec_an_ (_e_) │& hyo sprec_en_ (_e_) nat _for to_ (_e_) │ne let │ne leten. _speke_ │ │ ────────────────────────┴────────────────────────┴──────────────────────── ----- [1] Mr. Skeat suggests the following alternative names for the six Periods. They may conveniently be set by the side or the names suggested above. 1. _Anglo-Saxon_, or _Oldest English_. 1. Inflectional. 2. _Late Anglo-Saxon._ 2. Period of “Confusion.” 3. _Early English._ 3. Analytical. 4. _Middle English._ 4. National. 5. _Tudor English._ 5. Period of “License.” 6. _Modern English._ 6. Modern English. [2] The Gospel according to St. Mark in Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian Versions. Edited by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, Cambridge, 1871. Of the A.D. 1150 Version, Mr. Skeat says, in his Preface, page x. “It is interesting as shewing how the language began to lose strength in its Inflectional forms, as is at once apparent by comparing it with the older text here printed beside it.” [3] Here, it is true, the original has the Present; but in v. 8, “he shall baptize you,” the same difference is apparent. >>>>559<<<< Here we find (_a_) the old cases in _-um_, _-en_, _-a_, dropped and replaced by Prepositions; (_b_) the Interrogative “of whom” has supplanted the Possessive Case of the old Relative “thæs;” (_c_) the Auxiliary “schal” has stepped in to form a Future; (_d_) instead of the Present Participle in _-ende_ (bugende), we have the form in _-inge_ (kneelinge); notice also (_e_) the change from “sprec_-an_” to “spre_cen_,” and thence to “_for to_ speke.” >>>>560<<<< As English was recognized as the language of the whole nation soon after the beginning of this period, and was so far settled that the _Vocabulary_ (as distinct from the Orthography and Inflections) of Wyckliffe differs little (except in scantiness) from our own Vocabulary, we may call this period “the National Period.” A glance at the three columns above will suffice to show the great difference between “the National Period” and “the Inflectional Period,” in point of _Vocabulary_. >>>>561<<<< =Fifth=, or “=Period of License=,” A.D. 1500—1600.—Before the end of this period the use of _-e_ (which fell into disuse or abuse soon after Chaucer’s time) became quite forgotten. Indeed, there was in this period a tendency to carry the disuse of Inflections even to a greater degree than has been sanctioned by modern English, _e.g._ “spoke”[1] for “spoken;” so “chose(n),” “rode” (for “ridden),” “drove,” “took,” &c. “To” as the sign of the Infinitive was used irregularly, “I saw him _to_ walk,” but “You ought not walk.” This therefore (like Period II.) was to some extent a “Period of Confusion.” In Shakespeare we find “I have _swam_, _spake_, _fell_, _droven_, _strucken_, _splitted_, _beated_.” The _-y_ that is historically an Adv.[2] prefix in “y-wis” (_i.e._ Germ. “gewiss,” _certainly_) was, by misunderstanding, changed into “I” in “I wis.” The “of” that is regularly and intelligibly used after a Verbal Noun, _e.g._ “the shepherd is a-blowing, _i.e._ (in-blowing) _of_ his nails,” was retained even when the Verbal had been completely confused with the Participle: “The shepherd is _blowing of_ his nails.” ----- [1] The _n_ had been dropped as early as the thirteenth century. [2] See Mr. Skeat’s Index to _Piers the Plowman_: “_y-_, prefix; answering to G. and A.-S. _ge-_, which is etymologically the same as Lat. _con-_, _cum._: usually pref. to Past Participles, but also to Past Tenses, Infinitives, and Adjectives.” The word was commonly written “I wis” even in the fourteenth century. The “I” in “I wis” is the same prefix as the “a” in “aware.” >>>>562<<<< The old power of forming Adverbs from Adjectives by adding _-e_ (once sonant) was extended to the license of using any Adjective as an Adverb, and this even with Latin words, so that “honourable,” “excellent,” could be used as Adverbs. Even Latin Inflections (where they fell in with the Old English Inflections) were experimented upon, so that Shakespeare uses “deject” for “dejected,” “infect” for “infected.” >>>>563<<<< Generally it may be said that in this period the _Inflections had departed, but the sense of Inflections still remained_, causing many curious irregularities and licenses, and adding to the obscurity and to the vigour of the sixteenth-century English. Hence this may be called the “Period of License.” >>>>564<<<< It may be added that this period witnessed (1) a great influx of Latin words, (2) an introduction of the periodic structure, involving a freer use of Conjunctions and of the Subjunctive Mood. >>>>565<<<< =Sixth Period=, or “=Period of Settlement=,” A.D. 1600 to the Present Time.—This was a period of reaction from the “Period of License.” The use of “shall” and “will,” variable toward the end of the “Period of License,” was defined in the seventeenth century. Many old licenses (_e.g._ the use of “of” after (what are now) Participles) were discarded as vulgarisms, or as unjustifiable irregularities.[1] The periodic structure was simplified by the easy vigour of Dryden and the incisive French style. Several >>>>566<<<< superfluous words of Latin importation were rejected. Many Elizabethan usages, theoretically accurate, had become practically inconvenient. For example, “so” being by derivation connected with “as” (“al-so,” “alse,” “als”), had been, in Elizabethan times, freely interchanged with “as;” “which” being the original co-relative to “such,” had been used where we use “as,” _e.g._ “such _which_” for “such _as_;” “as” retaining its original force of “in which way,” had been used as the natural sequel to “so” (“so..._as_,” where we use “so _that_”)—all theoretically legitimate usages, and based on ancient derivations: but, as the derivations were forgotten, and greater clearness was required to make up for the disuse of Inflections, it had become necessary that the province of each particle should be narrowed and defined; _e.g._ that “as” should no longer bear the burden of “that” so as to denote >>>>567<<<< consequence and purpose. Thus, in many respects the language of Pope is less ambiguous than that of Bacon or Shakespeare. But unfortunately, in sweeping away monopolies, the old distinction, generally observed by Shakespeare, between the Relative Pronouns “that” and “who,” fell into oblivion; and, in the course of a reaction against the excessive use of “that,” “who” was allowed unduly to encroach.[2] This is the most serious blot in Modern English. ----- [1] Pope even discards the use of _mine_ and _thine_ before a vowel, preferring “my eye,” “thy eye.” In revising a Concordance to Pope, I have noticed _thine_ twice, _mine_ (as an Adjective before a Noun) never. [2] _Who_ introduces a new fact about the Antecedent: _that_ completes the Antecedent. This is the general rule subject to a few exceptions arising from the desire of euphony. See _How to Write Clearly_, page 17. Addison, in his _Humble Petition of Who and Which_, allows the petitioners to say, “We are descended of ancient families, and kept up our dignity and honour many years, till the Jack-sprat _That_ supplanted us.” But _That_ was the legitimate sovereign and _Who_ and _Which_ were the _Jack-sprats_. However, Pope, perhaps in consequence of Addison’s mistake, often uses “who” for “that.” >>>>568<<<< More recently, the Inflections of the Participles (after a long-continued fluctuation) have been settled so as to prevent ambiguity, _e.g._ we have rejected the Participle “chose,” “spoke,” though sanctioned by Pope, and the Past Tenses “sung,” “rung,” though sanctioned by Milton.[1] ----- [1] The forms _sung, rung, in the Plural_, are sanctioned by the usage in Early English. See Morris’s _Outlines_, page 159. >>>>569<<<< Some specimens of the Accidence of the First or “Synthetical Period” are given below, to show the extremely complex nature of the language before it was simplified in the “Period of Confusion.” ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── NOUNS. SINGULAR NUMBER. │ │ │ │ Fem. │Neut. │Fem. │Masc. │Masc. (_tongue_)│(_word_) │(_hand_) │(_son_) │(_shep-herd_) Nom. tung-=e= │word │hand │sun-=u= │hird-=e= Gen. tung-=an= │word-=es=│hand-=a= │sun-=a= │hird-=es= Dat. tung-=an= │word-=e= │hand-=a= │sun-=a= │hird-=e= Acc. tung-=an= │word-=e= │hand │sun-=u= │hird-=e= │ │ │ │ PLURAL. Nom. tung-=an= │word │hand-=a= │sun-=a= │hird-=as= Gen. tung-=ena=│word-=a= │hand-=a= │sun-=a= │hird-=a= Dat. tung-=um= │word-=um=│hand-=um=│sun-=um=│hird-=um= Acc. tung-=an= │word │hand-=a= │sun-=a= │hird-=as= ───────────────────────────┴─────────┴─────────┴────────┴───────────── =Self.= In O.E., Pronouns were often used reflexively without “self,” which merely added emphasis. “Self” was an Adjective meaning “same,” so that “he killed _himself_” meant emphatically “He killed the _same_ or the _above-mentioned him_.” Gradually this Adjective ceased to be inflected, and came to be regarded as a Noun. The following were the changes:— (1) “I came _me_ (Dat.) _silf-um_ (Dat. Adj.).” (2) “I came _me_ (Dat.) _silf_ (Nom. Adj.).” (3) “I came _mi_ (Gen.) _silf_ (Indeclinable Adj. or Noun).” (4) “I came myself.” Hence the modern “our _selves_,” “his better _self_.” ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── PRONOUNS. SINGULAR. │ │ │ │ (I) │(Thou) │(He) │(She) │(It) Nom. =Ic= │=thu=[5] │=he= │=heo=[1] │=hit= Gen. =min=[2] │=thin=[2] │=his=[2] │=hire=[2]│=his= Dat. =me= │=the= │=him=[2] │=hire=[2]│=him= Acc. =mec,=[3] =me= │=thec,=[3] =the= │=hine= │=hi= │=hit= │ │ │ │ PLURAL. │ │} │ Nom. =we= │=ge= │=hi= │ Gen. =user=, │=eower=[2] │=hira= (=heora=) │ =ûre=[2] │ │ │ Dat. =ûs= │=eow= │=hem=[4] (=heom=) │ Acc. =ûsic,=[3] =ûs=│=eowic,=[3] =eow=│=hi= │ ────────────────────┴─────────────────┴──────────────────────────┴───── ----- [1] =She= is an altered form of the Old Feminine Definite Adjective, =Seo=, or =sio=. [2] Hence we see the origin of the Possessive Adjectives “mine (my),” “thine (thy),” “her,” “our,” &c. Also we see the Dative origin of “hi-=m=,” “he-=r=.” Note also that =he, heo, hit= was really a Demonstrative Adjective. Cf. the Latin =is, ea, id.= =He= means “that man”; =heo= means “that woman.” [3] Chiefly Northumbrian forms. The substitution of _they_ (= _thai_, _thâ_) for _hi_ is due to Northumbrian influence. [4] In the Elizabethan dramatists, and even in Pope, we often find _’em_ printed with an Apostrophe, as though it were a contraction for _them_. But this is not so: it represents the Old English _hem_. See Dr. Morris’s _Accidence_, Par. 160. [5] _Thou_ was discarded as being discourteous, and was replaced by _you_. See _Shakespearian Grammar_, Pars. 231—35. >>>>570<<<< To explain the modern forms “she,” “that,” “they,” “them,” we must have recourse to the old declinable Definite Adjective:— ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── DEFINITE ADJECTIVE, Modern “THE.” SINGULAR. │PLURAL. Masc. │Fem. │Neut. │ Nom. =se= │=seo= │=thæ-t= │=thâ= Gen. =thæ-s= │=thæ-re= │=thæ-s= │=thâ-ra= Dat. =tha-m= │=thae-re=│=tha-m= │=thâ-m= Acc. =tha-ne= │=thâ= │=thæt= │=thâ= Instrumental Case =thî, thê=│ │=thî, thê=│ ────────────────────────────────────────────┴─────────┴──────────┴──────── RELATIVE PRONOUN, MODERN “THAT.” =“The” (Indeclinable).= >>>>571<<<< =Origin of “she,” “they,” “them,” &c.= Just as in Latin _is_ and _ille_ differ so little that they may be easily interchanged, so in English “he” and “se,” both meaning “that man,” were interchanged, _e.g._— “Ich am _the_ (_he_) that spec (spake).”[1] The interchange of the Feminine forms “heo” and “seo” became so common that “seo” (possibly as being less similar to “he,” and therefore less liable to confusion with “he” than “heo”) supplanted “heo” in the North, and subsequently also in the South. Hence our “she.” In the same way “thâ” supplanted “hi,” and made our “they;” “thâ-m” supplanted “hem,” and made our “them;” “thâra” supplanted “hira,” and made our “their.” Note also the Instrumental form “thê,” which still exists in our “_The_ sooner _the_ better.” See Par. 344. ----- [1] Morris. >>>>572<<<< =Changes in the Relative Pronoun.= In the First Period “se” was the Definite Adjective, and “the” the Relative. Later,[1] the form “the” came to be used as the Definite Adjective, and consequently ceased to be used as the Relative, being supplanted by the heavier form “that” (the Neuter); which had become the ordinary Relative in the fourteenth century. When the need of a _Possessive and Objective Case_ for the Relative was felt, the Possessive and Objective Cases of the Interrogative, “whose” and “whom,” were used as early as the thirteenth century; but “_who_” was not common as a Relative till three centuries later. As to the way in which the Interrogative came to be used Relatively, see Par. 27. ----- [1] In the North, “the” appears early as the Definite Adjective, even in the tenth century. >>>>573<<<< =VERBS.= THE VERB “BE.” It is curious to note the multiplicity of _forms_, as compared with the barrenness of _Tenses_, in the old Verb “be.” Our modern Verb contains remnants of three distinct roots:— I. AS (IS). II. BE. III. (WAS). ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── INDICATIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ Singular Number. ┃ Plural Number. I. Root (“as.”) │II. Root (“be.”)┃I. Root (“as.”) │II. Root (“be.”) 1. =eo-m, ea-m=[1] │ =beo-m, beo= ┃=ar-on, sind=[2]│ =beo-th= 2. =ear-t= │ =bi-st= ┃ =ar-on, sind= │ =beo-th= 3. =is= │ =bi-th= ┃ =ar-on, sind= │ =beo-th= │ ┃ │ _Past Tense._ Singular Number. ┃ Plural Number. III. Root “was.” ┃ III. Root “was. 1. =waes= ┃ =waêr-on= 2. =waer-e= ┃ =waêr-on= 3. =waes= ┃ =waêr-on= ────────────────────────────────────┸───────────────────────────────── ----- [1] Our “a-m” is a contraction from “ar-m,” or “as-m,” where the “as” is the same root as in the Greek “eimi” or “esmi,” I “am.” The terminations _-m_, _-t_, _-s_, are Personal Inflections; so that the Relations between the Original Root “as” and the Modern Verb, are represented in the following column:— ROOT. MODERN. =as-m= =a-m= =as-t= =ar-t= =as-th= =i-s= [2] “Sind” is said to be for _as-ant_. Cf. Latin _s-unt_, also the Subjunctive _si_, _sin_, below. >>>>574<<<< ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. _Present Tense._ Singular Number. ┃ Plural Number. Root I. │Root II.│Root III.┃ Root I. │Root II.│Root III. (“as.”) │(“be.”) │(“was.”) ┃ (“as.”) │(“be.”) │(“was.”) 1. } │ │ ┃ │ │ 2. =si= │ =beo= │ =wes-e= ┃ │ =si-n= │ =beo-n= 3. │ │ ┃ │ │ │ │ ┃ │ │ _Past Tense._ Singular Number ┃ Plural Number Root III. (“was.” ┃ Root III. (“was.” 1. } │ │ ┃ │ │ 2. =waer-e= ┃ =waer-e-n= 3. │ │ ┃ │ │ ────────────────┴────────┴─────────┸───────────┴────────┴───────── >>>>575<<<< ─────────────────────────────────────────────────── IMPERATIVE MOOD. │Root I. (“as.”)│ Root II. (“be.”) Sing. 2│ =seo= or =si= │ =beo= Plur. 2│ — │=beo-th= or =beth= ────────────────┴───────────────┴────────────────── >>>>576<<<< ──────────────────────────────────────────────────── INFINITIVE MOOD. Root I. (“as.”) │Root II. (“be.”)│Root III. (“was.”) — │=beo-n= or =ben=│ =wes-an= ────────────────┴────────────────┴────────────────── =Anomalous forms of “Be.”= >>>>577<<<< _Are._—Our “are” represents the old Northern “aron,” and is therefore a lasting monument of the influence of the Northern dialect. >>>>578<<<< _Be._—The Southern “be” is now banished from the Indicative (except in vulgarisms), but it is retained in the rare Conditional “if it _be_ true.” The retention of _be_ in the Subjunctive may be explained by the fact that the Verb _beon_ in A.S. from the earliest times had a future force. Even in Shakespeare and Milton we find a kind of transitional use of “beest” in hypothetical sentences, the _form_ “be” being used to denote _hypothesis_, and the _Indicative Inflection_ to denote the _truth_ of the hypothesis:— “If thou _beest_ he.”[1]—_Paradise Lost_, i. 84. “If thou _beest_ Stephano.”—_Tempest_, ii. 2, 104. ----- [1] Perhaps this use may be in part accounted for by the feeling that “thou,” having a Verbal Inflection of its own, and a very marked one, ought not to be deprived of it even when the Verb is in the Subjunctive. Compare “wert” below. >>>>579<<<< The Indicative “be” in the Plural and in the 1st Person Singular remained in use long after the extermination of the 2nd and 3rd Persons Singular; seemingly because the absence of Inflection assimilated these forms to the Subjunctive (which was spared for the present), and thus allowed them as it were to exist under this disguise. “Be” in Modern English, as Indicative, is an archaism. >>>>580<<<< _Bi-n_, used by Shakespeare as the 3rd Person Plural of “be,” is the Midland form. There are— (1) _Bes_, Northern. (2) _Ben_, Midland. (3) _Beth_, Southern. >>>>581<<<< _Was-t._—In Early English the 2nd Person Singular Past Indicative of a Strong Verb had _e-_ for its Inflection, _e.g._ “thou heold_-e_,” and, above, “thou waer_-e_.” But in the fourteenth century the Inflection in Strong Verbs was varied with, and finally assimilated to, that of Weak Verbs, _i.e. -est_. Hence “thou heold_-e_” became “thou held_-est_;” and in the same way “thou =were=” became “thou =wast=.” >>>>582<<<< _Wert_ is even more anomalous than the Conditional “be-est” above. The old Subjunctive form is “were.” But, apparently, a sense that the marked Verbal Inflection usually following “thou” ought not to be dispensed with, even when the Verb is in the Subjunctive, led to the construction of a new word, similar to the modern Subjunctive in _form_, and to the modern Indicative in _Inflection_. From this confusion resulted =wert=, which is now established English, so that no one but a pedant would venture to write “if thou _were_.” =The Regular Verb.= It may be useful to compare the scanty Tenses of the Verb in the First Period with the developed Verb as we now have it:— FIRST PERIOD. >>>>583<<<< Luf-_i_-=an= = “to love.” INFINITIVE. _Noun Form._ _Form of Purpose_ (_Gerund._) lufi=-an= lufi=-anne= PARTICIPLES. _Active._ _Passive._ lufig=-ende= luf-o=-d= INDICATIVE MOOD. _Present and Future Tense._ │ _Past Tense._ Sing. Plural. │Sing. Plural. 1. lufig=-e= lufi=-ath=│1. luf_-o_=-de= luf_-o_=-den= 2. luf=-ast= lufi=-ath=│2. luf_-o_=-dest= luf_-o_=-den= 3. luf=-ath= lufi=-ath=│3. luf_-o_=-de= luf_-o_=-den= SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. _Present._ │ _Past._ Sing. Plural. │ Sing. Plural. 1. } } │1. } } 2. lufig=-e= lufig=-on=│2. luf_-o_=-de= luf_-o_=-don= 3. │3. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Sing. Plural. 2. luf=-a= 2. lufi=-ath= >>>>584<<<< “=TO HELP.=”[1] ACTIVE VOICE. ─────────┬────────────────┬────────────────┬────────────────┬────────────────── │ Simple or │ Incomplete or │ Complete. │ Complete, │ Indefinite. │ Continuous. │ │ Post-Continuous. ─────────┼────────────────┼────────────────┴────────────────┼────────────────── │ │ INFINITIVE MOOD. │ │(to) help │(to =be=) helpin│(to) =have= help│(to) =have │ │ g │ ed │ been= helping │ │ │ │ │ │ PARTICIPLES. │ │helping │helping │=having= helped │=having been= │ │ │ │ helping │ │ │ │ │ │ INDICATIVE MOOD. │ Present {│(he) helps │(he) =is= helpin│(he) =has= helpe│(he) =has been= he │ │ g │ d │ lping Past │(he) helped │(he) =was= helpi│(he) =had= helpe│(he) =had been= he │ │ ng │ d │ lping Future │(he) =will= } he│(he) =will= } be│(he) =will= } │(he) =will= } │ lp │ helping │ =have= helped │ =have been= │ │ │ │ helping │(I) =shall= │(I) =shall= │(I) =shall= │(I) =shall= │ │ │ │ │ │ OBSOLESCENT SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. │ Present │(he) help │(he) =be= │(he) =have= │(he) =have been= │ │ helping │ helped │ helping │ │ │ │ │ │ ANTECEDENT CONDITIONAL MOOD. │ Present │ { helps │ { =is= │ { =has= │ { =has been= h │ │ helping │ helped │ elping │(if helped[2] │(if =were= hel│(if =had= help│(if =had been= h │ │ ping │ ed[2] │ elping[2] │he) =should= h│he) =should │he) =should ha│he) =should have │ elp │ be= │ ve= │ been= │ │ helping │ helped[2│ helping │ │ │ ] │ Past │ =were to= │ =were to │ =were to h│ =were to hav │ help │ be= │ ave= │ e been= │ │ helping │ helped │ helping[3] ─────────┴────────────────┴────────────────┴────────────────┴────────────────── ----- [1] This Verb has been chosen because (if it is to be learned by heart, which is quite unnecessary) the difficulty of pronouncing “helped” may oblige the pupil to pronounce distinctly. [2] Same as Indicative. [3] Several of these forms are not used. And there is not the least use in committing them to memory. But it is useful to see the logical symmetry with which Tenses _might_ be constructed with the aid of the Auxiliary Verbs. ACTIVE VOICE. ───────┬────────────────┬────────────────┬─────────────────┬──────────────── │ Simple or │ Incomplete or │ Complete. │ Complete, │ Indefinite. │ Continuous. │ │Post-Conditional │ │ │ │ . ───────┼────────────────┼────────────────┴─────────────────┼──────────────── │ │ CONSEQUENT CONDITIONAL MOOD. │ Present│(he) =will= } │(he) │(he) =will= } │(he) =will= } [1] │ help │ =will= } =be= │ =have= │ =have been= │ │ helping │ │ │(I) =shall= │(I) =shall= │(I) │(I) │ │ │ =shall= │ =shall= │ │ │ helped │ helping │ │ │ │ Past │(he) =would= } │(he) │(he) =would= } │(he) =would= } │ help │ =would= } =be=│ =have= │ =have been= │ │ helping │ │ │(I) =should= │(I) =should= │(I) =should= │(I) │ │ │ helped │ =should= │ │ │ │ helping │ │ │ │ │ │ MOOD OF PURPOSE │ Present│(that { =may= he│(that { =may be=│(that { =may hav│(that { =may hav │ he) lp │ he) helpin│ he) e= │ he) e been │ │ g │ helped│ = │ │ │ │ helpin │ │ │ │ g Past │ =might= │ =might b│ =might h│ =might h │ help │ e= │ ave= │ ave be │ │ helpin│ helped│ en= │ │ g │ │ helpin │ │ │ │ g │ │ │ │ │ │ IMPERATIVE MOOD. │ │help │be helping │have helped │ — ───────┴────────────────┴────────────────┴─────────────────┴──────────────── The Passive Voice is easily formed from the Verb “to be,” by placing after it the Passive Participle “helped.” It has no pretensions to be called a Passive “Voice,” and would not have been called so but for a desire to ape the terms of Latin Grammar. The Latin Passive Voice has distinctive Inflections, and deserves its name. The English “Voice” is a mere imposture. ----- [1] Same as Future Indicative. >>>>585<<<< =The Infinitive.= The results of the confusion between the Noun Infinitive, the Gerundial Infinitive, the Active Participle, and the Verbal Noun, are so important in their influence on modern English that they deserve special mention. The old forms of the Infinitive mentioned in Par. 551 had been modified as follows:— ─────┬─────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────── A.D. │NOUN INFINITIVE. │ GERUND, OR │ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.│VERBAL NOUN. │ │ INFINITIVE OF │ │ │ │ PURPOSE │ │ ─────┼─────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────── —1100│ =-an=│(_to_), =anne= │=-ende= │=-ung= │ │(=-enne=) │ │ ─────┼─────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────── —1250│ =-en, -e=│(_to_), =-ene, │=-inde= │=-yng= │ │-en, -e= │ │ ─────┼─────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────── —1350│ (_to_), =-e=│(_to_), =-en, -e= │=-inde=, │=-yng, -ing= │ │ │rarely =-inge= │ ─────┼─────────────────┴──────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────── —1500│ (_to_), =-e= sometimes omitted│usually =-ing=(=e=│=-yng, -ing= │ │) │ ─────┼────────────────────────────────────┼──────────────────┴──────────── —1600│ (to) │ =-ing= ─────┴────────────────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────── >>>>586<<<< The law of these changes is not difficult to perceive. (1) The Noun Infinitive has become confused with the Gerundial Infinitive; (2) the Active Participle with the Verbal Noun. In both cases there has been a compromise: (1) the Noun Infinitive has dragged down the Verbal to its own Inflectionless state, but it has also accepted the “to” from the Gerund; (2) the Active Participle has accepted the _termination_ of the Verbal Noun, but has communicated to the Verbal Noun, as will be seen below, some of its own _syntactical_ peculiarities. >>>>587<<<< While these processes of assimilation were going on, various experimental confusions were introduced and rejected:— 1. The Participle (1) in the twelfth century, in the form _-nde_, (2) in the fourteenth century, in the form _-inge_, invaded the province of the Gerundive; and we find “for _to_ witi_ende_,” _i.e._ “to guard;” “to wit_inge_,” _i.e._ “to wit;” “the night that is to com_yng_,” _i.e._ “to come;” “to ber_inge_,” _i.e._ (ready) “to bear.”[1] But in the fifteenth and following centuries these forms died out. 2. In the latter part of the fifteenth century we find an attempt, on the part of the form in _-ing_, to appropriate the province of the Noun Infinitive; “Our lord will yeu_yng_ (= yev_en_) hym pardon.” But this is both late and exceptional.[1] ----- [1] Morris’s _Historical Outlines_, page 177. >>>>588<<<< But the great and important change was the assimilation of the _syntax_ of the Verbal Noun to the _syntax_ of the Participle. At first the uses were distinct:— PARTICIPLE. VERBAL. “He _is_ hunt_inde_.”[1] “He went on huntinge.”[1] “_Lesende_ ane finger.” “Up peyn of _losing of_ a finger.” ----- [1] So also “He fell on sleep_inge_,” but not “he _was_ on _huntinge_,” _ib._ p. 177. “Was” and “is” were followed by the Active Participle. But the Active Participle is said to be very rare between 1150—1250 A.D., only occurring twenty-two times in the whole of the earlier text of Layamon, and only eleven times in the later. See Par. 24, _Dissertation on the English Verb_, by Emil Schwerdtfeger, Holt and Co., New York. >>>>589<<<< While this distinction was preserved, the Verbal Noun was not used (according to Dr. Morris) after “is” or “was,” except in _Passive_ signification:— “The churche was _in byldynge_;” “As this was _a_ (i.e. _in_, _on_, or _an_) _doyng_.” But in course of time the two usages became confused. >>>>590<<<< 1. Hence, Ben Jonson, _while carefully selecting the (then) archaic termination in -and, with the intention of representing the old Participle, places “of” after it, just as though it were a Verbal Noun_:— “With all the _barkand_ parish-tikes set at her, While I sat _whyrland of_ my brazen spindle.” _Sad Shepherdess_, i. 2 _ad fin._ >>>>591<<<< 2. On the other hand, Shakespeare, while inserting _-a_, as though he were using the Verbal Noun _nevertheless omits “of,” using the Verbal just like the Active Participle_, even after “is” and “was” in _Active_ signification:— “He’s _a-birding_;” “When green geese _are a-breeding_.” “The slave that _was a-hanging thee_.”[1] ----- [1] See Schmidt’s admirable _Shakespeare Lexicon_ for these and many other instances. >>>>592<<<< 3. Again, sometimes the “of” is inserted, but the _a-_ omitted:— “The shepherd _blowing of_ his nails.” >>>>593<<<< 4. Again, sometimes both _-a_ and “of” are omitted, but “the” is inserted, indicating the Noun nature of the word:— “Nothing in his life Became him like _the leaving_ it.” >>>>594<<<< 5. Further, to such an extent had the Verbal Noun encroached under the Participial mask, that we not only have the legitimate uses “a _riding_-whip,” “a _walking_-stick,” but also in Shakespeare and Bacon:— “A _trembling_ contribution,” _i.e._ “a contribution that has to do with trembling.” “The _loading_ side,” _i.e._ “the side that has to do with loading.” These and other idioms give the impression that the Active Participle may be Passively used, _e.g._ that “loading” is put for “laden;” and perhaps this in part explains the apparent use of “seeing” for “it being seen;” “providing” for “it being provided;” “considering” for “it being considered.” >>>>595<<<< =The modern result= of all these confusions is this: our modern Participle often represents a _latent Verbal Noun and an omitted Preposition_, and is therefore used where, in strictness, a Participle could not be used:— (1) “I shall go (a-) fishing.” (2) “The kettle is (a-) boiling.” (3) (Perhaps) “I saw him (a-) _walking_.” (4) “_Speaking_ roughly, there were about a hundred.” “In speaking,” or “it being spoken,” or “to speak.” (5) “(On) _walking_ on, you will see the river.” It is not at all unlikely that in (3) and (4) there are also traces of some confusion with the Infinitive, such as is mentioned in Pars. 67, 68, Note 388. Dr. Morris gives instances of “he fell _to_, _of_, _on_, _a_ fighting,” which shew the diversity of the Prepositions that may be supplied before the Verbal. INDEX. (_For an Explanation of Grammatical Terms, see the Glossary, page_ xvii.) =☞= The references are in all cases to the =Paragraphs=, and not to the pages. A. _A_ (adj.), “_a_ ten furlongs,” 213, 427. “_a_ dozen sheep,” “_a_ little pudding,” &c., 193. “many _a_,” “what _a_,” 218. “a jewel of _a_, what sort of _a_, man,” 438. “_a_ Crœsus,” 429. “we are all of _a_ mind,” 429. _A-_, Prefix to Verbal Nouns, 591. from “on,” 375. “_a-_fishing,” “_a-_foot,” &c., 127. “_a-_year,” 428. “_a-_row” for “in a row,” 375, note. “eightpence _a-_pound,” “_a-_piece,” 343. _Ablative_ (Absolute), imitated by Milton, 408. _-able_, Suffix, 285. _About_, “he tells us nothing _about_ how he travelled,” 454. _Absolute_, Subject used absolutely, 135. _Accuse_, “I _accuse_ him _of_ treason,” 368. _Active_ (Form), 59—62. _Addison_, his mistake about “who” and “that,” 567, Note. _Adjectives_, uses and Inflections of, 41—44. sometimes used as “Supplements,” 149. inflected in Chaucer’s time, 43, 557. degrees of comparison, 43. used for Adverb, 113. note, 522. used Participially after Nouns, 149. after Nouns in poetry, 515. with implied Nouns, 412. (Clauses) with Relative Pronouns, 497—500. (Phrases) with Infinitive, 98. “the _thickest_ of the fray,” 431. “heir _apparent_,” 431. _Adverbs_, 413—20. uses and Inflections of, 45—54. Interrogative, how used 49. _Adverbs_, repeated, 420. used as Nouns, 382, 454. in _-e_, old form, 413, 522. used like Adjectives with Nouns, 419. in _-e_, 557. Adjectives used as, 562. _Adverbial_ Clauses, 455—8. Phrases, 340—420. Phrases, omit Prepositions, 131. Phrases, containing Infinitive, 98. _Against_, a Conjunction, 349. _Ago_, “five days _ago_,” 340. _Agreement_ of Verb with Noun, 78, 79. not true of the Imperative Mood, 91. apparently violated, 86. violated after “nor,” 228, 334. violated in use of “none,” 227. _A-ground_, 348, 375. _Albeit_, 476. _Almost_, “my _almost_ drunkenness of heart,” 419. _All_, “_all of_ us,” 199, 215, 365. “for _all_ that,” = “though,” 475. _All_, “_all-_if” like “_al_though,” 476. _Analysis_, scheme of, 265. of Sentences, 239—265. meaning of, 253. _Analytical_ structure of language, 556. _And_, “_and_ will you leave me?” 440. “_and_ that, quickly,” 441. “by _and_ by,” 441. _-ant_ and _-ent_, 288. _Antecedent_, in Conditional sentence, 167. _Antecedent_ (of Relative), omitted, 25. implied in Possessive Adj., 497. _Apostrophe_, when inserted and omitted, 37. in _’em_, 569, Note 4. _Apposition_, 137—143. with implied Noun, 143. _Apposition_, with Ind. Obj. and Possess.-Case, rare, 141, 142. _Appositional verbs_, 147—150. _Archaisms_, Poetical, 502—512. _Are_, origin of, 577. _As_, radical meaning of, 203. used for Rel. Pron., 205. vulgar use of, 207. parenthetical use of, 208. redundant, 209. for “that” (Conj.), 480. in condensed clauses, 446. “_so as_” = “provided that,” 461. in Early English, 487. “_as_ far _as_ I know,” 483. “_as—so_” = “both—and,” 484. “_as_ good as” but “not _so_ good as,” 483. for “as if,” 486. “_as_ yet;” “_as_ then,” 487. “_as_ for;” “_as_ to,” 364, 489. “this will serve _as_ ink,” 209. “_as_ if,” “_as_ though,” 211. “This is _as_ fine a horse _as_ I have seen,” 493. _As_, “he was so kind _as_ to promise,” 479. provincial, “he says he’ll come _as_ to-morrow,” 488. “inasmuch _as_,” 458. “_as_ far _as_,” &c., 53. “young _as_ I am,” 464. “_as_ being,” 407. _Ascendant_, used by Pope as Adj., 228. _Ask_, “he _asked_ me a question,” 110. “I _was asked_ three questions,” 122. “he was _asked_ to explain,” 103, 105. _Asleep_, 348. _At_, 350—353. difference between _at_ and “in,” 353, 354. “_at_ three years old,” 342. _Auxiliary_ (Verbs) take the old Infinitive, 93—96. used Conditionally, 170. used Indirectly, 174. used in Past Tense after a Past Tense, 180, 181. B. _Be_, an Appositional Verb, or Verb of Identity, 147—150. takes a “Supplement,” 148. old form of, conjugated, 573—576. in the Indicative, 578—579. Subjunctive modern, 168, note. omitted “woe to the man,” 519. _Beest_, “if thou _beest_,” 578. _Ben Jonson_ used Participle in—_and_ before “of,” 590. _Better_, origin of, 43. “you had _better_,” 386. “_better wait_ a while,” 386. _Bin_, origin of, 580. _Blue_, “the breezy _blue_,” 529. _Brackets_, when used, 315. _But_ (Preposition), 380—1. Radical meaning and uses of, 381. “’twas none but _he_,” 380. transition to _adversative_ use, 452. _But_, (Conjunction) put for “that not,” 202. “_but_ for,” 469. =“_that_ not,” rarely as object, 498. “we did not know _but_ that,” 450. “not _but what_,” 451. “_not but_ there are, &c.,” 452. “it cannot be denied _but_,” 453. “it never rains _but_ it pours,” 467. “I’ll be hanged _but_,” &c., 467. “there is no one _but_ hates me,” 468. “No sooner—_but_,” 456. “I had scarcely gone a mile, _but_,” 456. “he is all _but_ perfect,” “anything _but_,” 453. “_but_ for me,” 363. _But that_, “_but that_ he has a family,” 468. “I cannot be persuaded _but that_,” 450. _By_, 355—357. “little _by_ little,” 356. “_by_ himself,” 357. “_By and by_,” 420. _By and by_, change in meaning of, 441, Note. C. _Came_, “It _came_ to pass,” 392. _Cardinal_ (Numbers), see Glossary. _Cases_, 32. meaning of term, 33. _Causative_ (Verbs), “lay,” “fell,” “raise,” “set,” &c., 76. _Caxton_, his remarks on the English of his time, 82. _—ce_, _se_, “licen_ce_,” “licen_se_,” 290. _Charge_, “I am given in _charge_,” 391. _Celtic_ terms, 533, 541, 542. _Clause_, defined, 239. _Clauses_, Subordinate, 444—500. Condensed, 444—447. Object, 448—454. Adverbial, 455—458. Conditional, 459—471. Concessional, 472—482. Comparative, 483. (Adjective) with Relative Pronouns, 497—500. _Clear_, “_Clear of_ debt,” 366. _Collective_ (Noun) with Plur. and Sing. Verb, 337, 338. _Cognate_ (object), 125. _Colon_, 309. _Come_, “he _is come_,” 62. _Comma_, 294. general rules for, 294—308. _Complementary_ (Infinitive), 97 (Infinitive) as Subject, 106, 107. _Complete_, the _Complete_ “State” of an action, 72. _Complex_ (Sentence), 250. _Compound_ (Sentence), 247. _Concessional_ (Clauses), 472—482. _Condensed_ (Clauses) 444—447. _Conditional_ (Mood), 163—180. anomalies of, explained, 231—238. difference between Mood in Antecedent and Consequent, why, 231—233. with “should,” 236. (Clauses), 459—471. _Conjunctions_, 52. used with Participles, 407. Co-ordinate, 246, note. Sub-ordinate, 249. _Considering_, Participial Preposition, 409. _Could_, “I _could_ have,” 403. _Course_, “_Of course_,” 367. _Courtesy_, discards “thou,” 569. substitutes “will” for “shall,” 87. D. _Danish_ influence on Inflections, 534, 543, 552. _Dare_, with and without “to,” 96, note. _Dash_, used as stop, 314. _Dative_, Early English, 126, 128. “him” used, for Accusative, 554. Plural in _-um_ supplanted, 554. _Dependent_, and _dependant_, 288. _Do_, original meaning of, 386. “how _do_ you _do_,” 386. “_do_ what I may,” 474. _Done_, “this _done_, they departed,” 135. _Doors_, “in _doors_,” 196, 341. _Doubt_, “doubt _not but_,” or “_not that_,” 453. _Dozen_, “a _dozen_ sheep,” 193. _Distance_, “it was a short _distance_ off,” 340. _Drier_, spelling of, 268. E. _-e_ final dropped and retained before affixes, 270. what it represented, 557. used for _-en_, _e.g._ “brok_e_(_n_),” 558. _Each_, not with Plural Verb, 224. “They hated _each_ other,” 223. _Each other_, “_each other_ sheds,” 530. _-ede_, _-eed_, spelling of, explained, 283. _Either_, “_either a_ or _b was_,” not “_were_,” 228. _-eive_, affix spelling of, 283. _-el_, Verbs ending in _-el_, double _l_ in Pres. Participle. _Ellipses_, see _As_, _Than_, _That_, &c. _’em_, represents not _them_ but _hem_, 569, note 4. _-en_, Participial Adjectives in, 558. Infinitive termination, 94—96, 585, 586. _-ene_, _enne_, Gerundive termination, 585, 586. _Enlargement_, of Subject or Object, 263. _English_, Periods of, 533—595. recognized as the National language, 536. Caxton’s remarks on, 82. _Enough_, 216. “kind _enough_ to,” 397. _Epithet_, used for thing denoted, 529. _-er_, suffix for Comparative, 43. Verbs ending in _-er_ accented, double _r_ in Pres. Part., 277. _Ever_, “he was _ever_ so ill,” 473. _Every_, “_every_ hundred years,” 225. _Exclamation_, note of, 313. _Extension_ (of Predicate), 263. _Extent_, Adverbial Phrases of, 340. F. _Feel_, followed by Passive Participle, 260, Note. _Few_, “a _few_ men,” 217. _Foot_, “bound hand and _foot_,” 128. _For_, 358—364. “_for_ a year,” “_for_ once,” 362. “_for_ my part,” 364. “_for_ shame!” 359. _For_, “_for_ all,” &c., 360. “_for_ all that”=“though,” 475. _For to_, with Infinitive, 402. “what went ye out _for to_ see?” 402. _Fortnight_, derivation of, 214. _Free_, “I had rather starve _free_,” 113, Note. _French_, influence of on position of Adjectives, 431. terms, 535, 556. debased, 535. later influence of, 539, 549, 565. idiom combined with English, 433. _Fresh and fresh_, 420. G. _Genders_, none in Modern English, 37, Note. confused, 554. _Genitive_, see _Possessive_, also the Glossary, p. xxii. _Give_, “I was _given_ to understand,” 390. _Gerundial Infinitive_, changes in, 554, 585, 586. “_Governing_” an Object, 84. _Grow_, “I _grew_ tall,” 260, Note. H. _Had_, “you _had_ better,” 386. _Half_, “_half_ the country,” 213. _Hand_, “bound _hand_ and foot,” 128. _Have_, “I _have_ caught,” a Present Tense, 73. “I hoped to _have_, could _have_, succeeded,” 403. “You might _have_ helped me,” 177. “I must _have_ you attend,” 386. _He_, “_He_ of Tusculum,” 511. _Hear_, “I _heard_ her sing,” 94—96. _Help_, “More than I can _help_,” 104, Note. _Her_, old form of, 569. _Him_, old form of, 569. for “himself,” _i.e._ “the same _him_,” 508, 569. _Himself_, “by himself,” 357, 569. _Home_, “go _home_:” sometimes Adverb in E.E., 127. _Honour_, or “hon_or_,” 284. “I have the honour _to_ inform you,” 395. _Hope_, “I _hoped_ to have succeeded,” 403. _How_, “I know not _how_ to begin,” 398. derivation of, 463, Note. _However_, derivation of, 474. I. _I_, old form of, 569. “_I_ wis,” 561. _-ible_, suffix, 285. _Identity_, Verbs of, 147—150. _-ieve_, affix, spelling of, 282. _If_, influence of on Conditional forms, 233. _If_, of admitted facts, 459. “_if_ true,” 445. _Imperative_ (Mood), defined, 70. always in Second Person, 88. Passive, 89. generally omits Subject, 90. or Subjunctive, doubtful, 474. used to express condition, 462. _Impersonal_ (Verbs), 328. _In_ and “at,” difference between, 353, 354. _Inasmuch as_, 458. _Incomplete_, State of action, 72. _Indefinite_ (Article), see Glossary, _Article_ and _Indefinite_. state of action, 72. _Indicative_ (Mood) defined, 70. used illogically, 80. even after “hope,” “fear,” &c., 184, Note. after “if,” illogical, 189. _Indirect Object_, 117—120. after Passive Verb, 122. “retained,” 123. rarely admits “apposition,” 141. _Infinitive_ (Mood), 92—113, 386—403. defined, 70. Tenses of, 92. preceded by “to,” 390—401. without “to,” 93—96. ordinary, in _-ing_, very rare, 587. after Adjectives, 108, 393. Adjectival use of, explained, 109. _Infinitive_, changes in Inflection, 551—559. changes table of, 585—586. “Complete” after Verbs of hoping, &c., 403. as Noun, Adverb, Adjective, 98—100. after Nouns, 394, 395. Exclamatory, 111. in exclamations, 400. Parenthetical, 110, 401. See “to” for examples. _Inflections_, see _Noun_, _Verb_, &c. confused, 553. _-ing_ represents _-ung_, _-inde_, _-enne_, and perhaps _-en_, 585—588. _Intend_, “I _intended_ to _have_ come,” 403. _Interrogation_, note of, 312. _Interrogative_, the old, without “do,” 507. used to express condition, 463. (Adverbs) used Relatively, &c., 49. (Subjunctive), 472—474. “_Do_ what I may,” 474. (Pronoun) supplants Relative, 559, 567. _Intransitive_ (Verbs), 55—58. Verbs followed by “Supplements,” 147—149. _Irregularities_, how explained, 191—199. bred by custom, 213, Note. of words, 195—197. in poetry, 513—516. _-ise_ or _-ize_, 289. _It_, old form of, 569. as Antecedent, 331. _as Antecedent_, “who was _it_ that you saw?” 158. _It, as Antecedent_, “_it_ is you that say so,” 160. preparatory, 329. “_it_ was then that,” &c., 162, 330. “_it_ is said that he is coming,” 151. “_it_ will soon be November,” 328. “_it_ pities me,” 328. “_it thinks_” for “_it seems_,” 328. _-ize_ or _-ise_, 289. _-it_, Verbs in _-it_ accented double _t_ in Pres. Part., 277. K. _Know_, “he is _known_ to be honest,” 107. L. _Latin_, words derived from, 533—548. _Lay_, principal parts of, 76. causative of “lie,” 76. _Layamon_, texts compared, 555. Present Participle rare in, 588. Note. _Less than_, “thy _less-than_ woman’s hand,” 491. _Lest_, derivation of, 482. followed by “should” instead of “might,” 166. _Let_, “_let_ me see,” 88. “a house to _let_,” 109. _Lie_, principal parts of, 76. connected with “lay,” 76. _Like_, “I _like_ a rascal to be punished,” 97. _Little_, “by _little_ and _little_,” 191, Note, 356. _-ll_, modified before affixes, 275. _Lose_, “this will _lose_ you your friends,” 117. M. _Make_, “they _made_ him king,” 148. _Many_, “_many_ a,” 218. _May_, double meaning of, 170, 175—6. _Methinks_, 328. _Might_, after “that;” “should,” after “lest,” 166. “he _might_ have helped me,” 172. “a king, who _might_ keep us in order,” 185, Note. different meanings of, 175—6. _Milton_, his _dictum_ on poetry, 501, Note. anomalies in, 568. “than _whom_,” 346. use of Ablative Absolute, 408. _Mine_, 197, 569. _Moods_, see _Indicative_, &c., 70. _More_, used as a Noun. “he _more than_ hesitated,” 491. “some _more_ pudding,” 219. “asking for _more_,” 221. _My_, old form of, 554, 569. N. _-n_ final, dropped in Passive Participles, 554, 558. _-n_, dropped in _min_ and _thin_, 554, 569. dropped in Infinitives, 544. _Nam_, for “am not,” 381. _Nathless_, 230. _Naught_, 417. _National_, the “National” Period of the English Language, 535. _-ne_, the old _-ne_ retained for emphasis in “none,” “mine,” &c., 197. _Near_, derivation of, 197. _Needs_, “I must _needs_ come,” 341. _Negative_, before “but,” 381. _Neither—nor_, followed by Plural Verb for Singular, 33, 228. _Never_, “though you were _never_ so ill,” 473. “he _never_ sees me _that_ he does not laugh,” 455. _No_, Adverbial, 230. “you are _no_ soldier,” 230. “whether he comes or _no_,” 417. “he slept _no_ more,” 220. and “none,” difference of use, 229—30. _Nominative Plurals_, changes in, 554. _See_ also _Subject_, and Glossary. _None_, for “no,” 197, 229. Singular, 227. used an Plural, 227. Adverbial, 229. _Nor_, “_nor_ yew nor cypress _spread_,” for “spreads,” 334, also 33, 228. _Norman-French_ terms, 535, 544. _Northern_ Dialect, 533—583. _Not_, a contraction for “naught,” 417. “_not_ but what,” 451. “_not_ but,” 452. _Notwithstanding_, 477. _Nouns_, Uses and Inflections of, 30—37. Plural Inflections of, 34—36. of the Synthetical Period, 569. _Noun-object_, 81. _Noun-phrases_, containing Infinitive, 98. _Noun-subject_, 81. _Now_, “_now_ (that) we’ve come,” 444. _Now-a-days_, 196, 341. _Numeral_ (Adjectives), why Irregular, 193—212. _Number_, “agreeing _in number_,” 78. O. _Object_, 12—20. meaning of, 13. different forms of, 15. “governing an _Object_,” 84. with Verb omitted before “and,” 333. (Indirect), see _Indirect_. Cognate, 125. Adverbial, 127—131. used Absolutely by Milton and Wyckliffe, 408. (Clauses), 448—454. before Verb in Poetry, 514. _Of_, 365—372. _Of_, after Participial Verbals, 561, 590. “all _of_ us,” 199. “he is a jewel _of_ a man,” 438. “he tells us nothing _of_ how he travelled,” 454. “that ugly face _of_ his,” 432. “the city _of_ London;” “the cry _of_ ‘breakers,’” 437. “_of_ a child,” 365. “_of_ course,” 367. “light _of_ foot,” 369. “to eat _of_ the crumbs,” 372. “blowing _of_ his nails,” 592. _Off_, emphatic form of “of,” 348. _Old_, “ten years _old_,” 129. “at three years _old_,” 342. _Olden_, 43. _On_, 373, 375. “_on_ my honour;” “_on_ purpose,” 374. abbreviated to “a,” 375. _Once_, derivation of, 196. “at _once_,” 196. _One_, various uses of, 226. “their young _ones_,” 226. _One_, “_one_ . . . another,” 385. _Only_, anomalous use of, 45. _Or_, “_either_ A _or_ B _was_,” not “_were_,” 228. _-or_, _-our_, spelling of, 284. _Other_, “no _other_ than,” 495. “somehow or _other_,” 416. “they hated each _other_,” 223, 385, 530. _Ought_, “you _ought_ not (to) walk,” 561, 93. _Our_, old form of, 569. _Ours_, 435. _Ourselves_, derivation of, 569. _Over_, “_over_ and _over_,” 420. P. _Paint_, “I _painted_ my house white,” 149. _Parsing_, scheme of, 316—325. _Participles_, 63—69. have no tenses, 261. imply (1) Adverbial, (2) Adjectival Phrases, 261. _Participle Active_, table of changes in, 585, 586. followed by “of,” 590. modern results of old confusions, 595. confused with Gerundial Infinitive, 554. in _inge_, 587, 556, 558. rare in Layamon, 588. “in consequence of the king _saying_ this,” 404. _Participle Passive_, 65, 404, 412. in _-en_, _-e_, 558. used as Gerundive, 405. with implied Noun, 411—412. with Adverbial Subject, 135. with Conjunctions, 406—407. used Absolutely with Subject, 408. as Preposition, 409, 404, 412. _Passive_ (Form), 59—62. (Voice), an imposture, 584. Verbs, followed by Objects and “Supplements,” 147—149. _Periods_, of the English language, 533—595. _Person_, explanation of term, 79. agreement “in Person,” 78. Personal endings in Past Tense of Strong Verbs, 581. _Personal Pronouns_, 38, 569. see _him_, _her_, &c. _Phrase_, defined, 239. Noun Phrases, 240. Adjective Phrases, 241. Adverbial Phrases, 242. Relative, 255. _Pity_, “it _pitied_ me,” 328. _Play_, “he _played me_ a trick,” 119. _Please_, “_please_ help me,” 386. “if you _please_,” 328. _Pleasure_, “I have the pleasure _to_ inform you,” 395. _Plural_, Inflections of Nouns, 34—36. (Verbs) with Singular Nouns, 86, 336, 338, 339. _Poetry_ and Prose, difference between, 500. archaic, irregular, terse, 500. _Pope_, ungrammatical, 530, 338, Note. “_than ‘em_ all,” 346. _Position_ (of words) irregular in poetry, 513—516. _Possessive_ Inflection, 37. rarely admits Apposition; “William the _Conqueror’s_ character,” 142. _Possessive_ (Adjective) irregularly used, 432—435. “that ugly face of _his_,” 483. implies Antecedent of Relative, 497. _Predicate_, 263. _Prefixes_, see _a-_ above. alter spelling, 275. _Prepositions_, 50—51, 349—383. original meanings of, 347. derived meanings of, 348. omitted, 127—131. in Adjective Phrases, ambiguous, 436. with Adverbs as Objects, 382—383. Objects omitted, 384. parts of Compound Verbs, 384. followed by “that,” become Conjunctions, 444. _Present_, used for Future, 189. used indifferently with Future by Pope, 191. _Presently_, change in meaning of the word, 441, Note. _Price_, expressed by Adverbial Object, 343. _Pronouns_, uses and Inflections of, 38. See _Personal_, _Reflexive_, _Relative_, &c. of the Synthetical Period, 569—572. _Prose_ and Poetry, difference between, 501. _Punctuation_, hints on, 292—315. _Purpose_, conjunctions of, 478—482. R. _Rather_, “I had _rather_,” 386. _Reduplication_, of Inflections, 196—197. _Reflexive_ (Pronoun), 569. omitted in Poetry, 508. _Rejoice_, “I _rejoiced_ to see him,” 392. _Relative Pronoun_, old form of, 570. changes in, 572. how to parse, 21—24. omitted, 26. Antecedent omitted, 25. Antecedent implied, 497. once Interrogative, 27. before Prepositions, 51. omitted, as Subject, in poetry, 520. implied before Prepositions in Adjective phrases, 436. supplanted by Interrogative, 559, 567. “the oldest man _that I_ know,” 497. “there _goes a pair that_ only _spoil_ one another,” 338. difference between “who” and “that,” 567, Note. Phrases, 255. _Retained_ (object), 123. _Result_, conjunctions of, 478—482. _Rivers_, “the” inserted before, 424. omitted before, 523. _Royal_, “blood _royal_” 431. _Rung_ for “rang,” 76, 568. S. _-s_ in “unaware_s_,” “now-a-day_s_,” 196. in “your_s_,” 197, 434. _Sang_ and “sung,” 76, 568. _Save_, “_save_ only _he_,” 471, Note. _Say_, “_say_ I fail at first,” 462. “he is _said_ to be coming,” 98. “_whom say_ ye that I _am_?” 346. _-se_, _-ce_, “licen_se_,” “licen_ce_,” 290. _Scotch_, use of “will” for “shall,” 170, Note. “it is _some_ late,” 222. _See_, “I _saw_ him _shot down_,” 68. “I _saw_ him _come_,” 96. _Seeing_, irregular use of, 458. _Self_, _Selves_, 569. omitted in poetry, 508. _Semi-colon_, 310, 311. _Sentence_, defined, 239. Simple, 245. Co-ordinate, 246. Compound, 247. Principal, 248. Subordinate, 249. Complex, 250. Contracted, 252. see _Clause_. _Shakespeare_, anomalies in, 561, 562. _Shall_ and _will_, distinction between, 87. introduced as Auxiliaries, 554. originally meant “I owe,” “I am bound,” 177. “John says he _shall_ help us,” 177. “if he _shall_ come,” 236, 237. _She_, origin of, 569—571. _Should_, confused use of, 465. after “lest;” “might” after “that,” 167. used in Antecedent, “would” in consequent, 237. different meanings of, 177, 178. “John said he _should_ help me,” 178. “It is a shame that I _should_ be insulted,” 188. “_should_ I see him.” 233, Note. “he ordered that no frog _should_ croak,” 187, Note. “if you _should have_ taken vengeance,” 236, Note. _Shout_, “they _shouted_ applause,” 125. _Side_, “on this _side_ the Tweed,” 345. “he stood this _side_ of me,” 131. _Sideways_, explanation of, 341. _Since_, derivation of, 457. _Singular_ (Nouns) with Plural Verbs (see _Agreement_), 86, 337, 338. _Smell_, “it _smells_ of musk,” 367. _So_, why changed into ‘as,’ 484. “_so_ as” = “provided that,” 461. “he is _so_,” 203. “_so_ as to,” 397—204. “the prince (for _so_ he was),” 414. “a minute or _so_,” 415. _Some_, “_some_ more pudding,” 219. “_some_ twenty men,” 222. “it is _some_ late,” 222. _Something_, “_something_ good,” 430. _Sometimes_, explanation of, 341. _Songster_, 197, Note. _Sorry_, “I was _sorry_ to see it,” 393. _Sort_, “what _sort_ of a man,” 438. _Spelling_, hints on, 266—291. influenced by pronunciation, 267, 271, 273. influenced by earlier or later introduction of words, 36, 283, 284. _-ster_, old Feminine termination, 37, Note, 197. _Stops_, 292, 293. _Strong Verbs_, assimilated to Weak Verbs, 581. _Subject_, 1—11. omitted, 6. position of, 8—10. different forms of, 11. with Verb, omitted before “and,” 333. Adverbially used with Participle, 135. used with the Infinitive, 400. repeated, 513. placed after Verb, 514. in Parenthesis, 335. _Subjunctive_ (Mood), 163—190. defined, 70. used Indefinitely, 188. quasi-Interrogatively, 472. Tenses of, 189. Anomalies of, explained, 231—238. of “be,” 579. of Purpose, after “pray,” “beseech,” 167. _Subjunctive_ (Mood) in Poetry, to express a wish, 504. old form of, 505. in Poetry, after “ere,” till, 506. “_Do_ what I may,” 472. “_Come_ who may,” 473. _Subordinate Clauses_ (see _Sentence_), 444—500. _Such_, “_such_ a,” 218. “let _such_ teach others _who_ themselves excel,” 486. _Suffixes_, see _-ster_, _-ible_, _-en_, &c. _Sung_ and _sang_, 76, 568. _Superlatives_, how formed, 43. “the oldest man _that_ I know,” 497. _Supplement_, follows “be,” “seem,” “appear,” “appoint,” “make,” &c., 147—148. sometimes Adjective, 149. _Sure_, “_to_ be sure,” 110, 401. _Sword_, “_sword_ in hand,” 136. _Synthesis_, meaning of, 253. T. _Talking_, “_talking_ of books, here is a book,” 410. _Teach_, Object after, 117. _Tell_, “to _tell_ you the truth,” 110, 401. _Tenses_ (see _Present_), 71-75. _Than_, explained, 252, 493. “who else _than_,” 496. “he _more than_ hesitated,” 491. “no other _than_,” 495. “thy less _than_ woman’s hand,” 491. _Than_, “_than_ me” for “_than_ I,” “_than_ whom,” 346. “There is no counsel better _than_ John has given,” 493. _That_ (Rel. Pron.), supplanted by “who,” 559, 567. Early English use of, 499. for “as,” 206. for “so that,” 521. omitted as Subject, 201. omitted after “than,” 494. = “on account of which,” 499. “the oldest man _that_ I know,” 497. “not _that_ I recollect,” 449. _That_ (Conj.) for “so _that_,” 478. omitted after “in case,” &c., 459. “so _that_”=provided that, 460. omitted, meaning “when,” 444. “on the day _that_ thou eatest thereof,” 444. “He never sees me _that_ he does not mock me,” 455. “the axiom _that_,” &c., 448. “I am sorry _that_,” 449. “_That_ it should come to this!” 447. “What were you doing _that_ you were late?” 457. “I cannot be persuaded _but that_,” &c., 450. “_But that_ he has a family,” 468. old form of, 570. _That_ (Conj.) omitted in Poetry, 523. _The_, 421—429. “_the_ sooner _the_ better,” 344, 490, 571. “_the_ leaving it,” 593. “during _the_ first and second centuries,” 426. “_the_ earth,” “_the_ astronomer Adams,” 421. “_the_ classical Addison,” 423. “_the_ Rupert of debate,” 424. “_the_ Thames, Chilterns, Levant, Rigi,” 424. _Thee_, “it is _thee_ I fear,” 346. _Their_, old form of, 569. _Them_, old form of, 569, 570. origin of, 571. spelt _’em_, 569, Note 4. _Then_, “the _then_ world,” 419. _There_, preparatory, “_there_ was once a boy,” 151. _They_, old form of, 569, 570. origin of, 571. _Thi_, a Case of “the” in “_the_ sooner _the_ better,” 571. _Think_, “we _thought_ her _foolish_,” 149. “where it _thinks_ best,” 32. _Thine_, 569. _This_, “_this_ day three months,” 340. _Thou_, old form of, 569. followed by Verbal Inflection in _-e_, 581. replaced by “you,” 569, Note 5. _Though_, “though _conquered_,” 407. “as _though_,” 211. _Thy_, 569. _Till_, once used of space, 376. _Time_, Adverbial Phrases of, 340. _To_, 377—379. used before Infinitives, 554, 556. used irregularly, 561. omitted or inserted, 93—96, 386—389. after Intr. Verbs of feelings, 392. after Verbs of the senses, 388. after Verbs of asking, 105. after “than,” 389. “pleasant _to_ see,” 108. “he was ordered _to_ come,” 107. “water _to_ drink,” 110. “willing _to_ help,” 104, Note. “_to_ think that he should say so,” 111. “_to_ tell you the truth;” “_to_ be sure,” 110, 401. “I know not _how to, whether_ to,” &c., 398. “I have no object for which _to_ strive,” 399. “he was the first _to_ come,” 393. “give me your promise _to_ obey,” 394. “be kind enough _to_ excuse me,” 397. “Where _to_ begin!” 398. “I call God _to_ witness,” 377. “I have the pleasure _to_ inform you,” 395. “_to_ all appearance,” 378. “he is said _to_ be coming,” 98. “nothing _to_ do,” 109. _To-day_, 379. _Transitive_ (Verbs), 55, 58. U. _—um_, Early Dative Inflection, 126, 128. _Unawares_, 196. _Understand_, “I was given to _understand_,” 390. _—ung_, for_-ang_ in Milton and Pope, _e.g._ “sung,” 76, 568. _Unless_, derivation of, 466. _Upon_, 373—5. “_upon_ my word,” 374. _Upwards_, “_upwards_ of ten years,” 365. _Use_, “we _used_ to walk,” 104, Note. _Utopia_, More’s spelling in, 267. V. _Verbs_, see _Transitive_, _Strong_, _Weak_, &c. old, conjugated, 573, 583. modern, conjugated, 584. agreement of, see _Agreement_. Negative and Interrogative form of, 77, 381. emphatic form of, 77. of seeing, feeling, hearing, &c., 68. of Motion, used Passively, 62. of asking, commanding, &c., followed by “to,” 105. made from Nouns, 532. Plural for Singular, 22, 88, 334—339. _Verbs_, omitted after “if,” “though,” &c., 445. omitted in poetry, 518, 519. _Verbal Noun_, 54. confused with Participle, 585—94. counterfeits a Passive Participle, 594. preceded by “a,” 591. preceded by “the,” 593. used after “went,” “fell,” &c., but not after “is,” “was,” except in Passive signification, 588, 589. _Very_, “your _very_ looks betray you,” 430. _Void_, “_void_ of,” 366. _Vowels_, assimilated, 553. changed in Plurals of Nouns, 36—553. changed in Strong Verbs. _See_ Glossary, “Strong.” W. _Wait_, he “waited an hour,” 131. _Was_, “If I _was_ you,” 168, Note. _Wast_, 581. _Way_, “he came the shortest _way_,” 131. _Weak_ Verbs, _see_ Glossary, and 581. _Week_, _month_, &c., “this day _week_,” 340. _Well_, as Conjunctional Adverb, 418. _Were_, Subjunctive, 168, note. “if he _were_ to,” 189. _Were_, for “wast,” 581. _Wert_, anomalous, but now correct, 582. _What_, how used Relatively, 27—8. used in dependent questions, 28. “_what_ with—_what_ with,” 442. “not but _what_ he meant mischief,” 451. “_what_ a,” 218. _When_, “_when_ walking,” 406. _Whence_, supplanted by “where from,” 383. _Where_, “from _where_?” 454. “I know not _where_ to begin,” 398. _Where-to_, for whither, 382. _Whether_, once Interrogative, 463. used as Co-ord. Conjunction, 443. _Which_, for modern “as” in Shakespeare, 206. “I have no money with _which_ to buy food,” 398. “_which_ a,” 218. _While_, “_while_ walking,” 406. _Whither_, supplanted by “where-to,” 384. _Who_, how used Relatively, 27. used in dependent questions, 28. three centuries later than “whose” as a Relative, 572. for “he that,” 509. _Whom_, “_whom_ say ye that I am?” 346. _Why_, as Conjunctional Adverb, 418. derivation of, 463, Note. _Will_ and _shall_, distinction between, 87. “I _will_”=“I shall willingly,” 173. _Willing_, “_willing to_ wound and yet afraid _to_ strike,” 104, note. _Wis_, “I _wis_,” 561. _Wit_, “to _wit_,” 401. _With and with_, 420. _Without_, for “unless,” 470. _Worth_, followed by Object, 129. _Would_, different meanings of, 177—8. used in Consequent “should” in Antecedent, 237. =“used to,” 179. “O that he _would_,” 185, Note. after “prayed,” “besought,” &c., 167, 185, Note. “I wish he _would_ come,” 465. “He thought he _would_ take a walk,” 173. Scotch use of for “should,” 170, Note. _Wyckliffe_, 408, 558. Y. _—y_, changed in passing from Sing. to Plur., 267. _Ye_, old form of, 569. once only used as Subject, 38. _You_, substituted for _thou_, 569, note 5. substituted for _ye_, 38. _Your_, old form of, 569. old use for “yours,” 435. “this of _yours_,” 434. _Yourn_, origin of, 435. _Yourselves_, derivation of, 569. =☞= The references are in all cases to the =Paragraphs=, and not to the pages. TRANSCRIBER NOTES Mis-spelled words and printer errors have been fixed. However, only the most obvious errors have been corrected; without thorough analysis of the subject matter it was impossible to determine if some of what appear to be obvious errors really were intentional. In some cases we have consulted other editions of this book and incorporated corrections found there. Footnotes have been relocated, usually to the end of the current numbered Paragraph, to allow for non-page based formatting. 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