Fig. 1.

In striking contrast to this—the worst of all, we place one of the best; namely, the knot usually employed by netters, and which is called by sailors “the sheet-bend.” It is readily made by bending one of the pieces of cord into a loop (a b, Fig. 2),

Fig. 2.

which is to be held between the finger and thumb of the left hand; the other cord c is passed through the loop from the farther side, then round behind the two legs of the loop, and lastly, under itself, the loose end coming out at d. In the smallness of its size, and the firmness with which the various parts grip together, this knot surpasses every other: it can, moreover, be tied readily when one of the pieces, viz., a b, is exceedingly short, in common stout twine less than an inch being sufficient to form the loop. Of the knot, Fig. 2 is the simplest method to describe, although not the most rapid in practice; as it may be made in much less time by crossing the two ends of cord (a b, Fig. 3) on the tip of the forefinger of the left hand, and holding them firmly by the left thumb, which covers the crossing; then the part c is to be wound round the thumb in a loop, as shown in the figure, and passed between the two ends, behind a and before b; the knot is completed by turning the end b downwards in front of d, passing it through the loop, securing it under the left thumb, and tightening the whole by pulling d. As formed in this mode, it is more rapidly made than almost any other knot; and, as before stated, it excels all in security and compactness, so firmly do the various turns grip each other, that after having been tightly pulled, it is very difficult to untie.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 7.

This knot is employed by surgeons in reducing dislocations of the last joint of the thumb, and by sailors in great part of the standing rigging. The loop which is formed when a cable is passed around a post or tree to secure a vessel near shore, is fastened by what sailors term two half hitches, which is simply a clove hitch made by the end of the rope which is passed around the post or tree, and then made to describe the clove hitch around that part of itself which is tightly strained.

Let a single knot be made in the end of the cord, which is then passed round the box or parcel. This knotted end is now tied by a single hitch round the middle of the cord (Fig. 8) and the whole pulled tight. The cord itself is then carried at right angles round the end of the parcel, and where it crosses the transverse cord on the bottom of the box (Fig. 9), it should (if the parcel is heavy and requires to be firmly secured) be passed over the cross cord, then back underneath it, and pulled tightly, then over itself; lastly, under the cross cord, and on around the other end of the box.

Fig. 8.

When it reaches the top it must be secured by passing it under that part of the cord which runs lengthways (a, Fig. 8) pulling it very tight, and fastening it by two half hitches round itself. The great cause of parcels becoming loose is the fact of the cord being often fastened to one of the transverse parts, (as b, Fig. 8) instead of the piece running lengthways, and in this case it invariably becomes loose.

Fig. 9.

The description may perhaps be rendered clearer by the aid of the figures, which exhibit the top and bottom of a box corded as described. The cords, however, are shown in a loose state to allow their arrangements to be perceived more easily.

Keep it now on the mantel-piece over the fire, and in a few weeks the germ will burst the shell, and a little root will appear and descend to the water, where it will become more fully developed. Steep the acorn in water a day before suspending it. Soon afterwards, another germ will be seen to strike upwards until it reaches the covering of the glass, where a contrivance may easily be made for its escape, still keeping the acorn in the same relative position. And thus a sapling oak may be produced—a curiosity for the parlour.

When this lamp is immersed in an explosive mixture of marsh-gas or coal-gas and common air, the gauze cylinder becomes filled with a blue flame, arising from the combustion of the gas within; but the flame does not communicate to the outside, even though the gauze may be heated to less redness.

Fig. 1.

It may be observed that the metals used are dissimilar; that a plate of copper and one of zinc unite at e, and that there are wires fixed to the other two plates, which as yet are in no way connected. Whilst things are in this state, nothing will take place; the battery is at rest, and no electricity is evolved by it; but if we join the two wires, a current of electricity will immediately pass, and this current will continue till we again separate the wires. If two plates of metal are placed in a solution which will only dissolve one of them, and their upper edges are brought into contact, whilst the others are kept apart, a current will pass from one to the other through the solution, and, passing also from one to the other at the point of contact, will continue thus circulating, till either the soluble matter is consumed, or the liquid itself is saturated—that is, has dissolved as much metal as it is capable of dissolving. This is always the case; but often the effect is so slight, that it is rarely perceptible. Take a piece of silver, and a piece of zinc the size of a half-crown; place one upon the tip of the tongue, the other under it; bring their edges into contact, and what is called a shock will be perceptible; that is, the saliva acting upon the zinc and not upon the silver, a small battery is made, and the electricity passes from the zinc through the tongue to the silver, thence to the zinc again, and thus circulates till you part the edges of the metals. The shock is very slight, being chiefly known by an acid taste; nor would it be felt at all, but that the tongue is so acutely sensitive. We have called this a small battery, but it is scarcely a correct term; it is a single voltaic pair—a battery, in its proper sense, being made up by a union of two or more such pairs, as in the case of the one above. In practice, a battery consists of twelve or more such pairs; and the following sketch represents one commonly used in working the electric telegraph:—

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

It contains twenty-four pairs of zinc and copper plates, about four inches square. Each pair are soldered together by means of a strap of metal, as in Fig. 3. To make it quite clear, we have drawn but twelve pairs in section, and lettered the alternate plates, z standing for zinc, and c for copper. The trough in which they are placed is either made of baked wood, glass, earthenware, or gutta percha; the only requisite being that it is a non-conductor of electricity—that is, such a substance as electricity will not readily pass through. The last plate at one end is zinc, and the other copper, and a wire is soldered to each. If these wires are joined, a current of electricity will pass from the zinc plate to which one is attached, through the exciting liquid, which is here sulphuric acid and water, to the copper plate in the same cell, thence by the metal strap to the zinc of the next cell, and thus through the whole series to the other single plate, whence it passes by the wires to the first zinc plate again. But as each pair of plates produce similar currents, their combined power is very great, and a large quantity of electricity passes through the terminal wires. So much for the battery. We will now go a step further, and learn an extraordinary effect which it is capable of producing. You know what a magnet is, and many of you have, we dare say, seen a mariner’s compass—if not, we must briefly tell you what it is. It consists of a flat piece of steel, of this shape, which is called a needle.

This is suspended on a point, by means of a small hole, or rather conical indention made in its centre. This needle being magnetised, and thus suspended, will always point in the same direction, one end being directed to the north, the other to the south; and it thus enables the sailor to go in any direction he may desire. For if he knows where these points are, he can tell the east and west; and if, as is always done, a card is placed below the needle, with the intermediate points carefully marked upon it, he has no difficulty in steering exactly to any place of which he knows the position; and thus the compass is to the sailor on the pathless deep just what the direction post is to the traveller. Now, if we take such a needle as we have described, and suspend it vertically on an axis passing through its centre, and then, by means of a wire, pass a current from our battery round it thus, the needle will take up a new position at right angles to that which it maintained before, indicated by the dotted lines.

Fig. 5.

Whether the upper point, or north pole, of the needle moves to the right or left in order to attain this position depends on the direction of the current. Thus we have arrived at the principle of an electric telegraph. We have but to agree upon a set of signals that the deflection of the needle shall signify; and if we can contrive to send the current in the direction we wish, so as to move the north pole of the needle to the right or left at will, the apparatus will be complete. But, in practice, it is necessary that we should be able to move, as we please, a similar needle to our own, at the station to which we desire to send the message. In order to accomplish this, we have but to conduct the current from one station to the other by means of an insulated wire. This will be easily understood by the following diagram, where the battery is represented at A, and the different stations at B, at each of which the needles have their north poles upwards; and the wire conveying the current passes in the same direction round all, and lastly returns to the other pole of the battery; thus the current, leaving the battery by the copper or positive end, c, will traverse the wire in the direction of the arrows, deflect the needles in the same direction at the different stations, and return to the zinc or negative end of the battery by the same wire.

Fig. 6.

We will now tell you a very curious fact about the return of the current. The return wire is not necessary, nor is it now put in practice; for a man named Sternheil proved, in 1837, that if we buried deep in the ground the end of the wire, attaching it to a plate of metal, the earth itself would conduct the current back again, thus saving the cost of a return wire. Thus, in the figure above, we have represented this by dotted lines, and marked the direction of the return current by double arrows, N O being the plates of metal, and having the wires attached to them.

Fig. 7.

We will now explain the instrument by which communication is made with the battery, and which is qualified not only to send, but also to receive signals. It is represented by Figs. 7 and 8; Fig. 7 being the exterior, and Fig. 8 the interior. The needles in Fig. 7 (for there are usually two) are on the same axis as the ones on which the electric current acts, only their poles are reversed,—the north pole of the one being opposite the south pole of the other, by which the effect of the earth’s magnetism is annulled, and they are the more powerfully influenced by the electric current. It is by means of these outer needles that the signals are read: they are prevented from deflecting too far from their vertical or upright position by two ivory studs, one on each side; and thus the signalling is rendered more certain and rapid than if they were allowed to oscillate further. The handles at the lower part of the instrument are for moving the barrel in the interior, the one at the side for ringing a signal bell, which is also effected by electricity.

Fig. 8.

In Figure 8, we are looking at the back of the instrument, the case being removed. B is the coil of wire for passing a current of electricity round a magnetic needle suspended in it by its axis. In the former drawing, the wire passes but once round the needle; but by winding it round several times, as here shown, the effect is greatly increased. W, W, are the wires which transmit the current to and from the distant station. We will now see, first, how the instrument is calculated to receive signals. C is a cylinder of box-wood, capped at each end with brass; D, F, H, O, are slips of metal, the shape of which is seen clearly on the left side of the barrel; a piece of wood, K, projects from the front of the case, having a metal bar, about an inch in length, inserted through the end, standing across it, as in the figure. Now, if W, W″, are connected at the distant station with the two poles of a battery, a current will pass along one of these wires, W, and along the slip of metal, O, to the coil, B, having, in its passage round this, deflected the needle, thereby making a signal; it will descend by a, down the slip of metal, x, thence to the spring, e (which is a part of the same slip), through the metal bar to e, and thence by F to W″, and to the other pole of the battery. We have told you that this return wire, W″, is not used in practice: nor is it; but by supposing it to exist here, the direction of the current is more easily understood. We have, by the dotted lines, shown the buried plate attached to this wire. You should look well at the figure, and read this description of receiving signals several times, till you see it clearly; for though at first sight, the apparatus appears very complicated, it is not so; these slips of brass, so curiously shaped, being all that is required to receive signals; to send them, the cylinder C is added, the action of which we will now explain. The furthest end of it is joined to one of the handles seen in Fig. 7, by which it is made to revolve in either direction. Supposing, then, we move this handle so as to cause the small metal pin z to press against the spring e, we can thus remove the end of this spring from the short bar against which it rested, whilst the pin y at the other end of the cylinder will touch the curved end of the slip F (both these pins are fixed into the metal caps at the ends of the cylinder). The current will now pass from the battery by the spring H to the brass cap of the cylinder, thence by the pin z to é; é being removed from the short bar, and the current thus cut off in that direction, it will pass to x, which is a part of the same slip as é, thence round the coil deflecting the needle, and passing to the next station by the slip o, and wire W, will deflect the needle there, and return by the earth-current to W″. Although it is a crooked path, the electric current traverses it so quickly that no perceptible time elapses between the movement of the needle at our own instrument and the various needles of all the telegraphs on the line. Each handle has a separate cylinder, and each needle a separate coil, one only being represented for the sake of clearness. Every word of the message sent is spelt letter by letter, according to the number of times that each needle moves. The following is one of the usual alphabets, and (as in Fig. 7) this is commonly inscribed on the face of the instrument. It is the code of a single needle:—

With two needles the alphabet is somewhat different; but you will now understand how the movement of the needles can signify words; and we think you must now have a very good idea of the machinery of an electric telegraph. We shall now show you how the alarum is rung by electricity, to give the clerk at the instrument notice that a message is about to be sent to him, that he may be at his post, and ready to watch the needles, and read.

Wonderful as it may appear, an electric current passing round a piece of soft iron will instantly convert it into a magnet; but its magnetic properties cease as soon as the current stops. In the telegraph alarum this effect of electricity is thus applied:—A is a piece of soft iron, bent into the form of a horse-shoe; some covered copper wire is wound round it, the ends, B and C, being left loose for the purpose of connecting them with the battery. D is a piece of steel, connected with the lever, E; the other end of which forms a detent or catch, which falls into one of the notches in the wheel, F. This wheel, when the catch is removed, will revolve by a spring, and, like the movement in a common clock, acts on the hammer, H, which strikes the bell, G. B and C are connected with the distant station by a wire, as the needle apparatus. When the operator, therefore, at that station sends a current from his battery along this wire, A will become a magnet, and attract the keeper, D; this, by means of the levers, will release the wheel, F, and the clock-work will cause the hammer to strike the bell. This will call the attention of the operator, who will return the signal and watch the movement of the needles, read the message, and send the reply in the same manner.

Fig. 9.

In frosty weather, the fall of the barometer denotes thaw.

If wet weather happens soon after the fall of the barometer, expect little of it.

In wet weather, if the barometer falls, expect much wet.

In fair weather, if the barometer falls much, and remains low, expect much wet in a few days, and probably wind.

N. B.—The barometer sinks lowest of all for wind and rain together; next to that for wind—(except it be an east or north-west wind.)

In winter, the rise of the barometer denotes frost.

In frosty weather the rise of the barometer indicates snow.

If fair weather happens soon after the rise of the barometer, expect but little of it.

In wet weather, if the barometer rises high, and remains so, expect continued fine weather in a day or two.

In wet weather, if the mercury rises suddenly very high, fine weather will not last long.

We give here a very simple form of Camera, which our readers may easily construct. A B C D is a small rectangular box, closed on all sides, except the space E F G D, which is covered with a piece of ground glass. In the other end is a moveable tube, T, with a proper lens; and in the body of the box is a mirror, E I H D, set to an angle of 45 deg. Upon this mirror the image of the object, P Q, falls, and is reflected upon the ground-glass plate.

There is an instrument sold in the toy shops with twelve wires, and twelve beads on each wire, for teaching the multiplication table, and for this purpose much used in our National Infant Schools. The Russians are also much in the habit of performing calculations by strings of beads. In China, however, where the whole system is decimal, this instrument, called in Chinese shwanpan, is universally used. The word Abax was the Greek term for this instrument. Their abacus differs from that described in having only five beads on each line, one of which is distinguished by colour or size from the rest.

titles.

commercial.

miscellaneous.

If, however, tobacco is used, care is necessary, lest the fumigation be carried to too great an extent, so as to cause the death of some of your stock. Persons not accustomed to deal with bees should wear an overall of thin gauze over the head and breast, and gloves on their hands. With this, and a little bottle of aqua-ammonia, or aqua-potassæ, to be used in case of their being stung, they have no cause for trepidation. For the process of fumigation, you should have a small tin box, with a tube extending from each of the two opposite ends; one end of this tube being so fashioned that it can readily be inserted into the hive, and the other so formed that it can readily be attached to the tube of an ordinary bellows, as in the annexed engraving.

Most paintings are varnished, and as the nature of the varnish differs, so also must the means by which they are removed. In some cases it is better to allow the varnish to remain untouched, than to interfere with it, as the painting might be damaged in the latter instance.

The materials required consist of water, olive oil, pearlashes, soap, spirits of wine, oil of turpentine; sponge, woollen and linen rags; essence of lemons, and stale bread crumbs.

Soluble Varnishes, such as sugar, glue, honey, gum arabic, isinglass, white of egg, and dirt generally, may be removed by employing hot water. To know when the painting is varnished or coated with such materials, moisten some part with water, which will become clammy to the touch. To clean the picture, lay it horizontally upon a table or some convenient place, and go over the whole surface with a sponge dipped in boiling water, which should be used freely until the coating begins to soften; then the heat must be lowered gradually as the varnish is removed. If, however, the coating is not easily removed, gentle friction with stale bread crumbs, a damp linen cloth, or the end of the forefinger, will generally effect it, or assist in doing so. White of an egg may be removed (if not coagulated by heat), by using an excess of albumen (white of egg), and cold water; but if coagulated, by employing a weak solution of a caustic alkali as potash.

Coated dirt is removed by washing with warm water, then covering with spirit of wine, renewed for ten minutes, and washing off with water, but without rubbing. The process is to be repeated until the whole is removed.

Spots should be washed with warm water dried with soft linen rags, and covered with olive oil warmed; after the oil has remained on the spots for twenty minutes, gentle friction with the finger should be used, the foul oil wiped off and fresh laid on, until the spot disappears. Should this fail, spirits of wine, essence of lemons or oil of turpentine may be carefully applied, observing that only such parts as are dirty must be covered with them; they are to be cleaned off first with water and then with olive oil. Sometimes even these means fail, and then strong soap-suds, applied directly to the spots, and retained there until they soften or disappear, will prove effectual. The spots must then be washed with water.

In employing these means, as indeed throughout the whole process of cleaning, the greatest care should be taken in removing any coating upon the surface of a painting, and it is therefore better to employ mild measures first, then if they fail, to use stronger; or in the event of these not succeeding, to very carefully apply the strongest. For our own part, we prefer leaving the painting in a half-cleaned state, as it sometimes happens that, with the most scrupulous care, under experienced persons, some of the fine touches or delicate tints of a painting are damaged by the process. When we state this, we mean only such pictures as are covered with insoluble varnishes—varnishes of gum-resins, or old oil varnishes, which cannot well be removed without injury to the painting.

Varnishes of long standing are very difficult to remove, as they generally consist of linseed oil combined with gum-resins, and if not easily taken off by the means given below, it is better to leave them as they were.

To remove these varnishes, use spirits of wine in the manner recommended for coated dirt; or, oil of turpentine, which requires greater care than the spirits of wine; or, warm olive oil: but if the varnish is very hard, the painting should be washed by means of a sponge, with a warm solution of pearlash (an ounce to a pint of water), until the coating is removed, when the surface must be washed well with fresh water frequently.

The reason for placing the body in the prone position, on the face, will be better understood by noticing what takes place when it is on its back. The tongue then falls backwards, sinks, so to speak, into the throat, and closes up the windpipe, so that no air can possibly find its way to the lungs, except by force.

The body, therefore, being laid on its face, there is a natural pressure of the chest and abdomen which causes an expiration. This may be increased by some additional pressure. Then if the body be lifted by an attendant placing one hand under the shoulder, the other under the hip, and turning it partly on its left side, there will be an inspiration. The air will rush into the lungs with considerable violence. Then the expiration may be repeated by letting the body descend, and so on, up and down alternately. And thus, without instruments of any kind, and with the hands alone, if not too late, we accomplish that respiration which is the sole effective means of the elimination of blood poison. It is worthy of notice that by this means a really dead body may be made to breathe before it has become stiff—as experiment fully demonstrates.

About sixteen times a minute is the rate at which the body should be made to rise and fall in the endeavour to renew respiration. The clothes in the meantime should be changed for others dry and warm. Or, if in a warm room, four persons should seize the limbs with their hands, and rub them with firm pressure upwards. The warm bath is not to be compared with this mode of restoring warmth, and not warmth only, but the circulation, if it be pursued with energy. The blood is driven upwards, and though venous, may stimulate the heart.

The warm bath is on no account to be used until breathing has been restored. Dr. Hall says, it is “injurious;” and to place the patient in a sitting position in warm water, is “to renounce the only hope.” In France its use has been forbidden by authority.

Rules to Govern Persons Who Attempt to Rescue the Drowning. 1. In removing a body from the water, whether into a boat or drawing it along by your own efforts, always keep the face upwards. 2. Recollect that you have no more buoyancy than the person you are attempting to rescue. Therefore do not attempt to raise him out of the water, or you will sink. By a gentle traction, you may draw him towards the boat or landing-place without fatigue or danger. 3. Always aim at seizing the hind hair of the head, and keep the nape of the neck and your own arm under the water. Thus you will insure his face and your own above the surface. 4. Keep your most powerful arm disengaged for swimming, and maintain the other projected forward, having hold, as directed by the hair of the hind head. In this way you may advance side by side, he floating on his back, and you on your breast. 5. As you approach the person distressed, let him know by your voice; the prospect of his speedy succour will add to his confidence and strength. 6. Let all your movements be deliberate, firm, and gentle. 7. Hold the hat reversed in both hands, the arms and hands of course under water. If a person has presence of mind to accomplish this, the hat will by its buoyancy afford him great assistance, until it becomes saturated and admits the water.

The following plan will enable any one to learn to swim, or those who cannot swim, to cross deep water safely. The directions, which are simple, require care:—

Take a piece of cork, or, for want of cork, light wood, such as deal, and form it into an oval shape, about eighteen inches in its utmost width. Cut a hole in the centre wide enough to admit your neck. Then divide it in two pieces, thus.

Then join the two parts on one side with a hinge of gutta percha, or caoutchouc, or leather, and on the other side of it with strings. The novice has only to put the two sides round his neck, tie the strings, and while he cannot sink, he has full use of his arms and legs in an upright position, which is the best of all for a beginner in the art of swimming.

The shape of the cork offers no impediment whatever to the progress of the swimmer, in the water.

This instrument made in cork, light wood, or bark, would be very convenient to travellers crossing rivers in America, Africa, or Australia, as they could carry a considerable weight packed upon their heads, thus—

The swimmer carries his blankets and clothes on his head, and his gun over his shoulder, swimming with one hand in the greatest freedom.

For learning to swim, an India-rubber ring cushion, with an opening and string, answers well, but it is liable to get punctured.

To Determine whether Water be Hard or Soft; that is, fit or not fit for domestic purposes. To a glassful of the water add a few drops of solution of soap in alcohol; if the water be pure, it will continue limpid; if it be impure, white flakes will be formed.

2. If it rains, either before or after noon, it is found crept up to the top of its lodgings, and there it remains until the weather is settled.

3. If we are to have wind, the poor prisoner gallops through its limpid habitation with amazing swiftness, and seldom rests until it begins to blow hard.

4. If a remarkable storm of thunder and rain is to succeed, for some days before it lodges almost continually without water, and discovers uncommon uneasiness, in violent throes and convulsive-like motions.

5. In the frost, as in the clear summer weather, it lies constantly at the bottom; and in snow, as in rainy weather, it pitches its dwelling upon the mouth of the phial.

The leech may be kept in a common two-ounce phial, about three-fourths filled with water, and covered with a bit of linen rag. In the summer the water should be changed once a week; and in the winter once a fortnight.

Common whitening is an effectual remedy against the effects of the sting of a bee or wasp. The whitening must be moistened with a little cold water and immediately applied; it may be washed off in a few minutes, when neither pain or swelling will ensue.

When all the drawings are finished, the pieces of glass should be placed one by one (G) in a square leaden box (A), which has one side made of glass (C), carefully coated with hard etching varnish, or what is better, melted wax, or mastic varnish, and luted into the frame with bordering wax. The glass side allows the progress of the etching to be observed. The leaden box (A) should be made to drop into a leaden trough with a perforated false bottom (B), but in such a manner that the edge may be surrounded with water, and also the bottom covered with water to absorb the superabundant gas. To the bottom of the receiver or box should be carefully luted a leaden pipe (H), which is attached to the beak of a leaden retort (E) resting in the stand (F), with a spirit lamp (D) under it. When sufficiently corroded, the glass plate may be removed, but it is necessary to have gloves on, and the hands covered with grease, to prevent the acid attacking the flesh. Those parts that are bit in enough, must be stopped out, as in common etchings (the plate being previously washed and dried), and the corrosive process combined until the several gradations of shade are obtained.

Vitriol Accidents are not uncommon in kitchens, as when oil of vitriol (improperly used for cleaning copper vessels) is let fall upon the hands, &c. Let a little soda or potash be dissolved in water, or some fresh soap-boilers’ lees, and instantly applied; no injury whatever will occur to the person or clothes.

The top should be covered with thatch, so contrived as to shelter the sides from the heat of the sun, and the coldness of the wind. On the sides and top should be resting-boards, on which the birds may bask in the sun. The rearing and training of pigeons require great care, for the domesticated and fancy birds are very delicate. Cleanliness, and a plentiful supply of fresh water is, as with other tamed animals, the first requisite.

Fig. 1.

Rose diamonds have all these facets tending to a point on the sides and top of the stone, as in Fig. 1, and the under side perfectly plain. Table-diamonds have a flat, oblong top, with the sides cut in very large facets, and the under side brought to a point, also, with large facets. The brilliant, which is the most valuable form, is somewhat of the same shape, but has the flat face on top very much smaller, and nearly round; and the sides and bottom are cut into a greater number of smaller facets, which, also, are made to reflect into each other—it thus emits the greatest light, and the most variegated colours; (see Fig. 2.)

Fig. 2.

The dust that comes from the cutting of diamonds is used for cutting cameos, crests, and letters on cornelians, and other stones, and for polishing the pebbles used for spectacles; without it they could not be worked.

The finest diamond ever known, except the gem recently brought to England, belonged to the king of Portugal; it weighed 1,680 carats, and was valued at £224,000,000, though it was not cut or polished. That in the Russian sceptre weighs 779 carats, and is valued at £4,000,000. The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and cost Louis XIV. £130,000. These gems are brought from Borneo, Golconda, Bengal, the East Indies, West Indies, and Brazil. They are cut and polished with their own substance. The different kinds of diamonds are as follows:—Rough diamond is the stone as it comes from the mine; rose diamond is one which is flat at the base, terminating in a point above; the table diamond has a square face at the top encompassed with four lesser facets; the brilliant is that which is cut into flat faces at top and bottom, and whose table, or principal face, is parallel with a line through the broadest part of the stone. The diamonds used by glaziers are usually only fragments of badly-coloured stones.

The noise is produced by a species of small beetle, of the timber-boring genus, Anobium. In the spring these insects commence their ticking, as a call to each other. They beat with their heads, and though they are very “head-strong,” they are less (in the common acceptation of the term) than the people who cling to the stupid belief that their sound is a token of coming calamity.

February and March. All meats and game as in the former month, with the addition of chickens and ducklings. Fish.—Exactly as last month, excepting cod, which is not supposed to be quite so good up to July. Vegetables.—Just the same as the previous month, only now you have kidney beans. Fruits.—Apples and pears, and forced strawberries.

April, May, and June. Meats.—Beef, mutton, veal, lamb, and in June venison. Poultry.—Pullets, fowls, chickens, ducklings, pigeons, rabbits, and leverets. Vegetables as before, only in May early potatoes, peas, radishes, French beans, early cabbages, carrots and turnips, cauliflowers, asparagus, artichokes, and all kinds of salad, but this is forced. Fruits.—In June, strawberries, cherries, melons, green apricots, currants, and gooseberries for tarts only. Fish.—Carp, soles, tench, smelts, eels, trout, turbot, lobsters, chub, salmon, herrings, crayfish, mackerel, crabs, prawns, and shrimps.

July, August, and September. Meats.—These are not different from the former months, except pork, which commences in September. Poultry.—Pullets, fowls, chickens, and rabbits, pigeons and green geese, leverets, turkeys, poults, the two former months; wheat-ears and geese in September. Fish.—Cod, haddocks, flounders, skate, thornback, mullet, pike and carp, eels and shell-fish, but no oysters; mackerel in July, it is not so good in August. Vegetables.—As all the previous months; peas and beans. Fruits.—July, strawberries, gooseberries, pine-apples, plums of all kinds, cherries, apricots, raspberries, melons, damsons, white and red currants, pears, apples, grapes, nectarines and peaches. In August and September, peaches, plums, filberts, figs, mulberries, cherries, apples and pears, nectarines, grapes, pines and melons, strawberries.

October. Meats do not differ; this is the season for good doe venison. Poultry and Game.—Fowls of all kinds as the former quarter, pheasants from the 1st October, partridges, larks, hares, wild ducks late in the month, teal, snipes, widgeon, and grouse. Fish.—Dories, smelts, pike, perch, halibuts, brills, carp, salmon, trout, barbel, gudgeon, tench, all shell-fish. Vegetables are now as in January month. Fruits.—Peaches, pears, figs, bullaces, grapes, apples, medlars, damsons, filberts, walnuts, nuts, quinces.

November. Meats. Beef, mutton, veal, pork, house-lamb, doe venison.—Poultry, Game, Fish, Vegetables, and Fruits.—As the last month.

December. Meats as the former month. Poultry.—Geese, turkeys, pullets, pigeons, capons, fowls, rabbits, hares, snipes, woodcocks, larks, pheasants, sea-fowls, Guinea fowls, wild ducks, teal, widgeon, grouse, and dunbirds. Vegetables.—As in the last month. Fish.—Turbot, gurnets, soles, sturgeon, carp, gudgeon, eels, codlings, dories, and shell-fish of all kinds. [It is only a Fact to say that we are indebted for this information to the Family Friend, a cheap and cleverly conducted Domestic Magazine.]

For the Tin Tree, proceed as before, and put in three drachms of muriate of tin, and about ten drops of nitric acid. The tin tree has a more lustrous appearance than the lead tree. The Silver Tree is prepared by a solution of four drachms of nitrate of silver, in distilled or rain-water, as before; to which add about an ounce of quicksilver. These experiments are easy and interesting.

The strings must be about the thickness of the first string of the violin. These strings answer well, but if too expensive, the small gut used by whip manufacturers may be used. The bottom plank of the harp should be oak, three-quarters of an inch thick, length three feet, breadth ten inches. The bridges may be any sonorous wood, (but steel will give the best sound), half an inch in height, cut angular to a blunt point; they must not be flattened down, but must be made to fit very flat to the bottom board, or it will jar, and never play well. This is the great defect in all harps made by amateurs. The ends of the harp should be oak, one inch thick, and must be fixed very firmly to the bottom board, but not with metal screws or glue; and in these the pins are fixed for tightening the strings. Use fiddle-pins, half at each end. The top should be half an inch thick, and sycamore wood is the best, and may be polished—it should be very slightly fastened on, for it has to be removed every time to tune. Common catgut does nearly as well as German. Get as thick a string as you can for one side, and a thin one for the other; then graduate them from the thick to the thin, so as not to have two alike. They are in general tuned to 𝄞C, but it is preferable to tune to low C, and then each string an octave higher. This is easily altered, if desirable. The instruments should be made very strong in all respects, for the strings exert almost incredible strength. The position for placing the harp at the window to be with the upper surface inclined towards the draft of air.

If the pressure of this vapour be removed, by plunging the empty ball into a freezing mixture (which condenses the vapour), so rapid an evaporation takes place, that the water in B is frozen in two or three minutes. The notion that this glass can indicate the actual state of the pulse, is erroneous: it only indicates the warmth of the hand, and then acts as a differential thermometer, i.e. indicating the difference between the heat of the globes A and B.

If paid in advance—

and so on; twopence being charged for every additional ounce.

2. As a general rule, the postage, if not paid in advance, is double the foregoing; and if the payment in advance be insufficient, double the deficiency is charged. An inland letter, for example, weighing more than half an ounce, and not exceeding one ounce, if bearing a penny stamp only, is, on delivery, charged twopence. The unpaid additional postage on re-directed letters, however, is not doubled, being the same as if such postage were prepaid. Unless three quarters, at least, of the postage of a letter weighing more than 4 oz. be prepaid, the letter is not forwarded, but a notice of its detention is forwarded to the sender, or failing him, to the person to whom it is addressed.

Newspapers and other periodical Publications bearing the Newspaper Stamp.

3. All periodical publications, including newspapers published in the United Kingdom, at intervals not exceeding thirty-one days, and which bear an impressed stamp or stamps denoting the stamp duty (of the kind formerly confined chiefly to newspapers), may be transmitted and re-transmitted through the post within the United Kingdom free of postage under the following regulations, viz:—

No publication, or portion thereof, can pass through the post unless the impressed stamp which it bears be a stamp of the value at least of one penny.

The publication must be folded in such a manner that the whole of the stamp or stamps, denoting the full duty, shall be exposed to view, and be distinctly visible on the outside, except that where there are more than two publications in the same cover it will be considered sufficient if the stamps be so arranged that they can readily be examined.

It must be posted within fifteen days from the printed date of issue.

It must have either no cover or a cover open at the ends.

It must contain no enclosure.

It must have no writing or other mark thereon, but the name and address of the person to whom it is sent, nor anything on the cover but such name and address, the printed title of the publication, and the printed name and address of the publisher or vendor who sends it.

If the publication be addressed to any person within the free delivery (three miles of the General Post-office) of the place where it is posted, it will become liable to a postage of one penny, which must be prepaid by affixing a postage stamp.

When a newspaper, &c., is so folded as not to expose the stamps, a postage of one penny is charged in addition to any other postage to which the publication, if properly folded, would be liable; and if the newspaper, &c., be addressed to any person within the free delivery of the place where it is posted, and do not bear a penny postage label, it will be charged 2d.

4. Book Post. At the following charges, and on the subjoined conditions, book packets may be sent by the post to any place within the United Kingdom:—

and so on, twopence being charged for every additional half-pound or any less weight.

The postage must be prepaid in full, by means of postage stamps affixed outside the packet or its cover.

Every packet must be sent either without a cover, or in a cover open at the ends or sides; so as to admit of the enclosures being removed for examination. For the greater security of its contents, the packet may be tied at the ends with a string; but in such case the Postmaster is authorized to cut the string, although he is required to re-fasten the packet.

A book-packet may contain any number of separate books or other publications, prints, or maps, and any quantity of paper, parchment, or vellum; to the exclusion, however, of written letters, whether sealed or open. And the books or other publications, prints, maps, &c., may be either printed, written or plain, or any mixture of the three. Further, all legitimate binding, mounting, or covering of a book, publication, &c., or of a portion thereof, will be allowed, whether such binding, &c., be loose or attached; as also rollers, in the case of prints or maps; markers (whether of paper or otherwise), in the case of books; and, in short, whatever is necessary for the safe transmission of literary or artistic matter, or usually appertains thereto; but no patterns, or books of patterns (unless these consist merely of paper) can be allowed.

No book-packet may contain any written letter, closed or open, or any enclosure sealed or otherwise closed against inspection; nor must there be any letter, nor any communication of the nature of a letter written in any such packet or in or upon its cover. Entries, however, merely stating who sends the book, &c., or to whom it is given, are not regarded as a letter. Indeed as respects the name and address of the sender, not only is the writing permitted but recommended; so that if the cover comes off or for any other reason the packet cannot be forwarded, it may be returned.

No book-packet can be received, if it exceeds two feet in length, width or depth.

Any packet which shall not be open at the ends or sides, or shall have any written letter or any communication of the nature of a letter written in it, or upon its cover, will be charged with the “unpaid” or double letter postage.

If a packet be found to contain any written letter, whether closed or open, or any enclosure sealed or otherwise closed against inspection, or any other unauthorized enclosure, the letter or enclosure will be taken out and forwarded to the address on the packet, charged with the full postage, as an unpaid letter, together with an additional rate of 1d.; and the remainder of the packet, if duly prepaid with stamps, will then be forwarded to its address.

If a packet be not sufficiently prepaid with stamps, but nevertheless bear a stamp of the value of 1d., it is forwarded, charged with the deficient book-postage, together with an additional rate of 1d.; but any packet which bears no postage stamp is charged with the “unpaid” or double letter postage.

In every case in which the postage chargeable under these regulations is greater than the letter rate, the letter postage is substituted.

5. Registration. By the prepayment of a fee of fourpence (which fee, in the case of a letter addressed to a place abroad, may be paid either in money or stamps; but in all other cases it must be paid in stamps) any letter, book, or other packet on which the postage has been prepaid in stamps, may be registered in any place within the United Kingdom. Book-packets and newspapers can also be registered to the colonies. To foreign countries letters only can be registered. The registration of a packet makes its transmission more secure by rendering it practicable to trace it, when inland, from its receipt to its delivery; and when colonial, if not to its delivery, at least to the port of despatch. The Post Office does not guarantee the safe delivery of the letter, &c., though the officers are of course responsible to the Postmaster-General, who will call to strict account any one neglecting his duty on this point, and, if his Grace think proper, will require him to make good any loss that may be sustained thereby.

6. The postage of registered letters must be prepaid; and if the letter be inland, it must be prepaid in stamps.

7. Every letter to be registered should be presented at the window, and a receipt obtained for it, and must on no account be dropped into the letter-box. If, contrary to this rule, a letter marked “Registered” be dropped into the letter-box, it will be liable to a registration fee of one shilling, instead of the ordinary fee of sixpence. No Letter Carrier or Rural Messenger is required to take letters from the public for the purpose of registering them.

8. Postage Stamps.—Every Postmaster and Letter Receiver is required to have on hand a sufficient stock of postage labels and penny stamped envelopes, and to sell them to the public at the following prices:—

Stamped Labels.

Stamped Penny Envelopes.

9. When adhesive stamps are used they should be examined to see that they firmly adhere, since if they fall off, the letters, &c., will be charged with postage, which, in the case of inland letters and of some foreign letters, is double the prepaid rate. The stamps should be placed on the front of the letter, and upon the right-hand corner of the upper side.

10. Money Orders. The commission on a Money Order not exceeding £2 is threepence, and on one above £2 it is sixpence; no order being granted for more than £10.

11. No order is allowed to contain a fractional part of a penny.

12. Money Orders do not require a receipt stamp. The public are therefore strictly cautioned,—

To guard against the loss of the money order.

Never to send the money in the same letter with the information required on payment thereof.

To be careful on applying for a money order to state correctly the surname and at least the initial of the Christian name of the person in whose favour it is to be drawn.

To see that the name of the person taking out the money order is correctly known to the person in whose favour it is drawn.

Under no circumstances can payment of an order be demanded on the day of issue; and, as respects orders granted at minor offices, time must be allowed for the advice to pass through the metropolitan office.

Bites of Dogs. The treatment is the same as that for snake bites, more especially that of the bitten part. The majority of writers on the subject are in favour of keeping the wound open as long as possible. This may be done by putting a few beans on it, and then by applying a large linseed-meal poultice over them.

Bites of Gnats. To cure the bite of gnats, the best remedy is to smear the part with olive oil.

Cartel, an agreement between two States, for the exchange of their prisoners of war. Cartel-ship is one commissioned in time of war to exchange the prisoners of any two hostile powers, &c. The officer who commands her carries no cargo, ammunition, nor implements of war, except a single gun for firing signals.

Galley is a low-built vessel, going with oars and sails, chiefly used by the States bordering on the Mediterranean. Galleys have usually twenty-five or thirty benches of oars on each side, and four or five galley-slaves on each bench. The galley carries a large gun, two bastard pieces, and two small pieces. It is usually from twenty to twenty-two fathoms long, three broad, and one deep, and has two masts, which may be struck or lowered at pleasure.

Convoy signifies one or more vessels of war, appointed to conduct a fleet of merchants’ ships, serving as a watch and shelter from the insults of enemies; though sometimes by a convoy is implied the fleet of merchant ships bound to any particular part or place of rendezvous.

Privateers are a kind of private ships of war fitted out by private persons at their own expense, who have leave granted them to keep what they can take from the enemy, allowing the admiral his share.

Barge, a kind of state or pleasure boat, or for the purposes of merchandise, used chiefly in the navigation of rivers. Barges have various names, according to their particular uses; as a company’s barge; a royal barge; a Severn trow; and a Ware-barge.

Masters and slaves were all on an equal footing. Friends sent presents to one another, and feasted together at the same table. The schools kept a vacation, and nothing was to be seen in the city but mirth and freedom.

Our Saxon ancestors called the month Winter Monath, but after their conversion to Christianity they called it Heligh Monath, or Holy month, in commemoration of the Nativity, which is always celebrated in this month. It was also called guil-erra, or the first guil; the feast of Thor, which was held at the winter solstice, being called guil from iol, or ol, which signified ale. This feast was even continued into January, and has been corrupted into yule.

Synonymes.—In Latin, December; French Decembre; Italian, Dicembre; Spanish, Diciembre; and in Portuguese, Dezembro.

As in our engraving, this month was represented by the ancients as an old man, with a severe and fearful countenance, clothed in a coarse frieze rug, girt upon him; his hands encased in fur gloves, and holding a hatchet, emblematical of the season, it being the time for felling timber. Instead of his head being surrounded by a garland, it appeared to be wrapped in three or four nightcaps, with a Turkish turban over them; his mouth and beard were clogged with icicles, and at his back was a bundle of ivy, holly and mistletoe, and at his side the sign of Capricornus, the goat, symbolical of the sun entering that constellation on the 21st.

The chronology of the month, replete with interesting records of past events, is subjoined.

The Red Letter Days of the month are as follow:—

6th.—“St. Nicholas.” He was Archbishop of Myra, in Greece, a.d. 302, and is regarded as the patron saint of children and mariners, and consequently churches built near to the sea are generally dedicated to this saint.

13th.—“St. Lucia” was a young lady of Syracuse, who died in the year 304, and was remarkable for the devout and charitable life she led.

21st.—“St. Thomas” is said to have travelled and promulgated Christianity among the Persians, Medes, Parthians, and Armenians, and that he met with his death by being stoned, and having darts thrown at him by the Brahmins, who were incensed at his preaching.

25th.—“Christmas Day.” This is kept as a solemn festival by our Church, and many curious customs prevail, which we have neither time nor space to describe, particularly as they are generally well known.

26th.—“St. Stephen.” This feast is held, according to Brady, “in consequence of St. Stephen having been the first who suffered for his steady adherence to the faith of Christ, so that his anniversary has been fixed immediately following the day held by the Church in commemoration of the Nativity of our Saviour.”

27th.—“St. John the Evangelist.” This feast is observed in commemoration of this evangelist, because he drank poison without dying in consequence.

28th.—“Childermas,” or “Holy Innocents’ Day,” is held in commemoration of the slaughter of the innocents by Herod, and is celebrated by the Church of Rome with masses. It is considered unlucky to begin any work upon this day.

31st.—“St. Silvester” was a pope, and is said to have been the author of several rites and ceremonies of the Romish Church, as unctions, palls, asylums, &c. He died in 334.

In Doctors’ Commons the applicant will have before him the indexes of all the wills and administrations proved and granted for the last fifty years and more; and no one will interrupt his searching in any one or all of them. In the other courts in the country he would have to name a series of years—say from 1805 to 1815; and probably for a very long search there would be a small extra charge. As to the absence of the Christian name, there might be a slight difficulty; some registrars are more courteous than others. The best way will be to guess, if you can, at the right Christian name;—say that you are not certain about it, but you think it may be “William,” or “Ann,” or any other that you think. You will, however, have a right to search, whether you know or can guess at the Christian name or not; but your shilling will only give you permission to look at two wills. If, on looking at these, you find that neither of them is the one you wished for, you must, on asking to see a third will, pay another shilling.

Admiral, a great officer, or magistrate, who has the government of a navy, and the hearing of all maritime causes. Though there is some doubt as to the origin of this officer, the most probable opinion is that of Sir Henry Spelman, who thinks that both the name and dignity were derived from the Saracens, and by the holy wars, brought amongst us; for admiral, in the Arabic languages, signifies a prince or chief ruler. Du Cango says that the Sicilians were the first, and the Genoese the next, who gave the denomination of admiral to the commanders of their naval armaments. Some think it was introduced amongst us in the reign of Edward I., or according to others of Henry III. Before the use of the word admiral was known, the title of custos maris was made use of. The admiral carries his flag at the main-topmast head.

Vice-Admiral commands the second squadron, and carries his flag at the fore-topmast head.

Rear-Admiral is the commander of the third squadron, and carries his flag at the mizen-topmast head. The ranks and station of these admirals are also distinguished by the colour of their flags: hence there are admirals, vice-admirals, and rear-admirals of the white, the blue, and the red, the colour indicating the seniority in the respective ranks.

Captain of a Ship of War is the officer who commands a ship of the line of battle, or a frigate carrying twenty or more cannons. The charge of a captain in her Majesty’s navy is very comprehensive, as he is not only answerable for any bad conduct in the military government and equipment of the ship he commands, but also for any neglect of duty, or ill-management in his inferior officers, whose several charges he is appointed to superintend and regulate.

Captain of a ship, either of war, or of a trading vessel, is the commanding officer. In a merchant’s ship the officer to whom the direction is committed is sometimes called master, and in the Mediterranean the master is frequently called patron. The master of a ship of the line is properly the sailing captain, who takes cognizance of everything respecting steering, keeping the ship’s log, taking the sun’s altitude, &c. &c.

Pilot, from prorita, is he who governs the prow or head, or from the old French pile, ship, as some suppose. A person who conducts a ship into a road, harbour, or through intricate channels. He is the second person in the ship. There are two kinds: the one an officer who takes altitudes at sea, uses the quadrant, and watches the compass. The other is a coasting pilot, and is occasionally called in on coasts and shores unknown to the master.

Midshipman is appointed by the captain of a ship of war, to second the orders of the superior officers, and assist in the necessary business of the vessel, either aboard or ashore. A first-rate man-of-war has twenty-four midshipmen, and the inferior rates, a suitable number in proportion. No person can be appointed lieutenant, without having served two years in the Royal Navy in this capacity, or in that of mate, besides having been at least four years in actual service at sea, either in merchant ships or in the Royal Navy.

Purser, is an officer on board a man of war, who receives her victuals from the victualler, and is to take care that it be in good condition and well laid up. He also keeps a list of the men and boys belonging to the ship, and sets down exactly the day of each man’s admittance into pay, that the paymaster or treasurer of the navy may issue out his disbursements, and pay off the men according to the purser’s book.

The Steward receives all the victuals from the purser, sees it well stowed in the hold; all things belonging to the ship’s use are in his custody; he looks after the bread, and distributes out the several messes of victuals in the ship.

The Victualler is he who furnishes the ship with victuals or provisions. For furnishing her Majesty’s navy with victuals there is a victualling office on Tower-hill, managed by seven commissioners, who have their inferior officers or secretaries, clerks, &c. besides agents in different parts of the kingdom.

Clerk of a merchant ship, is an officer appointed to take care that nothing be squandered needlessly: he is obliged to keep a journal and an inventory of every thing in the loading of the vessel; as the rigging, apparel, arms, provision, merchandises, the names of the passengers, the freight agreed on, a list of the crew, their age, wages, &c. The bargains, purchases, and sales the ship makes from its departure; the consumption of provision, and, in short, every thing relating to the expense of the voyage. In small vessels the master or pilot does the office of clerk. In ships of war, the captain’s clerk is appointed to keep the ship’s accounts, with the captain’s letters, &c.

Corporal of a ship, or, as he is more generally called, “Ship’s Corporal,” is a second class working petty officer, and is under the Master-at-Arms; the latter is also a petty officer, and is chief of the police in a vessel of war.

Marines having nothing to do in working the ship, their duty is merely to defend it in war, and attack the enemy when fighting. There is generally a company on board each ship, about forty in number, under a captain and two lieutenants. And there are seventy companies of marines in the whole. In a sea-fight their small arms are of very great advantage in scouring the decks of the enemy, and when they have been long enough at sea, to stand firm when the ship rocks, they must be infinitely preferable to seamen, if the enemy attempts to board, by raising a battalion with their fixed bayonets to oppose them.

Officers of the navy are, the Treasurer who receives moneys out of the exchequer, to pay all the charges of the navy. The Comptroller who attends and comptrols all payments of wages, knows all the rates of stores, examines and audits all accounts. The Surveyor knows the state of all stores, sees all wants supplied, estimates repairs, &c. and at the end of each voyage, audits and states all accounts. The Clerk of the Acts records all orders, contracts, bills, warrants, &c. There are also several Commissioners of the navy.

Navy-Bills, or victualling bills or orders for the payment of money issued by the commissioners of the navy on the treasury of the navy, for stores purchased at the rate of 4½ per cent, after six months from the date of their being registered at the respective offices: and they have generally been paid off within eighteen months or two years from the time of their being issued.

The privileges conferred on sailors are much the same as on soldiers, with regard to relief, when maimed, wounded, or superannuated. The Greenwich hospital receives such seamen as are disabled from further service, and provides for the widows and children of such as are killed. The hospital is supported by Government, and by sixpence a month out of every seaman’s wages. No seamen on board her Majesty’s ship can be arrested for any debt unless the same be sworn to amount to at least twenty pounds, though a soldier may be arrested for a debt which extends to half the sum.

A poultice thus made is, to the surgeon, what well-made stock is to the cooks, a foundation to be seasoned or medicined with laudanum, or poppy-water, with carrot or horse-radish juice, or with decoctions of herbs, with which the patient or the doctor may be inclined to medicate it, instead of loading an already irritable and very sensitive part with a heap of hard poppy-shells, or scraped carrots, or horse-radish, called poppy, carrot, and horse-radish poultices, but which increase rather than allay the sufferer’s pains.

When vegetables are used to medicate poultices, they should be bruised, put into a pot, covered with water, and simmered for about half an hour. The liquid is then to be strained off, and mixed with bread-and-water or linseed to the consistence of a poultice.

The act of powdering requires great tact and practice to perform it neatly and rapidly. After the object has been broken into small pieces by blows from the pestle, a grinding action is required; this should at first be given by striking the fragments, not in the centre of the mortar, but towards the side furthest from the operator; the pestle, by this means, grinds over them in its descent to the centre, and much more rapidly accomplishes their division than if mere blows are given. After the object has been divided to a certain extent, blows are entirely useless, and a grinding in circles becomes requisite; if the circle is confined to one part of the mortar, the same portions get rubbed over and over again, the others escaping; this is avoided by constantly and regularly altering the size of the circles. If they are commenced in the centre, they should gradually increase in size until the sides are reached, and then contract again, and so on. By this means, the whole of the powder is brought under the action of the pestle, and the operation is thus much quicker than if performed at random. One great fault usually committed in powdering, is the endeavour to operate on too large a quantity of material at one time. The operation is much more rapidly conducted if small portions are taken; and if the material is tough, and contains much fibrous matter, the process may be very much shortened by removing those parts which are sufficiently powdered, by sifting from time to time through a sieve. This may be objectionable, however, from the fine powder escaping into the air. In this case, the following contrivance will be found useful:—A cylindrical tea-canister of the requisite size is taken, with a loosely-fitting lid (or if tight, the lid may be enlarged by four slits being made partly up the sides); a bag of lawn is dropped into the canister, the top being turned over the edge; the powder to be sifted is put in the bag, the lid put on, and, by tapping and shaking, the finest portions pass into the canister without any escaping into the air.

Chopping is usually performed in the kitchen, with a large common knife; but is more speedily done by some of the improved contrivances similar to the following:—The chopping-board should be made of hard wood, with the grain at right angles to the surface of the board, by which it is rendered much more durable than if they are parallel to it. The chopping-knives should be fixed at right angles to the handles, and may be either of the following patterns. If a large quantity of material has to be acted on, we would recommend a board as above, not less than three inches thick, and smooth on both sides, so that either may be used, of the requisite size—say, eighteen inches or two feet in diameter. On this should stand a loose bottomless tub, to confine the materials, and the whole resting on the floor, should be used with a knife, sufficiently long in the handle to be employed by a person standing erect, and it should have a small cross-bar for the hands, as shown in the figure below.

Small chopping-knives are sold, consisting of three blades rivetted together, and a very convenient one is made by fastening, at convenient distances a number of flat circular discs, sharpened at the edges, on to a central axis with a handle at each end.

Many substances, such as stale bread, dried herbs, &c., may be very conveniently powdered by rubbing them through a wire sieve, of the requisite degree of fineness. Herbs intended for use in this way, should be dried as rapidly as possible, without being scorched, in small heaps, before the fire; parsley and others done this way, may be powdered, retaining their bright green colour, and flavour, both of which are preserved, if they are corked tightly in bottles, and kept in a dry dark cupboard. The use of waxed paper to preserve dried powders in, or for tying them down in jars, or generally as a very good substitute for bladder, will often be found convenient. It is readily made by laying a sheet of smooth stout paper on a warm iron plate, as the top of a kitchen oven; on this place the thin tissue or other paper to be waxed; put a piece of wax on it, and as it melts rub it over, spreading it evenly. One end of a cork, covered with two thicknesses of linen, answers very well for a rubber. If a hot plate is not at hand, the sheet of paper may be held before the fire, and rubbed over, as it warms, with the cut edge of a cake of white wax; but this requires the co-operation of two persons.

1st. A system of bones, displayed in the engraving, which in the human subject amount to 240; 2. Cartilages or gristles, which unite the bones, and contribute to their motion, assisted by ligaments, membranes, and bundles of muscles, called flesh, all relating to the strength and motion of the animal. Anatomy also discovers nerves, or white threads, which extend from the brain and the spinal marrow through all the organs, and are the means of sensation, and instruments of the will. It appears, also, that the body is sustained and warmed by means of blood flowing from the heart through the arteries, to every part of the body, and brought back by veins. There is also a stomach for digestion, and glands for separating and assimilating the element; and intestines to carry off what is not appropriated. The whole is a wonderful system, and a most interesting object of study.

1. The Tuscan, (from Tuscany,) or most simple.

2. The Doric, (from Dorians, Greece,) durable and noble.

3. The Ionic, (from Ionia,) a mean between the plainness of the Doric and the elegance of the Corinthian.

4. The Corinthian, (from Corinth,) most noble, rich, and delicate.

5. The Composite, (compounded of parts of the other,) is much like the Corinthian.

The style called Gothic was most extensively used after the decline of the Romans, and first adopted in the erection of churches about the tenth or twelfth century, and distinguished by its pointed arch.

The winding of the wire should proceed from the top of the cylinder, leaving a piece about one foot in length, which, passing down laterally between the interior of the first helix and the wooden cylinder, and emerging at bottom, is pushed through a hole at K, passed under the board, and connected with the bottom of a binding screw, L. The last coil of the first helix is then laid bare, by removing the covering away a little at each side; and to this is fixed a piece of uncovered copper wire, which is pushed through a hole at a, and connected under the board with an upright piece of brass wire, 1. The top of the second helix is next laid bare, and connected in a similar manner with the upright piece of brass, or power, 2, by a piece of copper wire passing downwards between its interior and the exterior of the first helix, and through a hole at b. And so from top and bottom alternately, are the remaining helices connected with the other powers; thus, the bottom of the third helix through the hole at c, with the 3rd power; the top of the fourth, &c.; until the top of the eighth is connected with the 8th power. Then the exterior end of the continued helix, which is the bottom coil of the ninth helix, is passed through a hole at i, and connected with the bottom of power 9; which power is also connected, by a wire passed upwards through a hole at j, then along the outside of the helix and through the top of the cylinder, with the bottom of the upright G. The binding screw N is similarly connected, through a hole at M, with the upright F. The wire which passes under the board from N to M is joined in the middle to another piece of wire connected with the bottom of the binding screw S. Between the cylinder and the powers is fixed a piece of brass wire, OP, bent twice at right angles, the bottom of which is connected with the binding screw Q. This brass wire has a moveable piece of brass, R, which may glide along it, and rest on either of the powers required. The coil should be covered with leather, the bottom of the board with baize. Care should be taken that there be no metallic contact any where, except in the parts mentioned. The coil is then complete; its expense is 16s. L and N are screws for battery, S and Q for patients. In galvanizing invalids it is a matter of primary importance that the cross current should have the same direction as the nervous fluid. It is a forgetfulness of this which renders futile the attempts of many galvanists. Again, the instruments sold by philosophical instrument makers have generally two continued helices, in one of which the voltaic circuit is completed, in the other a current is induced, which is utterly useless as a remedial agent.

There are two states in which we find heat. In the one case we recognize it by the touch, in the other we cannot find it out by such means. The air has a very large quantity of heat hidden in it, even when it seems coolest to you. It contains so much heat, even in the depth of winter, that the quantity contained in a few square inches, if squeezed out, is sufficient to light a piece of tinder.

We have drawn here a figure of a solid square, or cube, that we may be fully understood. Each face has four edges, as in fig. 1, and there are six faces to the solid square, as in fig. 2. Now if you had a vessel which would hold about twelve square inches or cubes of air, and could so manage as to squeeze it into the size of one square inch, so much heat would be given out that a piece of tinder would be set on fire by it.

If you procure a piece of thick iron wire, and hammer the end of it on an anvil or hard stone, you will find that after a few blows it has become very hot. You have compressed the particles of the iron, and the latent, or hidden, heat, has become sensible to the touch. The heat kept the particles or atoms of iron apart from each other; but when you have hammered them close, your hammering will produce no more heat. There is only a certain quantity of juice to be squeezed out of an orange, and so the quantity of heat in the iron is limited. You have learned by this experiment, which any one may perform with a piece of soft iron wire, that heat has a tendency to separate the particles of which bodies are composed, and make them larger. This separation is called expansion. A bar of iron, when heated, becomes longer; and hence, if the iron pieces or plates upon which the wheels of the railway engines run were to be placed in winter with their ends close against each other, they would be so expanded by the warmth of the sun in summer, that they would become crooked, and the line would be unsafe to travel upon. This expansion of bodies by heat is taken advantage of by persons who wish to measure sensible heat.

In a second or two the air in the round bulb of the tube will begin to contract, and the inky water will ascend the tube, and perhaps rush into the bulb. When all upward motion in the water has ceased, place your hand upon the bulb, and you will then, by warming the air inside, cause it to expand, and the water in the tube will again descend. Pure water would answer as well as the mixture of ink, but the latter is more easily seen as it ascends and descends the tube.

If you place the bulb and bottle near the fire, the air in the bulb will be expanded still further. Your thermometer just shows that heat has been taken from the fire and combined with the air in the bulb. But how was the heat conveyed from the fire to the bulb? By what means was it communicated?

Heat is conveyed in two different manners. A heated globe of iron, if suspended in the air, would send out rays, or straight lines of heat, in every direction, as in this diagram. When heat is given off and conveyed to another body by rays in this manner, it is said to be by radiation. To illustrate the other mode in which heat travels, hold the end of a piece of iron wire, of three inches in length, in the flame of a small taper. The radiated heat from the flame you will scarcely feel, but the heat will be speedily conducted to your fingers along the wire, which will become so hot that you will scarcely be able to hold it. When heat is thus conveyed by a metal or other solid body from a fire or flame to any other body, it is said to be by conduction.

Metals conduct heat rapidly, and hence metal tools which require to be used while hot have the handles covered with wood, which does not allow the warmth to pass from the iron to the hand of the workman. You could hold a piece of wood of much shorter length than the wire, in the taper’s flame, and feel no inconvenience. These circumstances prove that wood does not conduct or convey heat as rapidly as iron; it is therefore said to be a bad conductor; in other words, its power of transmitting warmth is small. Woollen cloth is a still worse conductor; and for that reason, when the flat iron is used by the laundress, she protects her fingers with a piece of folded flannel, which does not allow the heat from the handle of the iron to burn her hand.

You have seen how the air is expanded by heat, and contracted by cold; it is important, moreover, to understand, that in a cubic inch of cold air there are more particles than in a cubic inch of heated air.

The figure A represents a cold cubic inch of air, which we will suppose contains sixteen atoms or particles, of air. If to this be applied a very small quantity of heat, it would expand to the size of B, without any increase of the number of particles, or in its weight. A cubic inch (as indicated by the dotted lines C and D), would then only contain nine atoms or particles of air.

If the cold cubic inch weighed sixteen grains, the hot cubic inch would only weigh nine. If bodies are expanded by heat, they contain fewer particles in a given space; if they are contracted by the removal of that heat, they contain more particles in the same space. Some of these particles would be oxygen and some nitrogen, always bearing the same proportion.

Now, it would require considerable skill for any one to take the above and present them, in their present order, in a perfect composition. Yet it may be done:—

Preliminary Cautions. 1st, that they should not be performed after a full meal; 2nd, that there should not be any ligatures or tight strings, straps, &c., on any part of the body, but that the clothes should fit easily and loosely; 3rd, that the body should not be too warmly clothed during the exercises, but that an additional wrapper should be provided, to cover the body as soon as they are finished; by this means cold will be avoided; 4th, that the exercises should generally be performed in a room, in preference to the open air; 5th, that due regard must be paid to the health, age, and strength of the pupils exercised.

Necessary Apparatus. The first things to be attended to are the cautions we have given above; and then the necessary apparatus, consisting of dumb-bells, back-board, clubs, wands or poles, triangles, and elastic cord, must be procured.

The Dumb-Bells we advise are constructed as follows. To the staff a (which is made of oak or ash, six inches long, and one and a quarter inches in diameter), is fixed a hemisphere (b), with a male screw (e); and to this part is attached at both ends another hemisphere (c), fitted with a female screw, so that when these hemispheres are screwed together they form a complete sphere as represented by d, in fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Back-Boards should be fitted to the person requiring them, unless they are used for the back-board exercise, in which case they will be as represented in fig. 2. When not used for this exercise, they are fastened to the back and shoulders by means of straps (a b, c d,) which pass round the shoulders and are made to buckle in front. These straps can be lengthened or shortened by passing them through holes in the board (g, g, g, g), left for that purpose. The lower part of the board is fastened round the waist by a strap (e f), which buckles in front.

Fig. 2.

The dimensions of the short back-board are as follow, for a large size: length twelve or thirteen inches, breadth ten inches, lower part five inches, and upper part four inches. These measurements can be reduced according to circumstances, age, &c.

The Long Back-Board should be broad in the centre, as in fig. 3, so that the flat part may reach across the back of the shoulders, and the handles (a b) be long enough to hold in the hands when the arms are extended. Some of these back-boards vary from six feet in length to only three feet eight inches.

Fig. 3.

The Clubs for calisthenics should be made hollow, as in the annexed figure (fig. 4) varying from twenty to twenty-eight inches in length, and be of a proportionate width. The top is made to screw on, so that the inside may be loaded as recommended for the dumb-bells. By this means, the weight to be forced through the air can be proportioned to the strength or power of the individual to propel it.

Fig. 4.

The Wands, or Poles, should be light, smooth, and sufficiently thick not to bend. They vary in length according to the person’s height that is to use them, the rule being, that the poles shall be of the same length as the height of the person requiring them.

The Triangle is a bar of wood attached to a cord at each end; the two cords meet above, as shown in fig. 5, so as to form two sides of a triangle, of which the bar forms the third. A cord is attached to the upper part of the triangle, and this, passing over a pulley, enables the teacher to lower or raise the bar so as to suit the height of the pupil.

Fig. 5.

The Elastic Cord is one of the latest improvements in calisthenic exercises. It consists of two handles (a b), of a triangular form, to which is attached an elastic cord, made of vulcanized india-rubber. They may be obtained at most toy-shops, and vary in price from two to five shillings, according to the size.

Fig. 6.

The pupil should commence the exercises with the dumb-bell practice.

The Dumb-Bell Practice. The dumb-bells are not to be used at first; but when the pupil has become proficient in the following exercises, then the dumb-bells are to be held firmly in the hands, which are to perform the same motions directed below.

Position of Attention. When the word attention is given by the teacher, the pupil is to draw back the shoulders, so as to make them square; the heels are to be placed in a line, and closed; the knees straight, the toes turned out an angle of 60 degrees, the arms hanging close to the body, the elbows turned in close to the side, the hands open to the front, the little finger lightly touching the dress, and the thumb close to the forefinger. The abdomen is to be slightly drawn in, and the chest advanced, but without constraint; the body upright, inclining a little forward, so that the weight of it may be principally on the fore-part of the feet; the head erect, and the eye looking straight to the front, as in fig. 7.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

First Practice. One.—At the word one, raise the hands and bring the tips of the fingers in a line with, and pointing towards the shoulders, the body inclining forward, the head erect, and shoulders kept well back, with the elbows close to the side, as in fig. 8.

Two.—Dart the hands straight to the front, with straight arms, the palms of the hands close together, the thumbs close to the forefinger, nearly in a line with the chin, as in fig. 9.

Fig. 9.

These two motions are to be repeated from two to one, and again from one to two, several times before commencing three.

Three.—The hands are thrown back with straight arms in a line with the shoulders the palms of the hands to the front, the thumbs close to the forefingers, the head erect, and shoulders kept well back, the body inclining forward, the heels raised off the ground, so that the weight of the body rests on the fore-part of the feet, as in fig. 10.

These motions are to be repeated from three to two, and from two to three several times before commencing four.

Four.—The arms are to be brought gradually by the side to the first position, (fig. 7).

Second Practice. One.—The hands are to be brought smartly up with the palms of the hands to the front, the tips of the fingers in a line with the shoulder, pointing upwards, the elbows to be kept close to the side and well back, so as to square the shoulders; the head is to be held erect, and the body slightly inclined forward, as in fig. 11.

Fig. 10.

Two.—Raise the elbows a little so as to draw them upwards and backwards; then bring the hands smartly down to the side, as in fig. 12, and assume the position of attention (fig. 7).

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Long Back-Board Exercises. The long back-boards (fig. 3.), are to be held by the handle with the left hand, and the right hand is to be placed on the top of the back-board, while the other end rests upon the ground between the feet, as in fig. 13.

Attention. When this word is given the heels are to be brought in a line, and the back-board brought across in front of the thighs at the full extent of the arms, holding it by the handles with both hands (the backs of the hands to the front), as in fig. 14.

One.—The back-board is to be gradually raised from the position of attention, with the arms straight, until the flat part of it is horizontal and over the head, the tips of the fingers in front, and the knuckles behind; the body is to be kept well forward on the fore-part of the feet, and the head erect, as will be seen in fig. 15.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

Two.—At this word the back-board is to be lowered from position one (the arms being contracted), and it is to be brought across the back part of the shoulders (as in fig. 16), still keeping the body well forward, and the head erect.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

In the last position, the pupil will then be required to walk slowly round the room, quickly, and to practise the balance-step without gaining ground.

When the various exercises have been frequently repeated, the word “steady” will be given, when the position of attention (fig. 14) is to be resumed, and at the command “stand at ease,” that position (fig. 13), with the back-board, is at once to be taken.

1. Dry or Cubical Coal.—This species is very black and shining. It generally comes from the pit in large masses; and it burns freely, with much flame and heat. This is by far the best coal for blast-furnaces, but is not so desirable for domestic use.

2. Steam Coal, sometimes called Smithy Coal. This species, which ignites readily, and produces comparatively little smoke, is much valued for its excellence in the furnaces of steam-boilers. It contains more carbon than bituminous coal, and more hydrogen than anthracite.

3. Cannel, or Gas-Coal. This species does not shine, but has, on the contrary, rather a dull appearance before it is ignited. When burning, it emits a most brilliant flame. As the roots of fir are used instead of candles in the winter nights, by the peasantry in some parts of Scotland, so this coal is made to answer the same end in some districts of England, and also in the south of Scotland. Hence its name, Cannel, the Lancashire word for candle.

4. Bituminous Coal. This species swells and cakes when heated. It is more abundant than other kinds, and is well adapted for household use. Bituminous coal, in a raw state, is not suitable for the blast-furnace.

5. Anthracite Coal. This species is very black, very brittle, and very shining. When sold, it is generally broken up into small pieces, but there is not much dust. It produces almost no smoke, and scarcely any ashes. Where it can be obtained at the same price as bituminous coal, it is more economical for domestic purposes. Anthracite coal is abundant in Wales and Ireland. In Ireland, it is called Kilkenny coal, in Scotland, blind coal, and in England, stone coal.

After the fire has been made in the manner described, let it be replenished during the day with anthracite, not bituminous coal. Anthracite yields no smoke, and burns with such an intense heat that it consumes any smoke which rises from the pitchy Newcastle coal at the bottom of the grate.

Abolish poker and tongs. These time-honoured implements are worse than useless when a fire has been made on the smoke-consuming principle. Allow no poking, unless you are willing to have your coal wasted and your fire spoiled. Instead of the burnished, clumsy, steel biped, which is always in the way, get a blacksmith to make for you a light instrument like a sugar-tongs, about a foot long, and without hinge or joint.

Whatever kind of coal you use, never put on much at a time when replenishing the fire. Even with Newcastle coal, you will have comparatively little smoke, if you put on only a thin layer about once in half an hour or so. When a large shovelful of bituminous coal has been thrown on the fire, there is always a dense smoke for some time; but when only a thin sprinkling is put on, if the fire below is good, the gases emitted will produce flame and heat.

Preserve the coal-ashes which are usually thrown away as worthless. When you have a sufficient quantity, add to them an equal bulk of small coal or coal-dust from your cellar, and then pour a little water on the mixture. Use this compost at the back of the fire. It will burn brightly and pleasantly; only a little dust will remain unconsumed; and thus the trouble of sifting will be saved besides.

If a tolerably good fire be required—one nearly filling the grate—having first cleared out the ashes, fill up with coal, or coal and cinders, to nearly the top of the grate, then place pieces of coal round the ends and back of the grate, making a sort of wall about four inches high on three sides of the grate, open in front,—this will leave a space about the size of half a brick in the centre; in this space place the shavings, and over these very carefully the sticks, or wood,—(there is no material for lighting fires better or cheaper than the London firewood at a half-penny per bundle, one bundle making four fires,)—place the bits of wood about half an inch apart in one direction, the ends resting upon the walls of coal at each end of the grate, place little pieces of good unburnt coal, about the size of walnuts, between the pieces of wood about half an inch apart; over this lay another row of wood crosswise and bits of coal as before, another bit or two of rather thicker pieces of wood crossing these, and bits of coal over all, and over these some good cinders, and rather larger coal; light the shavings, and in a very short time there will be a good fire down to the bottom of the grate, without poking or blowing, or any further trouble. The coal wall round the three sides prevents the wood and coal from tumbling over, gives an open space in the centre for the air to enter all parts of the grate—and is, to use a military phrase, the key to the position. When a smaller fire is required, do not fill up the grate so high with coal before lighting, but let the fire be made nearer the bottom, or if you please, quite at the bottom of the grate.

In the following figure O R is the object, rays from which cross at G, in the object-glass A D, forming an image, which is viewed by E Y, the eye-glass, by the eye at H.

D object-glass, E concave eye-glass, carrying parallel rays to the eye.

The first and second are the common telescope and microscope, the eye-glass being usually compounded of three eye-glasses to set the object erect; and the third is the Galilean or primitive telescope, and also the opera-glass.

The following represents a mounted telescope with rack-work for vertical and horizontal motions.

The following is a section of the tubes with the position of the object and eye-glasses.

Time is, therefore, an acquired plan or mode of considering motions or events, and our views can have no exact relation to its absolute properties as an universal totality. Everything is relative which is not infinite; and all are evolved and absorbed by the totalities of infinite time and space. Time in the ancient mythology was drawn as an old man, with a scythe and hour-glass.

The following are the chief maladies which affect birds, and their remedies, the efficiency of which we have proved upon our own. Indeed the variety of birds, as well as the variety of their food, require also a difference of treatment in their maladies; and in speaking of each species, we shall have occasion to notice how their peculiar diseases may be cured, when the general remedies are not suitable to their nature.

1. The Pip. This is properly a cold, in which the upper skin of the tongue becomes hardened by fever, and the orifices of the nose are stopped. In large birds, therefore, this skin is separated from the tongue, and in doing this, it must be commenced beneath and behind. Thus the pores of the tongue are re-opened, and the secretion requisite for digestion can be reproduced, and taste and appetite made to return. A pill, consisting of butter, pepper, and garlic, generally frees them from this complaint. They may also be made to drink pectoral tea made of speedwell. To remove the stoppage of the orifices of the nose, a small feather is drawn through them.

This malady may be detected by the yellow colour at the root of the beak, the ruffled feathers of the head, the frequent opening of the beak, and the dryness of the tongue.

2. For Rheum, which is indicated by frequent sneezing and shaking the head, we have found no better remedy, especially when the bird has been valuable to us, and we have not desired nature to work alone, than giving it some drops of pectoral elixir in pectoral tea; or, when it would not drink of its own accord, to drench it with it. To a sick chicken we have given twenty drops in half a pint of tea.

3. Consumption. It is usually the result of unnatural food which interrupts the functions of digestion, and it is recognised by the bird inflating and distending itself. The feathers are ruffled, and their flesh dwindles. As yet we know no better remedy than to give to such birds a common spider, which purges them, and to lay in their water a rusted nail, which strengthens the stomach. They must, at the same time, be fed with the best description of their appropriate food. In birds which will eat vegetables, we have always found this, and especially water-cresses, the surest remedy against consumption, or waste. Usually, birds suffering from this malady have a voracious appetite for green food. We fed a Siskin, which had already wasted, for three successive days with nothing but water-cresses, and on the fourth it recommenced singing.

4. Constipation. This malady is detected by observing the birds every moment bending the venter to evacuate, and being unable to do so. If a spider does not cure, the smooth head of a pin must be dipped in linseed oil, and gently thrust into the rectum; such a clyster is usually effective. In birds which eat meal worms, constipation is removed by squeezing the inside of a meal worm and filling it with linseed oil and saffron; the bird thus willingly swallows the laxative, and the effect is certain.

5. Dysentery. Birds frequently suffer from this before they become accustomed to the food of the aviary, and then generally die. They evacuate every instant a chalky substance, which usually hangs about the feathers of the vent, and is so acrid that it inflames the rectum and anus. In such cases, occasionally, the internal application of the rust of iron, by placing it in the drinking vessel, and a linseed oil clyster, have been serviceable. But we know no positive remedy yet, and have only found that ailing birds may sometimes be saved when food is supplied them which is most appropriate to their nature. Many persons pluck away the feathers of the tail and vent, and rub their hinder parts with fresh butter, and mix the hard boiled yolk of eggs with their food. But this remedy we have found rarely followed by a successful result.

6. The Stoppage of the Fat-glands, or the Pimples. Every bird has above the rump a gland, which secretes the oil required by the bird to smear its plumage, to retain them supple, and to prevent moisture passing through. In confinement, birds neglect the frequent pressure of this gland, as they are more rarely exposed to getting wet than when at liberty, and it consequently becomes hardened or inflamed. If the bird is seen sitting and drooping, the tail bending downwards, or if the feathers upon the rump are observed to be ruffled, and that the bird frequently pecks at it, it must be examined to see if the swollen gland be not the cause. This may frequently be softened by the application of very fresh butter, mixed up with a good deal of sugar, the aperture being enlarged by gently distending it with a needle, or a small knife; but a lead salve, or rather a salve of litharge of silver, white lead, wax, and olive oil, which must be ordered at the apothecary’s, opens it best. The usual remedy is to pierce it with a needle, or to cut off the hardened gland. But this process, whilst it removes the stoppage, destroys the gland, and birds thus healed usually die at moulting, from wanting the oil requisite to smear their feathers. Tscheiner has the following observations upon this malady:—“If this evil have not yet too severely affected the health of the bird, it may be sought to be remedied by puncturing the gland, compressing it frequently, bathing the bird with a syringe, and plucking out some of the feathers of the tail. The accumulated fat is absorbed in the renewal of the feathers, when the gland resumes its natural functions.”

7. Epilepsy. A very usual malady of birds. The abundance and goodness of food, and the want of exercise, whereby much and thick blood is produced, are the chief causes of this. We have found no better remedy than to dip birds, when thus suffering, frequently into ice-cold water, and to pare their nails so closely that some drops of blood start. Also a few drops of olive-oil given internally have been serviceable. Large birds may be bled in the veins at the side of the feet. But usually birds which suffer from this sickness die eventually of it.

8. Moulting is also a malady. At this period it is requisite to attend to them very carefully, and to change their diet without giving them delicacies.

9. Birds in confinement also suffer much in their feet. These must be constantly so carefully cleansed that the skin is not at all ruptured. The large thick scales in front of the legs must also be removed once a year, but with great precaution.

10. Tympany. At one part of the body, or frequently all over it, the skin is puffed up as tense often as a drum. A small puncture must be made with a needle, whereby the air escapes, and the bird usually becomes sound again. We have had Skylarks which suffered from this malady, and in the next quarter of an hour, when freed from the air, resumed singing, although previously they had been sick to death.

11. Twirling. This is properly no sickness, but yet a very general evil, and a habit acquired by seed-eating birds in cages, where they turn and twist their head and neck so far back as to overbalance themselves. There is no better mode of breaking them of this evil habit than, as soon as it is detected, to put a cover over the cage, and so prevent their seeing anything above them; as this is the cause of their twirling themselves.

12. Parasites. If birds are sometimes restless, especially of a night, and if they are observed to be frequently feeling with their beak about the abdomen, back, or wings, they must be examined to see if no small yellow insects (lice or mites) may be discovered upon the body, or between the feathers. If this be the case, they must be sprinkled by means of a small syringe with water, in which quicksilver has been steeped, or with a greatly diluted infusion of tobacco, for several successive days, whereby the vermin are destroyed, or chased away. Another mode of getting rid of the lice is to bathe the birds frequently, and to give them daily fresh or dry sand, and to be very particular in keeping them exceedingly clean.

13. If it be found that the birds become unnaturally fat, which is often the case, especially during autumn, in some species of warblers, their too nutritious food must be changed, and Swedish turnips be mixed in it, and dry ants’ eggs put into their drink, which much checks their corpulency.

14. Birds in confinement are subject to another malady which we may call the amatory fever. It occurs usually in the month of May, when the sexual impulse is strongest. Birds that are attacked by it usually cease to sing about this time, droop, raise their feathers, waste away, and die. Birds that are confined in cages are first attacked by this malady. The cause appears to us to be the uniformity and tediousness of confinement, as well as their desire for a female. We cured several suffering thus, merely by hanging them frequently at the window. They were almost immediately cheered, and seemed to forget their sorrow, as well as their desire for freedom and pairing, in the general hilarity peculiar to singing birds.

2.—Mutton or Lamb.

3.—Pork.

4.—Veal.

5.—Venison.

By a fixed pulley, we mean one which merely revolves on its axis, but does not change its place. The power is applied to one end of the cord and the weight to the other.

Fig. 1.

The action of the pulley may be readily understood from that of the lever. Let c, fig. 1 be the axis of the pulley, b the point to which the weight is attached; a the point of application of the power; draw the lines, c b, c a—they represent the arms of a lever—and the law of the equilibrium of a lever, therefore, applies in this case also; and as these are necessarily equal to each other, the pulley will be in equilibrio when the weight and power are equal.

If the direction in which the power is applied, instead of being P a, is P′ a, the same reasoning holds good. For, on drawing C a, as before, it is obvious that b c a represent a bent lever of equal arms. The condition of equilibrium is, therefore, the same.

The fixed pulley does not increase the power, but it renders it more available, by permitting us to apply it in any desired direction.

To prove the properties of the pulley experimentally, hang to the ends of its cord equal weights; they will remain in equilibrio. Or, if the power be increased, so as to make the weight ascend, the vertical distances passed over are equal.

The moveable pulley is represented at fig. 2. Its peculiarity is that, besides the motion on its own axis, it also has a progressive one. Let b be the axis of the pulley, and to it the weight, W, is attached the power as applied at a. Draw the diameter, a c, then c is the fulcrum of a c, which is in reality a lever of the third order in which distance, a c, of the power is twice that, b c, of the weight. Consequently “the moveable pulley doubles the effect of the power,” and the distance traversed by the power is twice that traversed by the weight.

Fig. 2.

A moveable pulley is sometimes called “a runner;” and as it would be often inconvenient to apply the power in the upward direction, as at a, there is commonly associated with the runner a fixed pulley, which without changing the value of the power, enables us to vary the direction of its action.

Systems of pulleys are arrangements of sheaves, moveable and fixed.

When one fixed pulley acts on a number of moveable ones, equilibrium is maintained, when the power and weight are to each other as 1 to that power of 2 which equals the number of the moveable pulleys. Thus, if there be, as in fig. 3, three moveable pulleys, the power is to the weight as 1:2′ that is 1:8; consequently, on such a system, a given power will support an eightfold weight.

Fig. 3.

When several moveable and fixed pulleys are employed, as in fig. 4, equilibrium is obtained when the power equals the weight divided by twice the number of moveable pulleys. The weight being equally divided between the six lines, it follows that each is drawn by one-sixth of the weight, W. consequently, if sixty pounds weight is suspended to the bottom, each line would be drawn upon by a force of 10 pounds. If we wish to keep this machine in a state of equilibrium, we must attach a weight, P, of ten pounds to the end of the line.

Fig. 4.

In such systems of pulleys there is a great loss of power arising from the friction of the sheaves against the sides of the blocks, and on their axles. In White’s pulley this is to a considerable extent avoided. This contrivance is represented in fig. 5. It consists of several sheaves of unequal diameters, all turned on one common mass, and working on one common axis. The diameters of these, in the upper blocks, are as the numbers 2, 4, 6, &c., and in the lower 1, 3, 5, &c.; consequently, they all revolve in equal times and the rope passes without sliding or scraping upon the grooves.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Let a b, be a wheel, c d, fig. 6, its axle, and suppose the circumference of the wheel to be eight times as great as the circumference of the axle; then a power, P, equal to one pound, hanging by the cord I, which goes round the wheel, will balance a weight, W, of eight pounds, hanging by the rope K, which goes round the axle; and as the friction on the pivots, E F, or gudgeons of the axle is but small, a small addition to the power, will cause it to descend, and raise the weight; but the weight will rise with only an eighth part of the velocity wherewith the power descends, and, consequently, through no more than an eighth part of an equal space in the same time. If the wheel be pulled round by the handles, S S, the power will be increased in proportion to their length. G, is a ratchet-wheel on one end of the axle, with a catch H, to fall in its teeth.

The law of equilibrium is, that “the power must be to the weight as the radius of the axle is to that of the wheel.”

This instrument is, evidently, nothing but a modification of the lever; it may be regarded as a continuously acting lever, in fact, it is sometimes called “the perpetual lever.” In its mode of action, the common lever operates in an intermitting way, and, as it were, by small steps at a time. A mass which is forced up by a lever a short distance must be temporarily propped, and the lever re-adjusted before it can be brought into action again; but the wheel and axle continues its operation constantly in the same direction.

Fig. 7.

The inconvenience of having a large wheel and very slender axle may be avoided, without lessening the mechanical advantage, by employing a machine called the “Chinese wheel and axle,” which consists of two cylinders, one larger than the other, turning about the same axis. The weight is attached to a pulley, which plays on a long cord, which is coiled round both axles in contrary directions. When the winch is turned, one end of the cord uncoils from the smaller cylinder, and is wound round the larger; thus the weight is elevated at each turn, through a space equal to half of the difference between the circumference of the two cylinders. Therefore the advantage of this machine, with its pulley, is in the ratio of the diameter of the larger cylinder to half its excess above that of the lesser one. (Fig. 7.)

Fig. 8.

That this is its mode of action may be understood from considering fig. 8, in which let c be the common centre of the axle, c b, and of the wheel c a, a the point of application of the power P, and b that of the weight, W. Draw the line a c b; it evidently represents a lever of the first order, of which the fulcrum is c, and from the principles of the lever, it is easy to demonstrate the law of equilibrium of this machine, as just given. Further, it is immaterial in what direction the power be applied, as P′ at the point a′ for a c b still forms a bent lever, and the same principle still holds good.

Fig. 9.

The effect of the wheel depends upon the superiority of the radius, or diameter of the wheel, to that of the axle. In fig. 9 we see that the weight, W, corresponds to the counteracting force, P, in an inverse ratio to the arms of the lever; that is, inversely to the radii, a b, and d c, of the wheel. Let us suppose that the radius, a b, of the axle, is four times less than the radius, d c, of the wheel, we may equipoise a weight of eighty pounds by a force of twenty pounds.

Sometimes the wheel is replaced by a winch, as in fig. 10; it is then called a “windlass,” if the motion is vertical; but if it be horizontal, as in fig. 11, the machine is called a “capstan,” which differs from the windlass in having its revolving axis placed vertically. The circumference is pierced with holes which receive long levers, called capstan-bars, by which it is worked by men, who walk round the capstan and make it revolve by pressing the ends of the levers forward.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

The tread-mill is another variety. In this case the weight of several people treading on the circumference of a long wheel causes it to revolve. The paddle-wheel of a steam-boat acts on the same principle; the water, which offers a resistance to the motion of the paddle-boards, is the power.

Wheels and axles are often made to act upon one another by the aid of cogs, as in clock-work and mill machinery. In these cases the cogs on the periphery of the wheel take the name of teeth, those on the axle the name of leaves, and the axle itself is called a pinion.

The law of equilibrium of such machines may be easily demonstrated to be, that the power multiplied by the product of the number of teeth, in all the wheels, is equal to the weight multiplied by the product of the number of leaves in all the pinions.

Fig. 12.

A system of wheel and pinion work is represented at fig. 12. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that in it, as in all other cases, the law of virtual velocities holds good—the power multiplied by the velocity of the power is equal to the weight multiplied by the velocity of the weight.

In the construction of such machinery, attention has to be paid to the form of the teeth, so that they may not scrape or jolt upon one another. Several of them should be in contact at once, to diminish the risk of fracture and the wear.

If the teeth of a wheel be in the direction of radii from its centre it is called a spur-wheel.

If the teeth are parallel to the axis of the wheel it is called a crown-wheel.

If the teeth are oblique to the axis of the wheel it is called a beveled wheel.

By combining these different forms of wheels suitably together, the resulting motion can be transferred to any required plane. Thus, by a pair of beveled-wheels motion round a vertical axis may be transferred to a horizontal one, or, indeed, one in any other direction.

When a pinion is made to work on a toothed-bar, it constitutes a rack. This contrivance is under the same law as the wheel and axle.

ACRE. Four square roods, or 160 square poles, of 5½ yards, or 4,840 square yards, i.e. 69.6 yards by 69.6 yards. The French acre is to the English, as 54 to 43; and the Irish acre is 1½ English.

The fruit, which is covered with a viscid pulp, is made by the Italians, and even in Herefordshire, into a kind of birdlime; and, as it is a favourite food of the large or missel thrush, it is thought to have given rise to the proverb, “Turdus malus sibi cacat,” applied to such as are authors of their own misfortunes. Mistletoe grows luxuriantly upon the apple or pear tribe of trees, and the oak; and Mr. Jessie describes it as flourishing upon some lime-trees in Datchet Mead, just as Shakspeare described it in his day.

The mystic uses of the mistletoe are traced to the pagan ages; it has been identified with the golden branch referred to by Virgil, in infernis; and it is affirmed to have been used in the religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans.

The Druids and Celtic nations called it all-heal and guidhel. They had an extraordinary veneration for the number three, says Vallancey, and they chose the mistletoe, because not only its berries, but its leaves also, grow in clusters of three united to one stalk; but the leaves grow in pairs only. The Druids celebrated a grand festival on the annual cutting of the mistletoe, which was held on the sixth day of the moon nearest their new year. Many ceremonies were observed: the officiating Druid being clad in white, cut the plant with a golden sickle, and received it in a white cloth.

Kissing a fair one under the mistletoe, and wishing her a happy new year as you present her with one of the berries for luck, is the Christmas custom of our times; and in some places persons try lots, for the bough with most berries, by the crackling of leaves and berries in the fire.

But at what period came mistletoe to be recognised as a Christmas evergreen? We have Christmas carols in praise of holly and ivy of even earlier date than the fifteenth century; but allusion to mistletoe can scarcely be found for two centuries later, or before the time of Herrick:

Shakspeare describes:

Tusser directs:

“Get ivye and hull (holly), woman, deck up thine house;”

And thus refers to the plant:

The seeds of mistletoe ripen late, between February and April, and birds do not willingly feed upon them as long as they can procure the berries of hawthorn, hollies, ivy, and other winter food. No sooner, however, does a late frost set in, and the ground become covered with snow in the spring, as is often the case, than birds flock to the mistletoe, and find a ready resource thus left them when all others have failed. If the ripe berries are rubbed upon the branches of trees, between February and April, they may be readily cultivated; and mistletoe has thus been found to germinate on the oak, several of the pine tribe, cherry, common laurel, Portugal laurel, holly, lime, elm, hornbeam, birch, sycamore, ash, chesnut, hazel, and acacia, as well as the apple, pear, and whitethorn tribe; but on all, except the apple and pear, the seeds soon sicken and die.

Among our Saxon ancestors the month of January was called Giulu aftera, which signified the second Goul, Giul, or Yule; or as we should say, the Second Christmas, on account of the month commencing during the joyous season of Christmas festivity, which, as Sir Roger de Coverley good-naturedly observed, could not have been contrived to take place at a happier period.

The most perfect fragment of the “wassail” exists in the usage of certain domestic banquets and corporation festivals. The person presiding stands up at the conclusion of the dinner, and drinks from a flagon, usually of silver, with a handle on each side, by which he holds it; and the toast-maker announces him as drinking “the health of his brethren out of the loving cup.” This cup, which is the ancient wassail bowl, is then passed to the guest on his left hand, and by him to his next left-hand neighbour; and as the loving cup thus passes round to all the guests in their turn, so each stands up and drinks to the president. The ceremony was formerly accompanied with a wassail song—

Twelfth Day, or Epiphany, which falls on the 6th January, or the twelfth from Christmas day, is usually kept up with great spirit in family parties, as it is usually presumed that with this night the general Christmas festivities are terminated.

The “Twelfth Night,” is the time when the ancient amusement of “choosing king and queen,” and other pleasantries are practised.

Of the distinguished individuals born in the month of January, we subjoin the following:—

The name of James Watt is so intimately connected with our railway system, as the great improver if not the inventor of the steam-engine, that any lengthened notice of him would be supererogatory. He was born at Greenock, in Scotland, in 1736; and in 1774 entered into partnership with Mr. Bolton, of Birmingham, a firm which now stands pre-eminent as one of the largest and most important manufactories in the empire. He died in 1819.

Saturn, in heathen mythology, the most celebrated of the Titans, and father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, and Ceres. The reign of Saturn was called the golden age—because the age of agriculture; but it was followed by arts, refinement, ambition, wars, money, commerce, &c.

The bass part never varies its tone, and, therefore, is called the drone, and the compass of the treble part, or chanter, is very limited.

The black spot, or hilum, on a bean, is merely the part by which it was attached to the pericardium or pod. The germ is called corculum, or heart; the side lobes are the cotyledons, or first leaves. When the seed has a downy appendage it is called the coronula.

In this inflammation, which constitutes chilblains, the sides of the small blood-vessels become paralyzed, and losing their contractility, are dilated by the pressure of the blood within them. If the inflammation be not abated, that is to say, if the little blood-vessels are not restored to their original size, and to their natural contractility, they burst, and matter will be formed, or mortification may ensue. This contractility depends upon proper nervous action in those small fibres which give life to the sides of the hair-like vessels, or small blood pipes. Any sudden shock of cold or heat deprives these nerves of their power, and induces a local paralysis. The change from cold to heat oftener produces this shock than that from heat to cold; but either sudden alternation will produce chilblain. It need hardly be said that the nerves of persons in low states of health, persons of scrofulous habits, and young persons in whom the tissues are delicate, are more liable to be locally paralyzed, in the manner described, than those persons of robust constitution having a large quantity of vitality to resist such attacks. Hence we find such invalids, scrofulous persons, and children, more liable to chilblains than others. The liability to chilblain is often an indication of a low state of health, and want of healthy vital action in the system.

When the nature of chilblain is understood, the mode of prevention will be at once perceived, viz.,—1st, to protect the parts most liable to the attack (hands and feet) from sudden alternations, either from cold to heat, or from heat to cold. 2ndly. To keep the constitution in such a healthy state as to make all parts possess such vitality as to be able to resist slight alternations in temperature.

1. Protection of the Parts. Those substances which are good non-conductors of heat are the best coverings. Woollen stockings or socks, and warm boots and shoes, come under this category. Light shoes and stockings should be worn in the house, or the feet will become so accustomed to a high temperature that they will be more sensitive to cold. Warm leather gloves, being impervious to wind, are better for the hands than woollen ones, through which the dry frosty air is apt to pierce and chap the hands. Tight wristbands, tight garters, and boots which lace or button tightly about the ankles, must be avoided, because, by preventing the proper circulation of the blood in the hands or feet, they diminish the vitality of the part, and produce an unnatural pressure on the coats or walls of the small blood-vessels. The most frequent cause of chilblain is the warming of numbed hands or feet at the fire. This habit must, of course, be relinquished entirely. Gutta-percha soles, by preventing the wearers from warming their feet at the fire, have saved hundreds from the attacks of chilblains; but such soles should not be worn in the house. After walking in the snow, or in frosty weather, the coverings of the hands and feet should be removed. Dry stockings should be put on after gently rubbing the feet with the pair which has been taken off. The fresh pair must not be warmed. It is well to wear woollen stockings when out, and cotton stockings when indoors. The use of excessively hot water when the feet are cold, has produced mortification; but the frequent washing of the feet in tepid water and soap, restores the powers of the nerves in the parts, and renders them less likely to be affected by those alternations of temperature to which they are liable to be exposed.

2. Constitutional Means of Prevention. Persons in robust health are less liable to take infection, suffer less from injuries, and when wounded, are possessed of greater powers of nature for reparation than partial or confirmed invalids. The cold of winter ought to stimulate us to exertion; and exercise is especially necessary to health in winter. Too warm clothing of the body enervates and debilitates; only sufficient clothing, therefore, should be worn. Rooms in winter are often made hotter than the air of summer; this, and bad ventilation, is another blow to constitutional strength. Enough, however, has been said on this subject to indicate the necessity of general attention to the health in persons who are excessively liable to chilblains.

3. Treatment. When the inflammation called chilblain has attacked any part, it should be considered whether it is a mere local affection, or whether it shows a constitutional state, which renders the hands or feet, or both, more liable to the attack than those parts ought to be. If hands and feet are both attacked in several spots at the same time, and this without any very evident cause, constitutional treatment is pointed out, in addition to the use of remedial agents locally; where, however, there is only a single spot on the hands or feet, and a cause (such as warming the feet at the fire) is remembered, only local treatment is necessary. The hands and feet enjoy different conditions, however, and require slightly different management. The treatment, therefore, resolves itself into three parts:—

(A.) Constitutional Treatment. Aperient medicines may be used to relieve the overloaded blood-vessels, and lessen the pressure upon the coats of the capillaries, or hair-like blood pipes of the parts affected. After this has been done, small doses of tartrate of antimony wine (which seems to constringe the enlarged vessels) may be taken with advantage. This treatment (without local means) acts as a sort of charm, and relieves full crops of chilblains on hands and feet. A drachm of the wine may be added to half a pint of water, in which a drachm of saltpetre has been dissolved. Dose: for an adult, one or two tablespoonfuls every four hours; for a child, one or two teaspoonfuls three times a-day. It should not be given in such doses as to produce vomiting. The head, neck, and chest, should be washed in cold water every morning, and brisk exercise taken at regular hours. Persons of a scrofulous habit should be particularly attentive to their general health in winter. The addition of salt to the washing water is recommended in their cases. It is not an uncommon practice for persons, after exposure to cold, to drink hot elder wine, or hot negus, or warm spirits and water; all such measures, having a tendency to produce rapid and violent reaction, are likely to render persons liable to chilblain.

(B.) Treatment of the Hands. Wash in cold water every three hours, and lather well with Windsor soap. When the hands are nearly dried with the towel, pour a little eau-de-Cologne, or milk of roses, into the palm of one hand, and rub it over the whole of both; lastly, polish with the towel till every part glows with warmth, and is so completely dry, that the lint from the towel does not stick to the skin.

(C.) Treatment of the Feet. All the plans for prevention are curative. Chilblain in the feet often assumes a more serious form than in the hands, and the application of cold water is inadmissible, especially in the case of females. The three degrees of chilblains in the feet are:—1st. The skin is red in patches, and slightly swelled, with more or less itching or tingling, with slight tenderness. 2nd. Small blisters appear, surrounded by a livid skin. 3rd. Ulceration and mortification take place. For the first two cases, which are most common, the frequent application of tepid water, (using plenty of soap,) gives relief. A leech is a useful remedy to unload the overcharged blood-vessels; or the part may be pricked with a needle, or punctured with a lancet; in such cases a soft bread-and-water poultice should be kept on during the night, applied warm, so as to encourage the flow of blood.

If this plan is objected to, the application of the following liniment is likely to be beneficial. Take of common soap liniment, or opodeldoc, six drachms; of compound tincture of camphor, and tincture of cantharides, each one drachm. If there are no blisters, a little of this must be rubbed in sharply with the hand; but where vesications appear, it must be applied with a feather, and care must be taken not to break the skin.

Or,—Dissolve flowers of sulphur in milk, and strain clean. When used, take care not to disturb any sediment of the sulphur that may remain.

Or,—Roll up a little ball of gum tragacanth, scent it with some odoriferous essence or oil, and hold it in the mouth. A little musk may be added to the ball while rolling up, where that perfume is not disagreeable.

The upper plate has been electrified, and two light figures have been placed between that plate and another plate; and for some time they jump and dance from one plate to another in a very surprising manner. The cause is not any principle of attraction or repulsion, but arises from the atoms of air which lie between the two plates being disturbed by what was done, when the upper plate was what was called electrified; whereas, in truth, it was the stratum of air lying between the two plates which was then disturbed, the plates themselves being mere boundaries of that stratum; and the effort of the atoms on the two sides of the stratum to return to their regular natural position, being greater than the weight of the light bodies, the light bodies yield to the force, and jump from side to side of the stratum, till the original natural position of the atoms of the stratum of air is restored.

For instance: the most common and almost universal dish throughout France is a large piece of plainly-boiled fresh beef, from which the soup—or “potage,” as it is there called—has been partly made, and which is separately served up as “bouilli,” accompanied by strong gravy and minced vegetables, or stewed cabbage. Now this, as constantly dressed in the French mode, is ever delicate both in fibre and flavour; while, in the English manner of boiling it, it is almost always hard and insipid. The reason of which, as explained by that celebrated cook, Carême, who superintended the kitchen of his Majesty George IV., is this:—“The meat, instead of being put down to boil, as in the English method, is in France put in the pot with the usual quantity of cold water, and placed at the corner of the fire-place, where, slowly becoming hot, the heat gradually swells the muscular fibres of the beef, dissolving the gelatinous substances therein contained, and disengaging that portion which chemists term ‘osmazome,’ and which imparts savour to the flesh—thus both rendering the meat tender and palatable, and the broth relishing and nutritive; whilst, on the contrary, if the pot be inconsiderately put upon too quick a fire, the boiling is precipitated, the fibre coagulates and hardens, the osmazome is hindered from disengaging itself, and thus nothing is obtained but a piece of tough meat, and a broth without taste or succulence.”

Meat loses, by cooking, from one-fifth to one-third of its whole weight. More is lost by roasting than by boiling meat.

The use of skewers in joints should be avoided as much as possible, as they let out the gravy; twine will answer better.

To Remove the Taint of Meat, wash it several times in cold water; then put it into plenty of cold water, into which throw several pieces of red-hot charcoal. If you fear meat will not keep till the time it is wanted, par-roast or parboil it, that is, partly cook it; it will then keep two days longer, when it may be dressed as usual, but in rather less time.

When Meat is Frozen, it should be brought into the kitchen, and laid at some distance from the fire, early in the morning; or soak the meat in cold water two or three hours before it is used: putting it near the fire, or into warm water, till thawed, should be avoided.

Meats become tenderer and more digestible, as well as better flavoured, by hanging. In summer, two days is enough for lamb and veal, and from three to four for beef and mutton. In cold weather, the latter may be kept for double that time.

Legs and shoulders should be hung knuckle downwards.

Articles that are likely to spoil should not be kept in, or laid upon wood.

Warm, moist weather, is the worst for keeping meat; the south wind is very unfavourable, and lightning very destructive; so that after their occurrence meat should be especially examined.

Much less heat is requisite to keep liquids boiling in copper and iron saucepans than in those made of tin.

Boiling Pot.

There is frequently a great waste of fuel in cooking, which arises from making liquids boil fast, when they only require to be kept slowly boiling. Count Rumford (the inventor of the Rumford stove) states that more than half the fuel used in kitchens is wasted in the above manner.

It is a sad waste to put fuel under a boiling pot. There is a degree of heat in water called the boiling point; and all the coal or wood in the world cannot make water hotter in an open vessel: it can but boil. By this waste, the cook not only loses time, but spoils the cookery.

The average time for boiling fresh meat is from eighteen to twenty minutes for every pound; thus, a joint weighing six pounds will require from one hour and three-quarter to two hours boiling. Salted meat requires rather more boiling and water; fresh killed meat longer time; and all meats longer in cold than in warm weather.

It is, however, better to be guided for time, by the thickness of the joint, than by its weight.

Dried or salted fish and meats require soaking in cold water before boiling.

Meat and poultry will lose their flavour and firmness, if left in the water after they are done; as will also fish, which will break to pieces.

The water in which fish, meat, or poultry has been boiled should be saved; this pot-liquor, as it is called, may be made into soup.

Slow boiling is very important for all meats to ensure their tenderness; fast boiling always makes them hard and tough, less plump, and of darker colour, than when they are boiled gradually.

Skimming the pot will alone ensure the good colour and sweetness of the meat; a little cold water and salt will aid in throwing up the scum: milk put into the pot does good in few cases only; and wrapping in a cloth is unnecessary, if the scum be carefully removed.

The lid of the saucepan should only be removed for skimming; and before taking off the lid, be careful to blow from it any dust or blacks from the fire or chimney.

The joint should always be covered with water; above this quantity, the less water the more savoury will be the meat.

In some few instances, however, it may be necessary to boil the articles in a much larger quantity of water; a quart of water is mostly a good proportion to a pound of meat.

If meat be put into cold water, it should be heated gradually, so as not to cause it to boil in less than forty minutes; if it boil much sooner, the meat will shrink and be hardened, and not so freely throw up the scum.

Four skewers, or a plate, inside downwards, should be laid on the bottom of the saucepan, especially for large joints and puddings; so that they may be equally done, and escape burning or adhering to the saucepan.

When a pot boils, remove it nearly off the fire, but let the lid remain on: a very little heat will then keep up the boiling.

The time of boiling should be reckoned from the time bubbles begin to rise on the surface of the liquid. As the boiling continues, the water will evaporate, and in some cases it may be requisite to fill up the saucepan with boiling water.

Dripping Pan.

The spit being wiped clean, the joint to be roasted should be carefully spitted even, and tied tight; and if it will not turn round well, balance-skewers, with leaden heads, should be used; for if the meat be not evenly spitted, it will probably be burned on one side, and not done on the other. Avoid running the spit through the prime parts of joints.

A leg of mutton should never be spitted, as the spit lets out the gravy, and leaves an unsightly perforation just as you are cutting into the pope’s eye.

Make up the roasting-fire three or four inches longer than the joint, else the ends of the meat will not be done.

In stirring the fire, be careful to remove the dripping pan, else dust and ashes may fall in. On no account let the fire get dull and low, as a strong heat is requisite to brown the meat.

A thin joint requires a brisk fire; a large joint, a strong, sound, and even fire. When steam rises from the meat, it is done.

Large joints should be put at a moderate distance from the fire, and gradually brought nearer; else the meat will be overdone halfway through the joint, and be nearly raw at the bone.

Such meat as is not very fat should have paper placed over it, to prevent it from being scorched.

Do not sprinkle the meat with salt when first put down, as the salt draws out the gravy.

Old meats require more cooking than young. The longer the meat has been killed, the less time is required to roast it. Very fat meat requires more time than usual.

The general rule is to allow fifteen minutes to a pound for roasting with a good fire, and ten or twenty minutes over, as the family like it well done or not.

Basting Ladle.

Baste the meat first with fresh dripping, and then with its own fat or dripping: and within the last hour of roasting, take off the paper, and sprinkle the meat with salt and flour, to brown and froth it; but some cooks dredge the meat with flour earlier, so that it may imbibe the gravy, a practice which should be specially avoided.

The spit should be wiped dry immediately after it is drawn from the meat, and washed and scoured every time it is used.

Perfection in roasting is very difficult, and no certain rules can be given for it, as success depends on many circumstances which are continually changing: the age and size (especially the thickness) of the pieces, the quality of the coal, the weather, the currents of air in the kitchen, the more or less attention of the cook, and the time of serving, are all to be considered. Hence, epicures say of a well-roasted joint, “It is done to a turn.”

Roast meats should be sent to table the moment they are ready, if they are to be eaten in perfection.

Revolving Gridiron.

Much, however, depends on the substance of the article to be broiled: if it be thick, it must be placed at a greater distance, at first, to warm it through; if thin, the fire must be brisk, to ensure a good colour.

The gridiron should be wiped clean after it has been used, so that the bars may be kept bright on the top; they should be allowed to get hot before the article is laid on them, but not too hot, else they will burn the meat or fish: the latter especially. To prevent this, the bars should be rubbed with fat.

A charcoal fire is best for broiling.

To prevent the fat dripping into the fire, set the gridiron aslant.

Beef Steak Tongs.

For turning the broiling article use tongs, as a fork will let out the gravy. When the article is done, it will feel firm if touched with the tongs: by no means cut the meat to ascertain if it be done, as that will let out the gravy.

Frying Pan.

Be careful that the fat or oil is fresh, clean, and free from salt, else what you fry in it will be of bad colour and flavour; salt will prevent it from browning.

Fat or oil, to be used again, should be strained through a sieve before it is set aside.

Fat becomes richer from having meat fried into it, and may be used repeatedly; but the fat that has been used for fish cannot be used again for meat.

The fat must have left off bubbling and be quite still before you put in the articles.

To prepare crumbs for frying, dry thoroughly in a warm oven, or before the fire, any waste pieces of bread; then pound them in a mortar and sift them, and put them away till wanted. This is much better than grating bread as it is needed, or using oatmeal, &c.

When you wish fried things to look as well as possible, do them twice over with egg and crumbs.

If eggs be very dear, a little flour and water may be substituted for them in preparing fish to fry.

In frying use a slice to lift the articles in and out of the pan, and drain them.

To make batter for frying: melt two ounces of butter in a little warm water, and pour it upon half-a-pound of flour; stir it, and add water enough to form a batter, thick enough to adhere to whatever is put into it; but it should run freely; add some salt and the beaten whites of two eggs.

A small shallow frying pan is very useful to fry articles to be stewed: this method differs from common frying, as it only requires butter enough to keep the article from sticking to the pan and burning.

The fire for frying should be free from smoky coal, and be sharp and even. Charcoal makes the best frying fire.

The fat should be carefully drained from all fried articles; indeed, they should be so dry as scarcely to soil a cloth. Fish is best drained by wrapping it in soft whitey-brown paper, by which it will so dry as not to soil the napkin upon which it is served.

Stewing. All articles to be stewed should first be boiled gently, then skimmed and set aside in an even heat: on this account charcoal makes the best fire for stewing. All stews, or meat dressed a second time, should be only simmered, as the meat should only be made hot through.

Stewpan.

A stewpan is the most advantageous vessel in which stews, hashes, soups, or gravies can be made; indeed, for all purposes of boiling, a stewpan is preferable to a deep saucepan, as, in the former, the articles are exposed to more even heat than when they are placed one upon another in the saucepan, and are likely to be broken in stirring.

The kettles in which the soups are made should be well tinned, and kept particularly clean, by being washed in hot water and rubbed dry before they are put away. If they are not kept well tinned, the taste as well as the colour of the soup will be liable to be affected by the iron; and if the soup-kettle be made of copper, and the tinning not quite perfect, everything cooked in it will be more or less poisonous, as everything which is sweet, salt, or sour, extracts verdigris from copper.

Iron ovens are ill-adapted for baking meat or meat-pies; fruit-pies, pastry, and puddings, may, however, be baked in them.

The result of this work is, what it professes to be, an excellent imitation of every sort of porcelain—Sèvres, Etruscan, Japanese, Assyrian.

The work, when properly performed, is extremely beautiful, and wonderfully simple. No one can fail to succeed in it who studiously follows the rules we shall lay down.

The Materials required for Potichomanie are—

The vases are of plain glass, in various forms, some with and some without lids. At present these vases are too often inelegant in shape, as from the nature of the work it is necessary to have the neck large enough to admit the hand. Thus the graceful shape of the Etruscan vase is not yet achieved in Potichomanie. We think, however, that ere long we shall be able to devise some plan to remedy what we cannot help regarding as a great defect.

The vases are of various shapes and sizes, as seen in our engraving.

The sheets of paper are coloured and printed in various designs. Some have figures and other subjects in the graceful Etruscan style; others exhibit dragons, trees, flowers, birds, and similar things in Chinese design; the researches of Mr. Layard have furnished us with eccentric Assyrian figures and decorations, and again there are medallions, and other subjects exclusively French, besides borders of all these different sorts.

The first operation is to cut out the figures, birds, &c., with extreme care; and we may observe, en passant, that beginners should always select such subjects as are tolerably compact. Running patterns with the various parts connected only by long stems, and flowers, with the pistil and stamens projecting, are considerably more difficult to arrange than simpler patterns. Every part of the ground of the paper must be cut out, such as the space between the body and the bended arm, in any figure where that occurs; so that, in fact, nothing is left but what would be done by the brush, were the vase to be a painted one.

Now lay all the materials on the table, including a clean towel, some soft old linen, and a small basin of warm water.

Fold a sheet or two of blotting-paper into several thicknesses, lay one of the subjects on it, and, with one of the brushes cover the painted side of it with gum in every part. Of course, your vases have been previously thoroughly washed, and well-dried. Put the paper inside the glass, rubbing down every part with your nail, so that no air may be left between the paper and the glass, as this would ruin the work. Proceed in this way with each figure, flower, or other design, until sufficient patterns are placed on the glass; borders may be added or not, according to the fancy, but they must always be of a character to harmonize with the rest of the design.

When all these are perfectly dry, examine them to see that no air-bubble is left. Then add a coating of gum at the back of the figures, without touching the glass. Let this also dry. Then a coat of varnish must be added, and this also must be done without touching the glass.

After thoroughly drying this, remove with a wet cloth any spots of gum or varnish that may have fallen on the vase, and mix the colouring with sufficient essence of lavender to make it run freely. Pour the liquid into the vase, which you will twist round and round until it has adhered to and completely coloured every part. Pour the remainder out, let it dry, and then add another coat of varnish. The vase is then completed.

It is asserted that a vase so prepared will hold water. It may be; but we do not counsel the trial. An inner vessel, filled with water, might readily be placed in the larger one, for flowers.

In the large vase, of our engravings, it will be observed that the ground of the upper and lower part is black, and of the centre only a light colour. When this effect is to be produced, the colour must be applied with brushes, and not poured in as we have before directed. Each part should also dry before the next band is applied.

The choice of the ground is always a matter for much consideration, as on it greatly depends the truthful hue of the china. A peculiar blue and green are frequently seen in Oriental china; black and a soft salmon are common for the grounds of Etruscan subjects; the Bleu de Sèvres is too well known to need comment. We saw a vase that pleased us greatly, with a running floral design in grey, edged with gold, on a soft pink ground. It was most chaste and beautiful.

Nothing but attention to these directions is required to enable any one to work in Potichomanie; and from the admirable effect produced, and the facility afforded to those to whom handsome vases and other similar decorations have been impossible, we confidently predict that this work will have as great success with the English ladies as with their continental sisters. But care and cleanliness are indispensable to success; and loose hanging sleeves or dresses being spoiled by a spot of gum or paint are far from desirable.

The price of materials varies, according to the elaborateness of the subjects, the gilding, &c., of the paper, and also the size of the vases. Unless these latter are very large, one sheet of paper will give more subjects than will be required for a pair, The entire materials may be had from 10s. to 15s., according to the size of the vases.

Fixed signals are placed at stations, tunnels, junctions, and level crossings, and other places where caution is required, &c., and are shown as follows:—

Fixed Day Signals. Danger, to Stop, is shewn by turning the cross-bar of the mast signal full upon the line, so that it can be well seen from an approaching train, thus—

And by a red board pointing to the rails, thus—

Caution, to Go Slowly, is shewn by a green board pointing from the rails, thus—

All Right, to Go On, is shewn by turning the disc of the mast signal full upon the line, so that it can be well seen from an approaching train, thus—

Fixed Night Signals. Danger, to Stop, is shewn by a red light fixed upon a pole, being turned full upon the line, so that it can be seen from an approaching train.

Caution, to Go Slowly, is shewn in the same way, by a green light.

All Right, to Go On, is shewn in the same way, by a white light.

Hand Signals by Day. Danger, to Stop, is shewn by holding both arms above the head, as below—or by a red flag.

Caution, to Go Slowly, is shewn by holding the right arm above the head, as below—or by a green flag.

All Right, to Go On, is shewn by holding the right arm straight out, and pointing across the rails, thus—

Hand Signals by Night are made by hand lamps with different coloured lights, thus—

1. Danger, to Stop, by a red light shewn steadily towards the approaching train.

2. Caution, to Go Slowly, by a green light, held towards the train.

3. All Right, to Go On, by a white light held towards the train.

Junction Signals. At the junctions of a branch with the main lines, in addition to the ordinary signals, double discs, and cross-bars by day, and double lamps by night, are fixed for signalling the branch trains, thus—

In giving the above signals, the police face the approaching train, standing on the outer side of the opposite line of rails, and well clear of it.

The violent waving of any object by day, or of any light by night, denotes danger.

When the Day or Night Signals are to be used. The danger signal must be shewn whenever it may be necessary to stop an approaching train; and for five minutes after the passing of a passenger train; and eight minutes after the passing of a goods, mineral, cattle, or any other train.

The caution signal must be shewn whenever it may be necessary, from any cause, to reduce the ordinary speed of an approaching train; and after the turning off of the danger signal, for a further period of five minutes after a passenger train, and for seven minutes after a goods, mineral, cattle, or any other train shall have passed.

The all right must only be shewn, when the line is perfectly clear of obstructions—and when no passenger train has passed within ten minutes, and no goods, mineral, cattle, or any other train within fifteen minutes.

N.B. After dark, or in foggy weather, no passenger train may follow a goods, cattle, or mineral train from a station until fifteen minutes have elapsed: the danger signal must therefore be kept shewn for this period, and after it has been turned off the caution signal must be shewn for a further space of five minutes.

Special Instructions for Signals.—As a general rule, all fixed signals must, when the line is perfectly clear, be kept shewing “all right.”

Signal lamps must be lighted as soon as it commences to be dusk; and during the interval between light and dark both day and night signals are to be used. The lamps must not be put out until broad daylight.

All fixed signals within sight of each other, and auxiliary signals, must be made to repeat the same signal. In case of danger being shewn by any auxiliary signal, the engineman must pull up so as to stop at such signal, but if he then sees the line clear ahead, he must take his train slowly on towards the station, and must in all cases be admitted within any fixed signals if possible.

No signal may be altered, without the sanction of the person in charge of it, except in cases of great emergency.

In the event of any fixed signal being damaged or destroyed, or in the event of its being from any cause rendered incapable of exhibiting the proper signal, it will be the duty of the person in charge of such signal to take immediate steps to have the line cleared and the signal repaired and put in proper working condition; and in the mean time the usual hand signals will be used for signalling the trains; and, in the event of there being any obstruction on the line, the signalman must adopt every precaution by detonators, &c., to stop a coming train.

The most implicit obedience is to be given to all signals, and any neglect of them must be immediately reported to the resident superintendent.

At every terminal station, or at a junction with a branch line, the danger signal is always to be kept shewn until an engine or train comes distinctly within sight: and no engine or train may be admitted into the station until the signalman has satisfied himself that the line is clear.

Detonating Signals. The detonator is a signal of danger, and must be used in addition to the ordinary day and night signals, in foggy weather, and when unforeseen obstructions have occurred which render it necessary to stop approaching trains.

It is fixed upon the rail (label upwards), by bending down the leaden clips attached to it for that purpose, and upon being run over by an engine or train, it explodes with a loud report, upon hearing which the engineman and guards must use every exertion to stop the train. One signifies caution; two, danger—stop.

After the removal of the obstruction which was the cause of its being placed there, every detonator should be taken off the rails.

A stock of detonators are placed in possession of assistant-engineers and station clerks; and they are kept under lock and key.

Guards, enginemen, police, and head porters, are provided with a supply in a tin case, which they carry with them when on duty, so that they may be in readiness in case of emergency. All these persons are held responsible for having at least six in their possession; and it is their duty when any have been used to make immediate application to the proper officers for a renewal of their stock.

Detonators must be carefully handled, as they are liable to explode if roughly treated. It is necessary to keep them well protected from damp. At intervals of three months, one from each person’s stock, is tested, to ensure that they are in good condition.

Fusee Signals are to be used in conjunction with detonators.

They are fixed in the ballast between the rails, and upon being smartly struck, ignite and burn fifteen minutes, and can be seen at a considerable distance from an approaching train.

They are signals of caution, and indicate that a train has moved on from the spot where they are burning within fifteen minutes.

Train Signals. After sun-set and until full daylight, every passenger train should carry upon the first and last carriages two side lamps, showing white lights to the front, and red lights to the rear of the train; and behind the last vehicle in the train one tail lamp shewing a red light; and every goods train, behind the last vehicle in the train, two tail lamps (one on either side).

Special Train Signals. Whenever it is possible to do so, due written notice of special trains is given to all stations and to the engineering department, and special trains of which such notice has been given, carry the usual train signals.

But when a special train is started of which no previous notice has been given, it carries by day the red and green disc, and by night the red and green lamp provided for that purpose; and where it is possible, the train immediately preceding such special train must be provided with the double red disc by day and the double red lamps by night to indicate to all persons on the line and at the station that a special train is about to follow. The first portion of a divided train will be considered as a special train, of which no notice has been given, and will therefore carry the red and green signals.

Special Instructions for Junctions. All junctions where trains pass direct from one line to another must be passed at a speed not exceeding eight miles per hour.

Note.—Whereas the figure signals in the preceding are common to all the lines, the semaphore signals are only used on the Broad Gauge Lines, namely—the Great Western, South Wales, South Devon, Vale of Neath, Hereford, Ross and Gloucester; Wilts, Somerset, and Weymouth; Birmingham and Oxford, and their numerous feeders and branches. The semaphore signals on the Narrow Gauge lines are simply an upright post, with a moveable arm painted red; thus:—

The Caution signal, to Slacken Speed, is shown by the arm on the left hand side being raised halfway to the horizontal position; thus:—

The Danger signal, Always to Stop, is shown by the arm on the left hand side being raised to the horizontal position; thus:—

Night Signals are represented by lights, as follows:—All right, by an ordinary white light; Caution, by a green light; and Danger, by a red light. The light in front of a train is white; and at the rear, red. Flags are also used as day signals, particularly where there are no fixed signals—such as level crossings, &c. A white flag signifies all right; green, Caution; and red, Danger, Stop!

The annual sale or consumption of each in the United Kingdom, on an average of the 27 years 1797 to 1823, was of mace only 10,500 lbs., and of nutmegs but 25,000 lbs.; the annual average importation for and during the same period of time having been 35,390 lbs. of mace, and 128,500 lbs. of nutmegs. In 1806, mace sold for three guineas per lb., and nutmegs at 30s. per lb., and in 1826, for only 4s. and 2s. 3d. per lb. respectively, exclusive of duty, which, prior to 1821, was 9s. 2d. per lb. on mace, and 5s. 5d. on nutmegs. In the year 1851, 358,000 lbs. of nutmegs were imported, yielding a revenue of £21,000.

In experimenting with the microscope, cruelty to sensitive objects of curiosity should be avoided; for if your own life and comfort are desirable to you, so are they to others, and compassion should not be limited by the fears of the law. The engravings represent a section of a tree as viewed through a microscope.

In its wild or native state, the canary is a little greyish-brown bird, with a tinge of olive-green pervading its plumage, melting off into greenish yellow on the under parts. Some of the domesticated varieties do not depart much from this original type, and such are generally considered to be the stronger and healthier birds—delicacy of tint too frequently indicates delicacy of constitution. The jonquills, or jonques—as the golden-coloured canaries are called—are indeed lovely creatures, and lovely, too, is the cheek on which the hectic of consumption plays. If you want a good, strong canary, especially if it be for breeding purposes, do not choose a pure jonque, but one in whose plumage there is a due admixture of brown or greenish gray.

They pair in February, and have five, sometimes six, broods in a season. They frequent the gardens near to human habitations; and even their untaught melody is very delightful, having in it many notes like both the nightingale and skylark, from neither of which birds could they have acquired them, from their not being natives of the island. They moult in August and September.

Varieties of Colour, etc. The size of the canary is about the same as that of the linnet, being in length five inches, including the tail, which is two inches and a quarter long; the beak, that characteristic feature of all birds, is finch-like—that is, short, stout, and sharply-pointed; in colour, whitish; the legs are flesh-coloured, rather long and slender. The whole shape of the bird is extremely elegant, and its motions, when in health, full of vivacity. There is not much in the female to distinguish her from the male; her body is generally somewhat more slender, although she has a longer and thicker head; the colours of her plumage, too, are generally brighter; and the yellow around the eyes and upon the temples is always so, in comparison with the rest of her own plumage.

Perhaps the most esteemed of all the varieties, as far as colour is concerned, are those birds in which the body is a clear yellow, or white, and the wings, tail, and head, which should be crested, a rich, golden, dun colour; the pinion and tail feathers, and also those of the back, may be marked with black, but these markings must be regular, and flow into each other like the ripple of waves, or connoisseurs will not look at the bird. A golden variety, with a dark gray head, wings and tail, is also much admired, as is one which has a gray or yellow head or collar, and the rest of the plumage nearly black; or that has a yellow breast, a white head and tail, and a gray or blackish head, wings, and body.

Breeding. Canaries should not be allowed to pair before the beginning of April, as the cold weather of a backward spring frequently kills the young birds. If they are loose in a room together, or in a cage where the cocks and hens can have access to each other, they will be most likely to obey the call of St. Valentine, and make up their matches very early; it is therefore best, as soon as you see an inclination to pair, to shut up in separate cages such males and females as you intend to breed from; these, however, should have passed the winter in each other’s society; or, when the happy time does come, it is quite likely that they will refuse all intercourse. Male birds for pairing should be at least two years old, and if these are put with hens older than themselves, the majority of the progeny will be males. It requires some judgment to choose good breeding birds. Particular attention should be paid to temper and temperament. Some cocks are melancholy and phlegmatic; some fiery and passionate, so much so as to fight with the hen bird, and kill their offspring; others, again, are so ardent in their love-making as to teaze and annoy the female while she is sitting, to tear the nest and break the eggs. The hens, too, have their faults; some are impatient, and will not wait long for results of their labours, forsaking their eggs almost as soon as laid, and beginning to build and pair again; some break their eggs or destroy their young through awkwardness; some are careless, and let them die for want of attention; others are spiteful, and bite their young and pull out their feathers, so that they die miserably; and it sometimes happens that the hens are too weak to bear the exhausting pains and cares of maternity; they lay their eggs with difficulty and at long intervals, and are unable to bestow the requisite attention on family matters, so that everything goes wrong, as our fair readers know it must do when the presiding genius of the house is sick or indolent.

In selecting your birds for pairing, take it as an invariable rule that the cock and hen must not both be crested; if they are, you will most likely have the progeny bald, or with some disfigurement about the head. With regard to the matching of colours, let it be observed that the union of opposites produces the most beautiful and harmonious results. All late experience goes to prove this; although some of the older authorities say, put together birds of the same colour; but if you do this, you will have, not increase of beauty, but deterioration. The great secret of fancy breeding seems to consist in this—not apposition, but opposition of colours; thus, for instance, a fine, full, richly-tinted jonque cock, should be matched with a good mealy or variegated hen, and vice versa. A spangle-marked cock with a mealy hen will produce a more full-toned and regularly spangled back than if both parents had been like the father. Innumerable instances might be cited to show how this principle operates; but enough has been said, we trust, for the guidance of the breeders, whose stock, at first, should consist of about three cocks, carefully selected, and half a dozen hens; these, deducting largely for casualties, will produce twenty or thirty young birds in a season, quite as many as can well be managed without extraordinary facilities.

The following directions will be of service to those who breed canaries in cages:—When the proper time arrives, place your birds, a cock and one or two hens, together in a breeding-cage, so constructed that you can, if necessary, separate the birds. At one end, near the top, should be hung two nest-bags, or boxes, as far apart as the width of the cage will allow, and behind each of these let there be a square door opening outwards, by which you can at any time watch the progress of affairs without disturbing the sitters.

If you find a coldness and disinclination to pair in the birds, place the hen or hens in one division of the cage and the cock in the other, and let them remain so that they can see each other without being able to come together; or else put the cock in a smaller cage, and hang it up near to, without touching, that in which the hens are. In a few days, probably, the male bird will begin to sing with extraordinary loudness and energy, and peck at the bars which confine him; he may then be placed again with the hens, and the desired results will no doubt follow. You will soon see one of the hens, whichever happens to be the favourite, busy in the construction of her nest, and in about a week the first egg will be laid, and each day it will be followed by another, until there are five or six. It sometimes happens that the attentions of the male are bestowed wholly upon one hen; if this is the case, as soon as the favourite begins to lay, shut up the cock with the other hen in the separate division of the cage, and do not open the door until you see symptoms of an amicable understanding between the prisoners, or at all events, until a reasonable time has elapsed. Sometimes this second pairing does not take place, and the neglected hen has to be sent about her business. It is customary with some breeders to remove the eggs as they are laid, and replace them with ivory imitations, putting the whole back together when the number is completed; but we do not think this is a good plan; and the end in view, that of having the young birds all hatched together, is of questionable advantage. In these simple operations of nature the birds should be left to themselves as much as possible. Watch them without appearing to do so; and if all is going on right, by no means interfere with them. If on the thirteenth day of sitting the young birds do not begin to make their appearance, you had better take the eggs very carefully, one at a time, and hold them for a minute or so in lukewarm water, replacing them under the hen directly they come out of the bath. The same operation may be performed on young birds, when, as is sometimes the case in cold seasons, the feathers are not developed so quickly as they should be. Great care, however, should be taken that they do not get a chill. To obviate the danger of this, it has been recommended to syringe the young birds in the nest with warm water, discharged from such a distance that it falls in a gentle spray. When the fledgelings are from twelve to fourteen days old they begin to feed themselves, and the hen commences her preparations for another brood; somewhat recruited in strength by the rest she has enjoyed; for on the cock has devolved the principle charge of attending to the young family, which by this time are scarcely fully fledged. A strong hen canary, paired with a chosen cock, will produce four broods in the season—that is, from April to September—sometimes five; but this is too exhausting, and should not be allowed.

Food. Canaries, like all other finches, are seed-eating birds. Rape and canary seed are the best kinds to give them as a general diet; the summer rape is to be preferred, not being so hot and oily as that sown in the autumn, which is larger and blacker than the other. When they require rich stimulating food, as during the moulting and breeding seasons, a small proportion of hemp seed should be mixed with the others, and also a little hard-boiled yolk of egg chopped small; at such times, too, a little raw lean meat, scraped fine, may be given occasionally. And in some measure to neutralize the heating effects of this rich diet, let them have some green food, such as salad, water-cresses, groundsel, &c.; something of this kind is good for them all through the hottest part of the year; and while it can be had, the cage or aviary: should never be without groundsel, of which they are very fond, both green or in the ripe state. A special treat now and then, as you would give a plumcake to your children, is to mix up some millet, summer cabbage, and canary seed, with bruised oats or oatmeal, and place it in their feeding vessels; they will enjoy it greatly, as they will a little stale bun or sponge-cake, with a small proportion of seed of one or more of the above kinds. As a general rule, however, it is best to keep to plain diet. It is mistaken kindness to over-feed with delicacies a feathered pet. Many are killed by such treatment. The practice of keeping a piece of sugar constantly between the wires is a bad one; for although some birds will only peck it occasionally, others are immoderately fond of sweets, and will take so much as to cloy the stomach, and indispose them for food of a more healthful kind. It is bad for canaries as for children to have too many sweets; they are sure to end in sours. Various recipes for canary paste have been given, but we can scarcely recommend any of them. Pastes and powders are apt to turn sour, or become musty, in which state they act like poison on the birds. Moist food should never be kept more than twenty-four hours; in hot weather give it fresh twice a-day, and wash out the vessels carefully each time. If you put into the seed vessels more than sufficient for twenty-four hours’ consumption, the birds will be likely to take on the first day more than is good for them, and afterwards feed on the husks, and thus injure and weaken their digestive organs. To young birds, if you have to feed them by hand, give wheaten bread crumbled, or biscuit grated fine, and mixed with bruised rape seed and yolk of hard-boiled egg; this should be moistened with a little water, so as to make it into a stiff paste, and about four quillfuls given to each bird ten or twelve times a-day. If fed by the parents, the same preparation may be used, only put the seed, previously boiled to take away its pungency, in a separate vessel. As the young birds grow up and become able to feed themselves, gradually decrease the quantity of the paste, and increase that of the seed, mixing with it canary and a little linseed occasionally; the latter is good for the voice.

Diseases. The diseases to which the canary is especially liable are not numerous; it is by no means so delicate a bird as is generally considered; and, if properly fed and cared for, will live many years in confinement without falling ill, or manifesting any decline of strength and vigour.

Surfeit or Rupture. This disease most commonly attacks young birds; it is an inflammatory state of the bowels, caused generally either by an excess of highly nutritious food which cannot be digested, or by food in a stale or otherwise improper condition. Its most marked symptom is a great distention of the skin of the body, which appears full of small red veins; through this the intestines may be seen, more particularly at the lower part, in knotty lumps, looking black and turgid. The mode of treatment will depend greatly upon whether the motions of the bird are frequent and watery, or unfrequent and hard. In the former case it should have Embden groats or oatmeal, mixed with a little bruised hemp seed, which indeed are of a binding nature, and a small, very small quantity, once or twice a-day, of stale sponge-cake, soaked in white wine: a little piece of alum in the water is also good. In the latter case, give mixed with the seed a few whole groats, a blade or two of saffron in the water, in which for two or three mornings also put as much magnesia as will lie upon a sixpence; bread and milk, with a sprinkle of hemp seed, may be given once or twice a-day with advantage. In both cases the patients should be kept warm and quiet. In old birds surfeit sometimes shows itself in scabs about the head, eyes, and bill, out of which flows a humour so acrid as to destroy the surrounding feathers, and sometimes to produce total blindness. The only chance for the bird now lies in a spare, cooling diet; let it now eat rape seed with some bruised groats, and put salt in its water. When it has been well purged and got quite thin, if the malady seems somewhat subdued, you may gradually mix canary seed with the rape, and render its diet more nourishing; but this should be done very carefully. Anoint the sores and places where the feathers come off with fresh butter, or oil of sweet almonds, and bathe them with warm milk; a weak solution of salt or alum is sometimes useful to dry up the humour and cleanse the sores.

Egg Rupture. Suffering under this disease, which of course attacks female birds only, a bird is said to be egg-bound; there is some obstruction in the passage which prevents the extrusion of the ova. You will probably find your canary crouched down in a corner of the cage, or perhaps brooding over an empty nest under the impression that she has laid. Take her up very gently, and anoint the abdominal parts with warm salad oil; this will frequently afford relief in a few hours. If it does not, administer, by means of a quill passed into the gullet, a few drops of castor-oil. Should that fail the case is hopeless. A warm bath may be tried as a last resource, but most likely the patient will die.

Yellow Gall, or Scab, in the head and eyes may be cured by light cooling foods, such as lettuce and rape seed, and a little bread and milk, to nourish without heating the system.

Sweating. This is a disease to which sitting hens are liable; it is an indication of weakness, and will sometimes destroy the brood. Let the body of the patient be first washed with salt and water, and then with fresh spring water to remove the saline particles; dry her rapidly in the sun, or before a good fire; repeat this every day until she is better; give her good, nourishing food, and lighten her duties as much as possible; remove her mate if he is at all troublesome, and every cause of annoyance and anxiety. See that the breeding place be not too close and ill-ventilated, and you will no doubt effect a cure.

Sneezing is generally caused by some obstruction of the nostril, which may be removed by putting a small feather up it. This should do done very carefully, or you may injure the bird; hold it in a firm yet gentle manner, that you may not give it unnecessary alarm or pain. The same directions will apply to the cutting of

Overgrown Claws and Beak, which, on account of their bad effects upon the health and spirits of a cage bird, may well be classed among diseases. The consciousness of having these an undue length, rendering it liable to be entangled in the bars of its cage, or whatever it comes in contact with, will cause a bird to mope and refuse its food; and if not relieved from its awkward state of embarrassment, it will be very likely to pine and die. In both bill and claws, if held up to the light, you may see by the termination of the red lines how far the veins extend. Nearly up to this point; you may safely cut.

Huskiness and Loss of Voice generally proceeds from a cold; it sometimes comes on after moulting. If not speedily attended to and cured, it will most likely become chronic. Many a fine songster has been thus rendered mute and comparatively valueless. The bird suffering under this disease should be kept in a warm room, and fed upon rape and canary mixed with linseed. Ripe plantain should also be given, and every morning about a teaspoonful of boiled bread and milk, with raw seed sprinkled over it. Sponge-cake soaked in sherry wine is also good, and a little white sugar-candy or extract of liquorice dissolved in the water.

Constipation may be cured by giving the birds plenty of green food, such as lettuce, water-cress, chickweed, &c.

Epilepsy is commonly the result of fear acting upon a constitution enervated by too delicate a mode of treatment. At the slightest alarm, and often when agitated or excited in any way, the bird will drop from its perch as if dead. The quickest remedy is to plunge it in a bath of cold water, and when it begins to recover, drop a little sherry wine down its throat. The bath, if repeated every morning, will strengthen the bird, as will a few drops of spirits of nitre in its water. When in the fit, some pull a feather out of the tail of the patient, but we scarcely think this of much service.

Moulting Sickness. This is an inevitable visitation, which no amount of care and attention will prevent or delay beyond the appointed time. Every year, in or about the month of September, sometimes earlier, your bird sheds his old feathers and acquires new ones, and during the process, which lasts from three to six weeks, according to the strength of the bird, the state of the atmosphere, and other circumstances, it will be more or less indisposed. As the time for the annual change approaches, when you see your pet begin to lose his vivacity, and to drop his feathers, your first care must be to have it placed in a warm situation. Let the cage be partly muffled with baize or flannel so as to exclude all draughts, as well as disturbing sights and sounds. Give it bread and milk, a little beef, raw and lean, scraped fine, yolk of egg, and now and then a piece of sponge-cake, and some ripe chickweed. Put a rusty nail in the water, with occasionally a clove, or a few shreds of saffron, or a piece of refined liquorice. Should he moult with difficulty, let him have cake soaked in sherry wine, and blow a little of the wine over his feathers every day. This will invigorate him, and assist their development. If it be a hearty, strong bird, most likely matters will go on all right, and you will have no occasion to resort to this. With all birds, however, the moulting season is a critical time, and with weakly ones especially so. Then it is that coarse sand or gravel at the bottom of the cage is more than ever essential; and also, as there is generally a loss of appetite, such delicacies as we have described, to tempt the palate and support the strength. The first moult of young birds takes place when they are from six to twelve weeks old; they then exchange the soft down and loose feathers with which they are first covered, for the perfect adult plumage, which in the second moult undergoes considerable changes in colour.

Diseased Feet. Swollen feet and claws in a canary nearly always result from the want of opportunity to wash and bathe, or from a dirty state of the perches and bottom of its cage; consequently they convey a reproach, mute yet eloquent, on the neglect of its keeper. Let the bird have the required opportunities, and remove the exciting cause of the unsightly and disgraceful swellings, and they will soon disappear. Sometimes a little anointing with salad oil may be required to hasten the cure.

Cages. On this head we need scarcely trouble our readers with many special directions. Canary cages may be made of every conceivable variety of shape; and, provided the comforts of the little inmates are properly cared for, as highly ornamented as taste or fancy may dictate. Either mahogany, or some hard, close-grained wood, should be used in their construction—the former is best; fir should never be tolerated, nor anything of a soft and porous nature, which might afford a harbour for insects. Bell-shaped cages, chiefly of wire, have been a good deal used; they are light and pretty, and easily kept clean. Perforated zinc has lately come into use as a material for cages; some good examples of its application to this purpose were shown in the Zollverein department of the Great Exhibition. Very elegant effects might be produced with this metal in combination with glass. Of this latter material, or of porcelain, food and water vessels should always be made; and their proper place is on the outside of the cage, the interior space of which ought to be at least a foot in height, eight inches in length, and about the same in breadth—that is, for one bird. Every cage should have at least two perches, at different heights, and these should not be placed one under the other. Breeding cages we have already spoken of. [Condensed from “Bechstein’s Handbook of Cage and Chamber Birds,” published by Ward and Lock, price 2s. 6d. No bird-keeper who is anxious about the life and comfort of the little creature confided to his care should be without this cheap and valuable book.]

The total quantity which is annually imported into England averages about 45 millions of pounds, about two-fifths of which is the produce of Jamaica. During the year 1851, we imported from our colonial possessions and foreign countries 54,000,000 lbs. of coffee. Out of this we exported 22,000,000, while 32,000,000 were retained for home consumption. The Revenue netted £445,000 from this importation.

Mercury, in the heathen mythology, the inventor of letters, and the god of eloquence, and son of Jupiter and Maia, the daughter of Atlas. He was the messenger of Jupiter and the gods, and was furnished with a winged hat, and with wings to his feet.

Mercury, or fluid of silver, a white fluid metal, the heaviest, except platina and gold. It freezes at 39° below the zero of Fahrenheit, when it is malleable, and boils at 660°. It readily combines with nearly all other metals, and is used in water-gilding, the manufacture of vermilion, the silvering of looking-glasses, the making of barometers and thermometers, and the preparation of several powerful medicines, some of which are deadly poisons.

Coffee should be purchased in the berry, and fresh roasted, and it should always, when possible, be ground just previous to being made. After it is ground, it should not be exposed to the air, as the aroma speedily flies off. If more is ground than required for the meal, keep it in a closely-stopped glass bottle. Coffee, like tea, should be an infusion, not a decoction.

The best coffee is the Mocha, the next is the Java, and closely approximating is the Jamaica and Berbice.

Of Tea little need be said; almost every one knows the rules for making it. Boiling water should alone be used. Metal tea-pots in preference to earthenware. Silver is better than either. A spoonful of tea for each person. Heat the tea-pot first with some boiling water, then pour that into the tea-cups to warm them; put in your tea, and pour enough water on the tea to cover it; let it stand three or four minutes, then nearly fill the tea-pot with water; let it stand a few minutes and pour out, leaving some portion of tea in the pot when you replenish, that all the strength may not be poured away in the first cup.

Chocolate can only be obtained pure of a first-rate house; that commonly sold is most infamously adulterated; the best Spanish or Italian chocolate should be purchased; the Florence has a high reputation.

The engraving illustrates a simple instrument formed of twisted wire, with a moveable ring (A), by which its four “fingers” may be closed. Move the ring down to the extremities of the fingers, and insert the latter into the neck of the bottle, still holding fast of the ring, and drawing it back as the instrument is pushed inward. When thus inserted, the fingers will open, as in the engraving; then turn the bottle upside down, and by shaking it, the cork will soon be brought within the open fingers; then draw the instrument out, the while sliding the ring again on the fingers to secure their hold of the cork. When fairly tightened, the cork may be drawn out without any difficulty. It will be observed that the points of the fingers, (B), are sharply bent, by which, when they once lay hold of the cork, they do not release it readily. The plan is very successful.

The defect is, however, corrected by means of a convex lens, by which the rays are made convergent before they reach the eye, and the eye, therefore, has less to perform. Fig. 1. explains long sight, and the use of a convex one; and fig. 2. short sight, and the use of a concave lens.

Every leap-year is readily discovered by dividing the year by four; and if there is no remainder, as in 1852, then February contains twenty-nine days, but if there is a remainder, as in 1854, the month only contains twenty-eight days.

The Saxons called this month Sprout Kale, or the month in which young coleworts or cabbages begin to sprout; but it was afterwards called Sol Monath, or sun month, because the sun returns and warns us of the approach of spring, with its fresh vegetation and balmy airs. In Latin, it is called Februarius; in French, Fevrier; in Italian, Febrajo; and in Portuguese, Fevereiro.

The usual allegorical representation of the month is a young man dressed in a dark or cloudy sky-coloured habit, symbolical of the frequent rain and gloomy sky. On his left is the astronomical sign of Pisces, or the fishes, to intimate that the sun enters that sign on the 19th of the month. February has been represented as a young man dressed in a white robe, with a wreath of snowdrops round his brows, and a burning candle in his right hand. Our Saxon ancestors painted this month as a vine-dresser pruning his trees; and, sometimes, as a man in a frieze-jacket buttoned close up to the throat, throwing his arms across his body, the same as we frequently observe cabmen and others at this time of the year, when the weather is very inclement.

The month of February, though generally of a cheerless and uninspiring character, has not been without its muse. The bard of the “Shepherd’s Calendar” thus pours forth his effusions:—

The red-letter days of February, or its feasts, fasts, and festivals, are tolerably numerous and remarkable. In addition, we have days rendered memorable by certain events chronicled by the antiquary and historian with due care.

The 1st day of this month is always remembered by sportsmen as the end of pheasant and partridge shooting; a happy time for part of the feathered tribe!

3rd. St. Blaise is the patron saint of the wool-combers. He was a bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, 289.

5th. St. Agatha was a female martyr of Sicily, put to death by order of Decius, in 251.

16. In 1497, the celebrated divine, Philip Melanchthon, the coadjutor of Martin Luther in the great work of the Reformation of the Christian Church, was born in the small town of Brethen or Bretheim, in the Palatinate of the Rhine. He was appointed by the general body of the Reformers, in the early part of 1530, to draw up the exposition of their opinions, which was presented to the Emperor at Augsburg in March of the same year; and is well known as the “Confession of Augsburg.”

21st. In 1437, King James I. of Scotland was treacherously murdered at Perth, while taking supper in the convent of the Dominican Friars; and his wife Joan received two wounds while trying to prevent his assassination. In 1838, the celebrated oriental scholar, Sylvestre de Sacy, died at the age of 80; and in 1845 the Rev. S. Smith, author of the “Plymley Letters,” etc., at the age of 74.

24th. Saint Matthias the Apostle, who was chosen by lot after the crucifixion to fill the place of the traitor Judas Iscariot.

St. Valentine’s Day falls on the 14th of this month. St. Valentine was an ancient presbyter of the Church of Rome, who was beheaded in the Via Flaminia, about the year 278, during the reign of the Emperor Valerianus. This is the day for choosing patron saints in Rome, and lady loves in England. Well does the poor postman remember this day, and how eagerly the anonymous letters he bears are snatched from his hands and perused in the quiet chamber.

Granules of Starch. (A) From wheat and barley;

(B) from arrow-root;

(C) From Portland sago.

Starch is found in some plants in greater quantities than in others; it is, however, very generally found in perennial roots and root-stocks, in the stems and in the seeds of plants. It seems stored up in these parts for the future growth of the developing organs of the plant. There are few or no vegetables or parts of plants that are eaten that do not contain starch. We find it in turnips, carrots, potatoes, cabbages, parsnips, beans, peas, wheat, barley, oats, and the rest of the Cerealia; in chesnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts, and all other seeds; in the apple, the pear, the plum, the cherry, and all other fruits. In many of these things, however, it is not the distinguishing alimentary ingredient, but it is often separated and used pure as an article of diet. The substances in which it exists in a tolerably pure form, and of which we wish now more particularly to speak, are arrow-root, sago, and tapioca.

Maranta arundinacea—Arrow-root.

Although arrow-root, sago, tapioca, and potato starch, are all composed of the same constituent, their flavour is very different; hence the preference given to arrow-root as an article of diet. This flavour depends on some peculiar principle which is produced in the plant from which the starch is obtained, and by very careful preparing can be entirely got rid of. Arrow-root is used for making cakes, puddings, and a thick gelatinous fluid in great request in the sick room. It is a property of starch to combine with water at a temperature of 180° and form a gelatinous compound. This property of starch renders it very useful in cookery, and seems to increase the digestibility of the starch itself.

Arrow-root is frequently regarded as very nutritious; but if what we have stated above is correct, it will be seen that it is not nutritious in the proper sense of the word. Those foods can alone be called nutritious that contribute to the building up of the fabric of the body, by adding those materials to the tissues which are being constantly removed by the wear of the body. Now, starch does not perform this function, and is entirely consumed in the body in maintaining its animal heat. Arrow-root, however, and the other forms of starch, are frequently mixed with nutritious matters, such as milk and bread; and in this way the food into which they enter becomes nutritious.

Still, it may be said that children become fat when fed on arrow-root; and this is an undoubted fact. The explanation is, however, easy. When the carbonaceous substances are taken into the system in larger quantities than can be consumed in maintaining animal heat, they are changed in their characters, and become converted into oil, which being deposited in the tissues, produces fat. This oil is not a living part of the body; and a person may get fat even without having his frame nourished, or his strength increased. This is an important fact to bear in mind, as many persons get fat upon certain kinds of diet, without getting any stronger, or more able to perform the functions of the body.

Sagus Rumphii—Prickly Sago Palm.

They are cut down, and the tissue containing the starch being scraped out, the sago is prepared in much the same way as arrow-root. Many plants yield starch in their stems, which, on being prepared, is called sago by Europeans. The sago which is sold in the shops in England is principally imported from the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and is the produce of a palm called the true sago palm, or Sagus lævis. There is, however, another palm belonging to the same genus, the Sagus Rumphii (the prickly sago palm) which yields the sago that is consumed by the natives of India.

There are many other well-known plants which owe their dietical properties to the starch they contain; amongst these we may mention the potato, the carrot, the turnip, the parsnip, the cabbage, the Jerusalem artichoke. From any of these starch might be prepared. There is a plant in our hedges, known to children in the spring of the year by the name of “lords and ladies,” and commonly called “cuckoo-pint.” This plant, the Arum maculatum of botanists, contains an acrid juice; but, nevertheless, its roots are full of starch. When cooked, the acridity of the plant is got rid of, and they are eaten with impunity. These roots are employed in making the substance called Portland sago; which is the starch separated from the rest of the matter of the plant. This sago is used for the same purposes as the other kinds of sago.

Arum maculatum—Cuckoo-pint.

“The goldspink, music’s gayest child.”

Others have called it “the dapper Finch.” and applied to it many endearing epithets; which our readers, we are sure, will be ready to echo, for a universal favourite is Master Goldie. If you want to see him in his glory you should go forth on a bright autumnal day to some common or other waste ground, where thistles grow abundantly; there he is feasting on the downy seeds, and flitting about in the sunshine from clump to clump, in his suit of silky brown, and black, and gold, and red, as happy as a bird can be; every now and then twittering out his lively song, as he scatters upon the gale the white flocculi, by means of which the thistle-seeds are wafted far and wide over the surrounding landscape.

In nearly all parts of Great Britain may the goldfinch be found wild; it is a permanent resident with us, and by no means a shy bird. Its song commences about the end of March, and continues till July or August; it is not powerful, but very sweet, and sufficiently varied to make it agreeable to the ear; for mellowness of tone and plaintiveness, it is considered by good judges to be second to few, if any, of our native songsters. Early in spring, and again in the autumn, goldfinches may commonly be met with in small flocks of from twenty to thirty; severe winters kill a great many of them.

In the breeding season they leave the open country, and resort to woods and thickets, orchards and groves, where they build their nests,—generally amid the higher branches of fruit and other trees; sometimes in tall thick hedges and evergreens. They are very neat builders, and use mosses, lichens, root-fibres, and grass-stalks, closely interwoven; for lining, they usually prefer wool, hair, and thistle or other vegetable down. The nest is perfectly hemispherical, like that of the chaffinch, by which only, perhaps, it is excelled in finish and compactness. Mudie well observes that “the nest of the goldfinch is literally a cradle, and the young are rocked by the winds in their hatching-place, nearly as much as they are to be afterwards on the tall and flexible stems on which they are to find their food.” And this is doubtless a wise ordination, in order that the birds may become early accustomed to the rocking motion, and acquire confidence thus to seek and to seize that which is necessary to their existence. Being frequently placed in such exposed situations, were the nest not very closely and compactly woven, and firmly fixed in its place, it would be liable to be torn in pieces, and scattered by the winds, or at least detached from the lofty bough on which it rests, to the destruction of its precious contents; but this seldom happens, and the little structure swings as safely in its apparently dangerous position, as the sailor-boy upon the mast, when the wild blasts howl and whistle fearfully around him.

The eggs, of which there is rarely more than one laying in a season, are from four to six in number, of a bluish gray colour, sometimes inclining to green; they are sparely marked with light and dark reddish spots and stripes. The young birds, if taken, should be fed on poppy or well-soaked rape seed, mixed with crumbs of white bread moistened with milk.

Wild goldfinches may be caught in spring by means of a decoy-bird, placed in a cage set round with limed twigs or nooses. In autumn and winter bundles of thistles will best attract them. If these are fastened to a tree, and armed with springes or limed twigs, they are most likely to be successful. They may also be taken in nets; as many as one hundred and fifty having been caught in this manner on a single morning.

Male.

Some goldfinches are smaller than others; but the standard size may be stated at five inches and a half, the tail measuring about two inches. It is scarcely necessary, with so familiar a bird, to describe its peculiar conformation and markings; the bright scarlet in front of the head and round the base of the beak; the glossy black crown, vertex, wing-coverts, and tail-feathers, so beautifully relieved by the white and golden spots and interlacings, and contrasted by the soft brown of the back, all go to make up a picture at once striking and harmonious; and which, aided by the sprightly motions, sweet song, and engaging qualities of the bird, produce a powerful effect upon the mind and imagination. Bird-catchers tell us that the female may be distinguished from the male goldfinch by its smaller size, and deficiency of some of the white tips of the pinion-feathers; but this must by no means be taken as a distinctive mark. The hen bird is generally smaller altogether, the red about the beak is neither so broad nor so vivid, the beak is a deeper brown, and there is more of this latter colour diffused over various parts of the body. In shape, as well as in markings, the head somewhat varies, as will be seen by the engravings.

Female.

Although there is but one species, there are several distinctly marked varieties of the goldfinch, such as—1st, the yellow-breasted; 2nd, the white-headed; 3rd, the black-headed; 4th, the white; 5th, the black goldfinch. These latter are sometimes entirely black, or they retain a yellow spot upon the wing; age, or a too constant feeding upon hemp seed, will often cause the plumage to assume this sombre hue. It has also been produced in young birds, by a careful exclusion of light from them; but at the first moulting, after the cage was uncovered, they assumed their more natural colours. Dealers speak very learnedly about these several varieties, and recommend this or that for certain good qualities peculiar to itself; but it is all a matter of accident, and the dress is no indication whatever of disposition or ability, although it may be, in some cases, of age or state of health. If one goes to purchase a goldfinch, he will most likely hear of what are called “speckled birds,” which have a white spot under the throat; of “whitethroats,” or “cheverels,” and “bastard whitethroats,”—the former having a white streak entirely down the throat, and the latter about half way down. For these, high prices will be asked, as they are scarce birds; but they are no better, as songsters, than others. Young goldfinches, that have not moulted have no crimson about the head, and in this state are called “graypates.” When they have attained their full age and perfect plumage, “goldwings” is a term frequently applied to them. If you have a good teacher to put them under, it is well to get the younger birds, and, when the moulting season comes on, to cover the cage with flannel, so as to keep them very warm; they will then throw off their old and assume their new feathers quickly, and be fresh and vigorous for their educational fatigues. “Stopping,” “backing,” or, more properly, “pushing a bird on,” is the name given to the process above described. In the wild state the goldfinch feeds upon all kinds of seeds, more especially those of the cruciform plants; beetles and other insects it takes occasionally; like the pigeon, it prepares in the crop the food intended for its young. In confinement it should have canary, rape, maw, or poppy seed, and hemp seed now and then, especially when breeding or moulting. It should also be supplied with green food, and have plenty of water for bathing as well as drinking. It is a voracious eater, and when put with other birds will often mount guard over the feeding-trough, and drive away all comers; yet it is not quarrelsome, but lives in harmony with its companions, especially if they belong to its own genus. The health of the bird is very much promoted by an occasional treat of thistle-seed, which it likes to pick out itself. It is rather subject to epilepsy, and to bad and swollen eyes. The former should be treated according to the directions given for the canary, and the latter anointed with fresh butter. Captive goldfinches have been known to live to the age of twenty-four years. When old they lose the bright red and yellow of their plumage, and frequently become blind. A goldfinch’s cage should not be less than nine or ten inches long, by seven broad, and about the same in height; its breeding accommodations should be the same as those provided for the canary.

The following are sketches of the fossil remains of animalcules, and are drawn from a microscopic view of the particles of rotten-stone. The above are specimens of the Diatomacea still more highly magnified. With the siliceous shells has been entombed, in some instances, so much of animal matter, that, in the berg, or mountain meal of Sweden, there is nutritious quality in sufficient quantity to render the mineral production edible with bread and flour.

It also dips or inclines from the plane of the horizon, pointing in the northern hemisphere downward at the North Pole of the magnet, and in the Southern hemisphere contrarily.

The limbs, or arms, are arranged like rays proceeding from a centre, and from this circumstance it is termed a “rayed,” or “radiated animal.” All with this rayed appearance have, of course, the same appellation, and, along with others, constitute class Radiata. The rayed appearance is not, however, so obvious in many of these animals as in the Starfish. Radiated animals are divided into four classes, viz—

Agents which Decrease the Quantity of Air Breathed. Darkness, cold air inspired, all fats, as cod liver oil, olive oil, butter, beef fat, arrowroot, brandy, wine, kirchen-wasser, compound and fœtid spirits of ammonia, opium, morphia, hydrocyanic acid, tartar emetic, and salines, as chloride of sodium, and febrifuge medicines.

Agents which have a Mixed Effect. Chloroform, chloric ether, and amylene. Digitalis first increases and then decreases the quantity.

All the syrups of spices, as cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, &c., can be made in the same way.

Syrup of Tea. One pint of water, two pounds of sugar, an ounce of black tea; boil together for five minutes, or rather less; strain. A wineglassful to half a pint of cold water makes very good cold tea.

We will now submit a conversation between a sceptic and a believer in the science of chiromancy, and leave our readers to form their own opinions as to the amount of truth involved in it:—

“Your last proposition,” I observed, “approaches very closely to the chiromancy of the ancients; if, indeed, it be not chiromancy itself.”

“It matters little by what term you designate a knowledge of the relations which exist between the hand of an individual, and his intelligence, temperament, passions, and diseases. It is sufficient for me to know that there are such relations, and that to learn them only requires patience and penetration. From the earliest antiquity, man has ever given his open hand to a friend, but presented it closed towards an enemy. The open hand has ever been the emblem of friendship; the closed hand, the symbol of hostility. I tell you that all physiology, all psychology, and even pathology is written in legible characters upon the human hand. Here,” he continued, taking some plaster casts out of a glass case, “is the cast of the hand of an intelligent man, of a philosopher (fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Observe the regularity of its form and the harmony of its lines. The disengagement of the thumb permits it to be opposed to all the fingers; and it rises in height to nearly the second joint of the forefinger. The fingers are all of different lengths; but close your fingers upon your palm, or grasp a cricket ball, and you will find that they all appear equal. Thus it is that the hand of an intelligent man can use the sword, pen, pencil, hammer, needle, graver, and other tools which the intelligent mind has invented.

Fig. 2.

Observe, also, how few lines and creases there are in the palm—like the elevated intelligence it appertains to, it is neither empty nor broken. Compare this hand of an idiot (fig. 2) with the former. Observe its general thickness and clumsiness of form, and the great depth of its lines. The muscles of the thumb being rendered useless by callosities, it cannot be opposed to the fingers. Thus deprived of its principal function, that of prehension, this hand, incapable of grasping material objects, well represents the brain of an idiot incapable of sustaining an idea.

“If lunacy really be, as it is generally supposed, an undue elevation of the intellectual faculties, even to their perversion and overthrow, this hand of a lunatic (fig. 3) admirably exemplifies such a state of the mind.

Fig. 3.

What confused and irregular lines cross each other in all directions! Do they not seem like the confused imaginations of a madman? Observe particularly the clumsy thickness of the hand, like that of the idiot, a sure token of the loss of the reasoning faculties.

Fig. 4.

“Here, again, is the hand of a monomaniac (fig. 4), whose intelligence is not totally obscured, but whose every faculty is concentrated upon one single object. Observe how it is traversed by only one line, deeply marked, like the one predominating idea of the maniac. All the fingers are involuntarily inflected to that one line, as all the faculties of the maniac are towards the one object of his mania. But nature shows that this unhappy mind still retains a certain degree or sanity. We see none of the clumsy thickness which the hands of the idiot and lunatic exhibit; yet, at the same time, the shortness of the thumb and little finger proves that, like the mind of the maniac, his hand is abnormal and incomplete.

“As nature has marked the intellectual gradations from the intelligent man to the idiot, so she has established in the conformation of the hands of all men infinite shades of distinction, which faithfully represent the innumerable shades of mental energy that distinguish the characters of mankind one from another. It would be impossible for me to go farther into this subject at present, as it would occupy several hours to explain even a few of those nice shades of distinction. I shall therefore proceed to show you two more links in the chain of degradation. This brings me back to zoology,”—he continued, as he spread on the table a number of specimens,—“Between the first and second links of the animal chain—that is to say, between the intelligent man and the monkey tribe, nature has placed an intermediate race, whose forms resemble man, but whose savage instincts approach the inferior animals. This double similitude is portrayed in their hands. Here is a cast (fig. 5) from the hand of a Bosjesman. Compare it with this preserved hand of a Chimpanzee (fig. 6) and this other cast (fig. 1), the first I showed you of a civilized European. In the hands of the Bosjesman and Chimpanzee the thumbs are shorter than in the hand of an intelligent man.

Fig. 5.

Observe, they barely reach to the first joint of the forefinger, an invariable sign of want of intelligence. The narrowness of these two hands also indicates an instinct of theft and rapine. Yet the Bosjesman, being more nearly allied to the intelligent man than to the Chimpanzee, the hand of the former does not present the rude energy of the latter, constructed to climb the loftiest trees of a tropical forest.

Fig. 6.

“The farther we penetrate into the study of animals, we shall find more and more of the irregularities of zoological classification. Here are five paws of animals placed by naturalists in the same order—the carnivorous. This order, which is considered one of the most natural, is at the same time full of contradictions. True, it has been subdivided into classes and families; but even in those subdivisions nature is not better respected. Even with the little knowledge we possess of the habits and instincts of animals, who can witness without astonishment such dissimilar creatures as the mole, lion, dog, bear, and cat, placed in the same order? How much more plainly than their teeth do the paws of those animals proclaim their proper classification?

Fig. 7.

At the first sight of this paw (fig. 7), short an thick, with claws long and hooked, can you not read the history of the animal it belongs to? You require no book—no long, finely-worded description. You see that it is constructed to scrape and burrow in the earth, or to seek food and a shelter from its enemies. In short, the whole history of the mole is legibly inscribed on this one solitary claw. Again, examine these paws, belonging to the four best-known species of the carnivora, whom man has placed together in one family group, though nature has most distinctly separated them.

Fig. 8.

Admire, in this paw of a lion (fig. 8), the striking provision of nature, which applies a tendon to each claw to prevent them being blunted by contact with the earth. Does not this arrangement proclaim to us that the lion tears his prey before he devours it.

Fig. 9.

On the contrary, the claws of the bear (fig. 9) are sunk in a clumsy mass of flesh; decidedly that animal does not tear its prey. Observe this paw of a cat (fig. 10); the toes and claws are partly concealed by hair.

Fig. 10.

You know a cat has a velvet paw, but its claws are sharp and cutting—a significant proof of the dissimulation and cunning of the animal. In the paw of the dog (fig. 11), the friend and companion of man, the claws are blunt and harmless, and the length of the toes denote his docility and intelligence.

Fig. 11.

“If time permitted, I could detail a great many traits in the character of these animals, clearly pointed out in the forms of their fore-paws; but you must be satisfied with this hasty sketch at present, and I will pass on to the well-known order termed by naturalists, from the peculiar form of their incisor teeth, the rodents. All the animals of this order have four toes on their anterior paws, though some have as many as five, and others only three on their hind feet. This regularity of conformation in the fore-paws of so many animals is an evident proof of the importance attached by nature to those organs. Now, notice these three paws, and tell me if the animals to which they belong can have the same habits or the same intelligence? Decidedly not!

Fig. 12.

With the exception of some slight analogy in their teeth, naturalists have no grounds for placing the squirrel (fig. 12), the jerboa (fig. 13), and the marmot (fig. 14), in the same class. Destined to live in forests, to leap from bough to bough at a great height, the squirrel exhibits a paw admirably adapted for such a state of existence.

Fig. 13.     Fig 14.

Its crooked claws can be easily inserted into the bark of the hardest tree; and the length of the hinder part of the paw permits the animal to suspend itself from the thickest branch. Moreover, as if nature wished to show that it was the most intelligent animal of its class, it is furnished with the rudiments of thumbs. No appearance of such organs can be detected on the paws of the jerboa or marmot, and their toes being united by a ligament, as far as the first joint, clearly indicates that their intelligence is likewise contracted.”

“Excuse me for a moment,” I said, interrupting him. “If the junction of the toes indicates a want of intelligence, pray, then, explain how the amphibious mammalia, with toes deeply impacted in a fleshy web, are so much superior to the rodents in intelligence?”

“Undoubtedly they are,” my friend triumphantly exclaimed; “but you must not overlook one essential circumstance in the study of the relations of the paw with the intelligence, and that is the number of the fingers. The seal, the walrus, and other amphibious mammalia, are certainly more intelligent than the rodents; and this superiority is plainly indicated by the number of their fingers, which is five.”

Fig. 15.

Here, with an air of triumphant pleasure, he counted the five toes, or fingers, as he termed them, of a preserved paddle of a seal (fig. 15) that lay upon the table.

“According to your doctrine, then,” I rejoined, pointing to some hoofs, “the elephant must be less intelligent than the seal, and the horse inferior to the cow and other ruminating animals, which is contrary to well-known facts.”

“I understand your objection,” he replied, with a smile; “and it is utterly worthless. Among all living beings, the organs are valued according to the functions they are called upon to fulfil. In the animals I brought under your notice, the functions of touch and prehension are executed by the extremities of the two fore limbs, and I attempted to demonstrate that the more or less imperfect state of those organs is in strict accordance with the more or less imperfect development of intelligence,—in other terms, that the functions of touch and prehension always correspond with the intellectual faculties. You object to my argument by referring me to the feet of hoofed animals. Remember, they are never termed paws, and, in this instance, the vulgar tongue is strictly in accordance with science; for the extremities of the anterior limbs of hoofed animals are not organs of touch and prehension,—they are merely organs of locomotion. As such, I have nothing to do with them, and seek elsewhere for the organs I require. In the elephant I find them in the trunk: in the horse, and the ruminating animals, I find them in the upper lip. Here, however, there is still the same general law. The elephant, whose sagacity is so remarkable, has, in its proboscis, an admirably-constructed instrument for its relations with the exterior world, to examine and take hold of any object it may desire. The horse, in its upper lip, has a less perfect organ, and consequently, its intelligence is inferior to that of the elephant. If we descend the scale of the hoofed animals, each step will more and more confirm the great truth that the sense of touch is intimately connected with the faculty of intelligence.”

“Yes,” he continued, after a moment’s pause, “the intelligence, habits, instincts, of all living creatures, are not the only things portrayed in the organs of touch and prehension; the temperament and diseases can also be read in them. You smile at my assertion; but if you were a medical man you would not do so. You would know that some physicians, from the form of the hand alone, can foretell consumption twenty years before the insidious disease appears in the lungs. Consumption is not the only disease that can be thus anticipated and guarded against. The lower animals have also the same privilege of indicating their diseases. Ah!” he abstractedly continued, “it is a new science, and has yet to be created; but its boundless horizons are worthy to tempt the ambition of the most venturous explorers of the most elevated minds.”

“And, pray, what do you term this new science?”

“It is Comparative Chiromancy.”

My friend then fell into a deep reverie, under cover of which I ventured to take my leave.

Fig. 1.

in both leaves, however, we find the veins, or fibres, of the leaf distributed upon a somewhat similar plan, viz., a central, or principal fibre, from which smaller fibres arise, and form a network of veins on either side. On cutting the stalks, moreover, and examining them with a magnifying glass, we discover a further similarity of structure; for we see that there are bundles of woody tissues symmetrically arranged around a central pith (d). Above the bracteas we find the blossom, which consists of the following parts:—1. Calyx; 2. Corolla; 3. Stamens; 4. Pistil. If we look at the base or back of the buttercup, we shall observe five small green leaves, as it were, supporting the yellow leaves of the blossom, (fig. 2, b).

Fig. 2.

Each of these green leaves is called a sepal, and the five sepals together form what is called the calyx, because they are frequently united at their edges, and thus constitute a cup (calyx) for the flower. Within or above the calyx we have five yellow petals which together form the corolla, a word that signifies in Latin a little crown or garland, and has been applied to this part because the petals (the parts of the corolla) are usually of a brilliant colour, and give beauty to the flower. If we remove these yellow petals, we shall find at the base of each (fig. 1, p) a small scale, or gland, which was at one time called the nectary, from the idea that it was the organ which secreted honey. It may here be appropriately pointed out, that in nearly all plants with branched stems and reticulated (net-veined) leaves, there is a curious relation in the number of their parts. In the buttercup before us, we found a calyx consisting of five sepals, then a corolla of five petals; and in the section of the stem we count five bundles of woody tissue; in the other parts of the flower we shall find also the number five, or a multiple of it. In all such growths the numbers four and five, or their multiples, predominate. Within the corolla are smaller organs, which, though more difficult to distinguish, are more important agents in the production of fruit or seed. These will require the use of a lens to be minutely examined, but can be distinguished in their general outlines by the naked eye. Indeed, at first sight, the distinction between the stamens, which are outermost, and of a deeper yellow—and the pistils, which are the innermost, and have a greenish appearance—will be obvious. In the common wallflower, the cherry-blossom, and poppy, the difference between the stamens and the pistils is very remarkable. Let the stamens be removed, and the mode of their attachment to the stem noted; the pistils, with the ovaries, or unripe fruit, will then be seen. In the natural process of growth the petals and stamens fall from the flower, and the unripe fruit goes on increasing without them (fig. 1, o). In the daisy the parts of the flower are not so distinct as in the buttercup; but the blossom is a type of a large number of plants, amongst which are the dandelion, sunflower, china-aster, and other flowers having a central disc with white or coloured rays around. These are called composite flowers, because, in fact, a great many flowers compose each blossom. It was explained that the green leaflets at the back of the flower in the daisy were not sepals, but bracteas; and the pupil is therefore prepared to find calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, within and above them. Gently pull away one of the white leaves of the flower, in such a manner as to bring away with it all the parts attached to its base. Upon careful examination it will be found that a complete floret is thus removed; and by continuing the operation, it will be manifest that the whole of the head of the blossom consists of a series of flowers crowded together upon the expanded top of the flower-stalk, which is named the receptacle.

White Pomatum. Take an ounce of Florentine orris-root, half an ounce of calamus aromaticus and as much gum benjamin, a quarter of an ounce of rosewood, and a quarter of an ounce of cloves. Bruise the whole into a gross powder, tie it up into a piece of linen, and simmer it in a jar placed in a saucepan with two pounds and a half of hog’s lard well washed. Add a couple of pippins, pared and cut into small bits; four ounces of rose-water; and two ounces of orange-flower water. After the ingredients have simmered together a little while, strain off the liquor gently, and let the pomatum stand till cold; then put it away for use in the same way as other pomatums.

Or,—Take half an ounce of white wax, half an ounce of spermaceti, and three ounces of almond oil; put these into a basin, which place into hot water until melted; then gradually add three ounces of either rose-water, elder-water, or orange-flower water, stirring all the while with a fork or small whisk. Any perfume may be put in; but, medicinally, it is better without. When cold it is fit for use.

The rays from G fall diverging upon the mirror, and are reflected to a focus at g, where they form an image of the extremity at G; in the same way, a representation of the extremity H will be formed at h, so that a complete but inverted image of C H will be thus formed. The above will explain the inverted image formed in the hollow part of the spoon.

Lime and Egg Cement is frequently made by moistening the edges to be united with white of egg, dusting on some lime from a piece of muslin, and bringing the edges into contact. A much better mode is to slake some freshly-burned lime with a small quantity of boiling water; this occasions it to fall into a very fine dry powder, if too much water has not been added. The white of egg used should be intimately and thoroughly mixed, by beating, with an equal bulk of water, and the slaked lime added to the mixture, so as to form a thin paste, which should be used speedily, as it soon sets. This is a valuable cement, possessed of great strength, and capable of withstanding boiling water. Cements made with lime and blood, scraped cheese, or curd, may be regarded as inferior varieties of it. Cracked vessels, of earthenware and glass may often be usefully, though not ornamentally repaired by white lead spread on strips of calico, and secured with bands of twine. But in point of strength, all ordinary cements yield the palm to

Red Cement, which is employed by instrument makers for cementing glass to metals, and which is very cheap, and exceedingly useful for a variety of purposes, is made by melting five parts of black resin, one part of yellow wax, and then stirring in, gradually, one part of red ochre or Venetian red, in fine powder, and previously well dried. This cement requires to be melted before use, and it adheres better if the objects to which it is applied are warmed. A soft cement, of a somewhat similar character, may be found useful for covering the corks of preserved fruit, and other bottles, and it is made by melting yellow wax with an equal quantity of resin, or of common turpentine (not oil of turpentine, but the resin), using the latter for a very soft cement, and stirring in, as before, some dried Venetian red. Bearing in mind our introductory remarks, it will be seen that the uniting of broken substances with a thick cement is disadvantageous, the object being to bring the surfaces as closely together as possible. As an illustration of a right and a wrong way of mending, we will suppose a plaster of Paris figure broken; the wrong way to mend it is by a thick paste of plaster, which makes, not a joint, but a botch. The right way to mend it is by means of some well-made carpenter’s glue, which, being absorbed into the porous plaster, leaves merely a film covering the two surfaces, and, if well done, the figure is stronger there than elsewhere.

Mastic Cement is used for making a superior coating to inside walls, and which must not be confounded with the resin mastic. It is made by mixing twenty parts of well-washed and sifted sharp sand with two parts of litharge and one of freshly burned and slaked quicklime in fine dry powder. This is made into a putty, by mixing with linseed oil; it sets in a few hours, having the appearance of light stone; and we mention it, as it may be frequently employed with advantage in repairing broken stonework (as stairs) by filling up the missing parts.

“The Saxons,” says Verstegan, “called the month Rhede Rethe-Monath, to denote its general boisterousness of character, Rhede signifying, in their interpretation, rough or rugged. Many antiquaries contend that, the month having been dedicated to the idol Rheda before the conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, the etymology of it thus given is more correct. The name was afterwards changed to Lenet-Monat, or length month, because in this month the length of the day begins to exceed that of the night. It has been said that Lenet signifies spring, and that therefore it was called spring month. As our Saxon ancestors observed the custom of fasting after they embraced Christianity, and as the period of the observance of this custom usually fell in the Lenet-Monat, it was called the Lenet fast, and by corruption the word Lenet became converted into Lent.”

Symbol or Allegory of the Month.—A young man of a tawny colour and fierce aspect, with a helmet on his head, being intended for Mars, the God of War. In his right hand he holds a ram, typical of the sign of Aries, or the Ram, because the sun enters that constellation on the 20th of the month, when Spring commences. A basket of seeds hangs upon his left arm, the hand holding a bunch of almond blossoms, and resting upon a spade, allegorical of the preparation of the ground by the husbandman.

There are some proverbs relating to the month which are based upon its character. Thus it is sometimes said that “a bushel of March dust is worth a king’s ransom;” and “a dry March never begs its bread.” Both these proverbs signify that a dry March is favourable to the agriculturist and gardener; and this is borne out by another proverb, which says that “March grass never did good;” hence we infer that a wet March, which would be necessary for the grass to grow so early, is prejudicial to the farmer and florist.

Our Calendar contains many days of observance in March. The 1st is called St. David’s-day. St. David is the patron saint of Welsh men. He was Archbishop of Miney, and died in 544, his remains being placed in the church of St. Andrew, and afterwards removed to Glastonbury Abbey. The custom of Welshmen wearing leeks in their hats on St. David’s-day is said to owe its origin to their having gained a great victory over the Saxons, from whom they distinguished themselves by wearing leeks during the battle.

2nd. St. Chad was an English bishop, educated at the monastery of Lindisfarne, and was fifth bishop of the Mercians and third bishop of Lichfield, where he died in 673, being buried with great pomp in the cathedral, his shrine costing upwards of £2,000 for decorations.

7th. Perpetua was a Roman saint, martyred in 205, by order of the Emperor Serverus.

17th. St. Patrick’s-day.—St. Patrick is the tutelary saint of the Irish, who wear a bunch of trefoil, or shamrock, upon this day. Biographers do not agree with respect to the date and place of birth of Ireland’s saint. Usher and Tillemont stating that he was born in the year 372, while Moore, in his “History of Ireland,” states that he was born in the year 387. The same discrepancy occurs with regard to the date of his death, Usher fixing it on the 17th of March, 493; Tillemont, on the same day in 455, Nenius in 464, and Moore in 465. Most biographers maintain that St. Patrick was born in a village called Bonaven Taberniæ, supposed to be the town of Kilpatrick, at the mouth of the Clyde, between Dumbarton and Glasgow; but Mr. Moore states that the saint was born in the neighbourhood of Boulogne in the ancient Armoric Britain, and that the Irish monarch, Nial of the Nine Hostages, having ravaged some of the maritime districts of Gaul in the year 403, St. Patrick was taken prisoner and carried to Ireland, where he was sold to a person residing in Antrim, who employed him to tend sheep. Having continued in this place for six years, he made his escape in a vessel bound for Gaul, and afterwards entered a monastery at Tours. It is said that he constantly dreamed that he was invited to return to Ireland in the name of its people, and accordingly he set sail for that purpose, and landed at Dublin about the year 422. His adventures upon landing; his conversion of Dicho, a pagan chieftain; his performance of Divine service in a barn; his celebration of Easter, by lighting the Paschal fire on Easter-eve before the halls of Tara; his conversion of multitudes of King Logaire’s followers, and the destruction of the great Druidical god, are all points of interest in the life of this saint. St. Patrick erected several rude Christian churches, and occupied the see of Armagh, which was founded to organize his new system. The origin of the Irish wearing the shamrock on this day is said to be from St. Patrick having used some of this plant as an illustration of the Trinity, when he was endeavouring to convert the Irish, after his second landing, in 422.

21st. St. Benedict was born in Umbria, about 480, and sent to school at Rome. He founded the order of Monks of St. Benedict, and died 543, at the age of sixty-three, after having performed, according to the statements of his followers, a host of extraordinary wonders and cures.

We may observe here that apothesia in Botany signifies a repository, and is applied to the cases in which the organs of reproduction of many of the algæ, or sea-weeds, are contained.

Weights. One pound contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains; one ounce 8 drachms, or 480 grains; one drachm 3 scruples, or 60 grains; one scruple 20 grains.

Measures. One gallon contains 8 pints, or 70,000 grains of water; one pint 20 ounces, or 8,750 grains; one ounce 8 drachms, or 437.5 grains; one drachm 60 minims, 54.7 grains.

Symbols and Characters. lb. represents a pound; ℥ an ounce; Ʒ a drachm; ℈ a scruple; gr. a grain; C. for congius, a gallon; O. for Octavius, a pint: the prefix fl before Ʒ or ℥, means a fluid drachm or ounce; ♏, a fluid minim; gtt. for gutte, a drop. The letters ss put after either of these characters signifies a half; thus, ℥ss is half an ounce. It should be borne in mind that minim and drop are not the same quantities, the former containing nearly half as much more as the latter, thus 10 minims of Tincture of Opium are equal to 15 drops; formerly it was customary to prescribe all medicines by drops as let fall from the mouth of a bottle; but the quantity in a certain number of these differed so considerably, according to the density of the fluid, or the vessel it was dropped from, that an alteration in the plan was found necessary, and that of admeasurement was adopted: we give here a cut of a minim measure, and also of one used for larger quantities.

Minim Measure.

These may be purchased of any druggist, at a low price; they are made of glass, some are large enough to contain a pint.

2 Ounce Measure.

We give also a cut of a graduated medicine glass which is a useful article in the nursery or sick chamber; it should be explained that a tablespoonful is considered to be half an ounce, a teaspoonful 1 drachm, a dessertspoonful is 2½ drachms, a wineglassful is 2 ounces. As spoons and glasses vary much in size it is best to use a measure like this in giving medicine. [From the “Family Doctor,” a publication that should find a place in every household, for its freedom from quackery, and the conscientious and enlightened manner in which the important subject of medicine has been treated. The work is beautifully illustrated, and is the cheapest of cheap books, being alike trustworthy and permanently useful. Published by Houlston and Wright, Paternoster Row, London.]

Graduated Medicine Glass.

Commencing with the Apple—the fruit in most general use, of which we have many varieties—the best being suitable for different purposes, but all containing more or less of saccharine, acid, mucilage, soft woody fibre, and water, the quality of the fruit being dependent upon the proportion in which one or other of these prevails. The aroma of apples, on which their flavour seems to depend, is supposed to act as a mild stimulant, and to assist digestion; therefore, those apples which have the finest flavour are the most esteemed. The American sorts and the rennets abound in this quality, and they also contain a greater than ordinary proportion of sugar and mucilage, consequently are more nutritive; while the pippins and all hard varieties possess much woody fibre, difficult of digestion. The dry mealy kinds, although not so much relished, are highly nutritive, while the watery sorts are generally crude, cold, and ill-adapted to weak stomachs in their raw state.

But apples of very inferior quality are made palatable and wholesome by the application of heat, and the fruit of apple pie, if not too much spiced, or even the roasted apple, is highly nutritive and digestible. Before this fruit is subjected to heat, it is composed of a very great number of little cells and vessels, containing the acid juice and the pulp—probably in a separate state. When heated, the juice expands and bursts through the cells, and as the temperature increases, the watery portion of the moisture is partly converted into steam, and evaporates through the rind.

When the acid and pulp of the apple are thus set free from their confinement, they enter into more intimate union, and the taste of the acid is mellowed by its mixture with the pulp, in the same manner as rum is mellowed by being mixed with milk: as the pulp also contains saccharine, this is disengaged by the heat, and mixes with the acid.

Ripe, sweet, and mealy apples, produce a laxative effect on the bowels, while those which are sour and astringent should be avoided by the sedentary, as they are apt to induce costiveness, griping, and flatulency, particularly when eaten after meals by persons indulging in wine or spirits.

Pears have but little of the acid usually found in apples, but they generally possess more saccharine, and also more woody fibre, which renders some kinds indigestible. Those which are not hard and solid contain, along with their sugar, a considerable proportion of mucilage, which—although nourishing—is apt to ferment in the stomach, and produce flatulence. The Maria Louisa and the Old Burgundy are easy of digestion, the former perhaps the best and handsomest pear produced, and these when ripe may be eaten freely, being sweet, mellow, and laxative, and very salutary to some constitutions, but heavy to cold stomachs when taken in excess. The very hard sorts should be prohibited to the weak, and moderately indulged in by the robust, having little nutriment, and their great quantity of woody fibre serving to overload and fatigue the stomach.

Strawberries. The strawberry was esteemed by the late Dr. Abernethy as the most wholesome of all fruits, “balsamic and refreshing, and one of the most precious gifts of Providence!” It is mildly acid, contains a medium proportion of sugar and mucilage, and the seeds act on the bowels similarly to those of the fig. In some cases the seeds are said to have accumulated in the stomach and produced alarming disease. The occurrence is rare, however, and need no more deter us from eating strawberries than the fact of a person being choked with a fish-bone should deter us from eating fish. According to Linnæus, strawberries are an excellent prevention of gout and gravel. Wine is supposed to be injurious to the beneficial action of strawberries when taken in connexion; and the usual appendage of cream and sugar, although highly nourishing to the robust, is not adapted to weak stomachs. The fruit should not be too freely indulged in after dinner, or any other full meal. In warm weather strawberries are very grateful for breakfast or lunch, and a foreign fashion of preparing them has lately been adopted: it is as follows:—Take off the stalks from as many berries as will form one layer at the bottom of a dish; sift some fine loaf-sugar over them, then place another layer, and sift again, each layer being smaller than the other, and the heap raised in a pyramidical form. When you have several layers, squeeze the juice of a fresh lemon over the whole. Before they are served out, they should be gently disturbed so as to receive the full benefit of the lemon-juice and sugar. They may be eaten of heartily when thus prepared, without danger.

Raspberries resemble strawberries in most of their qualities, and may be used in the same manner; but their flavour is too strong to be agreeable when eaten fresh: they are, therefore, mostly used for tarts or preserving. In picking, great care must be taken to abstract the small worm which will generally be found on withdrawing the stalk when quite ripe.

Gooseberries. According to Dr. John, an eminent continental chemist, the analysation of this fruit gave the following substances, but in what proportion he does not state:—Water, sugar, citrate of lime, ditto of potash, malate of lime, ditto of potash, resin, gum, fibrin, ammonia, phosphate of lime, and phosphate of magnesia. Next to the strawberry the gooseberry is esteemed as the most wholesome and digestible of our native fruits. Like that, it possesses a good mixture of sugar and acid, but abounds more in mucilage and hard seeds. The skin besides is astringent, acid, fibry, and indigestible; from the latter of which qualities it acts upon the bowels by irritation, and proves laxative; for which reason some have recommended the skins to be eaten. Of this we do not approve, for the seeds answer the purpose sufficiently well without loading the bowels with a mass of indigestible and irritable substances. Gooseberries are recommended in cutaneous diseases—being cooling to the blood—and also in deficiency of bile. Heat, whether applied to the stewing or baking, proves (as in the case of apples) an excellent corrector of the crude juices of unripe or inferior fruit, and the green shoots of rhubarb, which are likewise sub-acid and saccharine, make a wholesome addition to pies and puddings in the early part of summer.

Currants rank next in quality, and those, particularly the black, have a much stronger principle of astringency than any of the preceding fruits; consequently, though they contain sugar and mucilage, they prove less laxative than strawberries or gooseberries. The seeds and skin being nearly indigestible should not be swallowed, or if so eaten, with great moderation, and the black are considered the most wholesome.

Grapes can only be classed to a certain degree as a native fruit; for although vast quantities are grown against walls, they do not always ripen sufficiently for use in a raw state. The grape contains the same chemical principles as the fruits enumerated, with the addition of super-tartrate of potass, the substance which, according to Maculloch, makes the chief difference between grape wine and all others. It has also less of the malic acid than our native fruits, while it possesses a pleasant and wholesome aromatic flavour, and most sorts have also a principle of astringency which counteracts in some degree the laxative tendency. For this reason, ripe grapes may be eaten without reserve even by the sick and convalescent; for although the stones or seeds possess a very strong astringent principle, so long as they are unbroken it is not brought into action, and they pass through the bowels without producing any injurious effects. The large portion of sugar in grapes renders them nutritive, while the acidity facilitates their digestion; and for bilious complaints or dry temperaments they are found to have a very beneficial effect.

Cherries differ exceedingly in quality, some sorts containing much water and sugar, which, from being easily fermented, occasion colic and flatulence. Others contain a large portion of water and acid, which slightly stimulating the stomach, proves digestible and wholesome—but the most nutritive are the pulpy mucilaginous sorts. When cherries are quite ripe they may be eaten freely without danger, but care should be taken not to swallow the stones, which sometimes lodge in the bowels, and produce obstructions. The kernel yields a portion of that deadly poison prussic acid.

Plums, Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots. These stone-fruits contain the elements of sugar, water, mucilage, acids, and woody fibre, varying in proportion according to their kind and quality. They are all highly injurious to the stomach in an unripe state, in consequence of their acid juices acting as astringents, and producing gripes and colic, therefore they should never be ventured on until the pulp can be easily separated from the stone. When quite ripe, they are wholesome and easy of digestion, acting on the bowels as a mild laxative. It sometimes happens that one-half the fruit—the sunny side—is ripe, the other not, in which case the unripe part should be rejected. It has been generally remarked that a plentiful year for plums is rife of fevers and dysenteries, which proceed doubtless from incautious indulgence. Heat, however applied, renders the fruit wholesome and digestible. Ripe apricots are considered refreshing and laxative, and peaches are best raw and stewed with sugar; or, for cold heavy stomachs, stewed peaches are found to be gratifying.

Oranges, Lemons, and Limes.—Unfortunately these delicious cooling productions of warmer climes come in season here during the winter, when their fragrant and refreshing qualities cannot be so well appreciated as in sultry weather. They all abound in water, acid, mucilage, and woody fibre, with a very variable proportion of saccharine. The peel, or rind, besides woody fibre, contains a strong indigestible oil, the basis apparently of their fine aroma. The inner, or white rind, as well as the outer, should be carefully removed before eating, for it is proved to be highly deleterious to weak stomachs. The acids of these fruits, properly corrected with sugar, are light, cooling, and wholesome. Like other acid and saccharine vegetables, they are also of a laxative nature. The weak stomach; however, may very readily be injured by too copious a use of them. When eaten in too great quantity after dinner, they impede and sometimes stop digestion. In fever, these fruits are very grateful and advantageous. In scorbutic cases they are good, and in the sea-scurvy invaluable, as a certain remedy. Oranges have been said to produce a cure in some case of consumption, when eaten in the proportion of at least half a dozen a-day, acting on the stomach as a mild tonic, when too weak to bear elixir of vitriol.

Raisins, Currants, Figs, French Plums, and other fruits, imported in a dry state, should be indulged in with moderation, and the skins invariably rejected, being highly indigestible, and producing flatulency.

Walnuts, Almonds, Nuts. The chemical elements of the various species of nuts differ considerably from that of other fruits. In these we have the farinaceous principle of the grains, with an oil which is rare in other vegetable productions. Both the farina and the oil, besides a small portion of saccharine, are nutritive; but the oil renders them hard of digestion, and fatal consequences occur from eating quantities of nuts. All nuts ought to be used as fresh as possible, for the oil becomes rancid by keeping. It is of great importance that the kernel should be well chewed, for the unbroken portion cannot be digested by the strongest stomach. Salt is a good condiment, and improves the flavour. The French use pepper and verjuice with new walnuts.

Almonds, more especially the bitter, and all nuts which possess the peach-blossom or bay-leaf flavour, contain a portion of that deadly poison prussic acid, and should therefore be eaten with extreme caution. In persons of weak digestion, they frequently produce griping, cramp, nausea, and sometimes fainting. Sugar taken with them is supposed to counteract this to a certain degree, but the best way is to avoid eating substances of so questionable a character.

Pine-Apple. The flavour of this fruit is confessedly exquisite, but its acidity and astringent qualities make it unfit for the delicate; although, on account of its rarity, most persons are tempted to eat it when attainable. Its acrid juices are mellowed by dipping the slices in wine or brandy, saturated with sugar; but it is generally eaten fresh, seasoned with the finest sugar en poudre.

When this has been done, the foundation is cleared away, and a clear space left. Then other beams (2) are placed under the first, and resting like them on blocks of wood, and by this means the front and back walls are supported; and now the whole foundation is exposed. The screws (3) are placed under the ends of the second beams (2), which are forced upwards by their means, and the weight of the whole building sustained by them. The ground underneath being all removed, a set of grooved-ways, or beams (6), are placed where the end walls formerly stood, and the cradles (5), which are beams with a projection corresponding to the groove in the ways, are placed on them, both being previously well greased. Large beams (4) are placed over the cradles, between them and the beams (2) which support the ends of the house, and wedges driven in to render the whole tight and secure, which is also effected by additional blocks (7). The screws are now removed, and being placed horizontally, are made to act together against the cradles, and move them along the ways, at the rate of four feet a day, to the place the house is to occupy. Then, by inverting the operations, the beams are removed, and the house firmly fixed, without sustaining any injury, and often without even moving as much as a chair from the house.

The first thing necessary to be done, after obtaining the colours and the velvet (which should be cotton, or more properly velveteen, as most common cotton velvets are not sufficiently thick, and silk velvet, besides the expense, is not found to answer), is to prepare the formula for the group intended to be painted. Get a piece of tracing or silver-paper the size of the cushion, mat, or screen you wish to paint, then lay it carefully upon the group you wish to copy and trace through. Should the paper slip, the formula will be incorrect; it will be therefore well to use weights to keep all flat. Having traced your flowers, remove the thin paper, and laying it on a piece of cartridge paper the same size, go over the pencil-marks by pricking them out with a fine needle, inserted in a cedar stick. Now that you have your whole pattern pricked out clearly upon a stiff paper, take eight or nine more pieces of cartridge paper, of the same size as the first, and laying them, one by one, in turn, under the pricked pattern, shake a little powdered indigo over, and then rub with a roll of lint or any soft material. The indigo, falling through the punctures, will leave the pattern in blue spots on the sheet of paper beneath; then proceed in like manner with the remaining formulas until you have the self-same pattern neatly traced, in blue dots, on them all. Next, with a sharp penknife, you must cut out the leaves, petals, and calices of the group, taking care to form only a few on each formula, and those not too near together, lest there should not be sufficient room to rub between the spaces, and that, for instance, the green tint intended for the leaf should intrude on the azure or crimson of the nearest convolvulus; for in this sort of work erasure is impossible.

The following diagrams will show how the formulas should be cut, so as to leave proper spaces, as above-mentioned. The shading denotes the parts cut out.

Formula 1.

Some leaves may be cut out in two halves, as the large ones in the pattern; others all in one, as the small leaf: but it is chiefly a matter of taste. The large leaves should, however, generally be divided. In each formula there should be two guides—one on the top of the left-hand side, the other at the bottom of the right-hand corner—to enable the formulas always to be placed on the same spot in the velvet.

Formula 2.

For instance, as in Formula 2, A and B are the two guides, and are parts cut out, in Formula 2, of leaves, the whole of which were cut out in No. 1; and therefore, after No. 1 is painted, and No. 2 applied, the ends of the painted leaves will show through, if No. 2 be put on straight; if, when once right, the formula is kept down with weights at the corners, it cannot fail to match at all points. Care should, however, be taken never to put paint on the guides, as it would necessarily leave an abrupt line in the centre of the leaf. While cutting out the formulas, it is a good plan to mark with a cross or dot those leaves which you have already cut out on the formulas preceding, so that there will be no confusion. When your formulas are all cut, wash them over with a preparation made in this manner: put into a wide-mouthed bottle some resin and shell-lac—about two ounces of each are sufficient; on this pour enough spirits of wine or naphtha to cover it, and let it stand to dissolve, shaking it every now and then. If it is not quite dissolved as you wish it, add rather more spirits of wine; then wash the formulas all over on both sides with the preparation, and let them dry. Now taking Formula No. 1, lay it on the white velvet, and place weights on each corner to keep it steady; now pour into a little saucer a small quantity of the colour called Saxon green, shaking the bottle first, as there is apt to be a sediment; then take the smallest quantity possible on your brush (for if too much be taken, it runs, and flattens the pile of the velvet; the brush should have thick short bristles, not camel-hair, and there ought to be a separate brush for each tint: they are sold with the colours). Now begin on the darkest part of the leaf, and work lightly round and round in a circular motion, taking care to hold the brush upright, and to work more as it were on the formula than on the velvet. Should you find the velvet getting crushed down and rough, from having the brush too damp, continue to work lightly till it is drier, then brush the pile the right way of it, and it will be as smooth as before. Do all the green in each formula in the same manner, unless there be any blue-greens, when they should be grounded instead with the tint called grass-green. Next, if any of the leaves are to be tinted red, brown, or yellow, as autumn leaves, add the colour over the Saxon green before you shade with full green, which will be the next thing to be done; blue-green leaves to be shaded also with full green. Now, while the green is yet damp, with a small camel-hair pencil vein the leaves with ultramarine. The tendrils and stalks are also to be done with the small brush. You can now begin the flowers; take, for instance, the convolvulus in the pattern. It should be grounded with azure, and shaded with ultramarine (which colour, wherever used, should always be mixed with water, and rubbed on a palette with a knife); the stripes in it are rose-colour, and should be tinted from the rose saucer. White roses and camellias, lilies, &c., are only lightly shaded with white shading; and if surrounded by dark flowers and leaves so as to stand out well, will have a very good effect.

Flowers can easily be taken from nature in the following manner.—A A, D D, is a frame of deal, made light, and about two feet long, and eight or ten inches in width. The part D D is made to slide in a groove in A A, so that the frame may be lengthened or shortened at pleasure. A vertical frame, C, is fixed to the part D, and two grooved upright pieces, B B, fixed to the other part. These uprights should be about nine inches high, and C half that height. There is also a piece of wood at the end A of the frame, marked E, with a small hole for the eye, and there is a hole in the top C opposite to it. S is a piece of glass, sliding in the grooves in B B. In the hole H is placed the flower or flowers to be copied. If a group is wished, more holes should be made, and the flowers carefully arranged. The eye being directed to this through the hole in E, it can be sketched on the glass by means of a pencil of lithographic chalk. It is afterwards copied through by slipping the glass out, laying it on a table, and placing over it a piece of tracing-paper. When traced on the paper, proceed as before to make the formulas.

Of course, so delicate a thing as white velvet will be found at length to soil. When this is the case, it can be dyed without in any way injuring the painting. For this a dye is prepared by the manufacturer of the colours, and can be procured with them.

Dye thus:—Get an old slate-frame, or make a wire frame; add to it a handle, as in annexed figure; then tie over it a network of packthread; next cut a piece of cardboard the exact size of your group, so as to completely cover it, the edges of the cardboard being cut into all the ins and outs of the outer line of the group; then placing it carefully over the painting, so as to fit exactly, lay a weight on it to keep it in place. Then dip a large brush into the dye, hold the frame over the velvet (which should be stretched out flat—to nail the corners to a drawing-board is best), and by brushing across the network, a rain of dye will fall on the velvet beneath. Do not let the frame touch the velvet; it should be held some little way up. Then just brush the velvet itself with the brush of dye, to make all smooth, and leave the velvet nailed to the board till it is dry. Groups, whether freshly done, or dyed, are greatly improved, when perfectly dry, by being brushed all over with a clean and rather soft hat-brush, as it renders any little roughness, caused by putting on the paint too wet, completely smooth and even as before. Music-stools, the front of pianos, ottomans, banner-screens, pole-screens, and borders for table-cloths look very handsome done in this manner.

Toucans. These birds are all distinguished by their enormous bills, which are convex above, and much hooked towards the point; although very light, they are of great strength, and, being toothed at the edges, they are formidable instruments of destruction, when used, as they sometimes are, in attacking other birds, which the Toucans chase from their nests, in order to get at the eggs and young, which they devour in sight of the unhappy parents. During the season of incubation they are said to live chiefly on this kind of food, although at other times they eat fruits, insects, and the tender buds of plants. The Toucans are found chiefly in the warmer regions of America, where they go in little flocks of from six to ten; although heavy flyers, they reach the top of the highest trees, where they are fond of perching. They make their nests in the hollows of trees. The female lays but two eggs, like other Parrots. The young are easily reared and tamed; they will eat almost anything; their mode of eating solid food is very peculiar. When the morsel is presented, they take it on the point of the bill, throw it upward, and then catch it in the open mouth so dexterously that it goes at once into the aperture of the gullet, and is then swallowed without difficulty. The Toucans are so sensible to cold that they dread the night air, even in tropical countries; it is therefore necessary to keep them in a warm temperature. Their tongues are more hard and inflexible than those of other Parrots; consequently they do not shine as speakers—their utterance is usually confined to a kind of croak.

Parrots. We now come to the Parrot proper, forming what is called the typical group, or Psitticina, of the great Parrot family. In this group are included all the short and even-tinted species which are found distributed throughout all parts of the globe, but chiefly in the tropical countries, and especially those of America. Their general form may be described as rather strong and compact than elegant. The colours of their plumage are not so varied and brilliant as those of the Macaws and Lories, although some of the Parakeets, which are usually classed with them, may vie in this respect with the most superb of the tribe. But the true Parrots are chiefly valued on account of their aptitude for imitation and extraordinary power of articulating words and sentences, in which art they are the greatest proficients of any.

Food. Bread and milk should form the chief diet for these birds, and this is how it should be prepared:—take best white bread, moderately new, cut it into slices and place it in hot water: let it stand for a short time, then drain off the liquid, and pour over it as much boiling milk as it will absorb without being too moist; place this food in the feeding vessel, which should be of porcelain, or glass; and give it fresh twice a-day, taking care that the vessel is carefully washed each time before the food is put in. In the winter time a supply for the whole day may be made, but in hot weather it should not be more than ten or twelve hours old. This kind of soft food should not be exclusively employed, but have occasional variations in the shape of biscuit, broken small farinaceous grain, and nuts of any kind, fruit both soft and hard; if Indian corn is given, it should be first boiled, then drained dry, and suffered to cool: this is for the larger kinds of Parrots; to the smaller give, besides bread and milk, soft fruit, with hemp and canary seed, and millet. A cayenne pepper-pod, chopped small, is good occasionally for all kinds: but meat should be avoided; and so should pastry and sweets generally. It is a mistaken kindness to feed feathered pets too highly; the digestive organs of birds in confinement never have fair play, for want of that exercise which, in a wild state, they would take: therefore, let them have easily digestive food; do not overload their stomachs, and so engender diseases which will render their lives miserable, if they do not bring them to an untimely end.

Water.—Let them have plenty of this, both to drink and bathe in, and be sure that it is at all times clean and sweet.

Lodging. We need not say much upon this head; everybody knows what a Parrot requires—a good roomy cage, if he be kept in one (the bell-shape is the best), made of metal wire, not painted; a loose ring to swing on above, and a perch or two below, with proper eating and drinking vessels, not of zinc or pewter, but, as we said before, of glass or porcelain. Sprinkle the bottom with coarse sand, and in warm weather clean out every day; in cold, twice a week or so will do, or even once. Bear in mind that Parrots are mostly tropical birds, and carefully guard them from exposure to cold. Let them have as much sunshine as possible, and whenever the weather will permit, place them in the open air amid flowering shrubs: at other times, where a greenhouse is available, let them go there. An aviary with myrtles and other odoriferous plants about it, and the temperature well up, will make them think they are in their native spice isles of the Eastern Seas. For the larger kinds of Parrots, Macaws, and Cockatoos, the open perch is the thing; let the chain of attachment be of a good length, and as slight as is consistent with strength: no silken cord will do, for the strong mandibles of the bird will soon sever this, be it ever so thick; tin vessels for food and drink may be affixed to the perch; but take care that they do not get rusty and corroded.

Teaching and Training. Be patient, be gentle,—and if the pupil can learn, he will; repeat the lesson frequently, and give rewards for diligence and attention (some choice morsel), but never threaten or punish—no good is effected by this, but much harm. Never let your bird be teased or trifled with—many a good temper has been spoiled by such means—many a fond, affectionate creature rendered spiteful and morose. Think of the deprivations to which the poor captive is subjected for the pleasure of its possessor; of what he would enjoy if he were at liberty in his own home, of warm sunshine and luxuriant vegetation; and do all you can to make his prison-life pleasant and agreeable to him.

A flat piece of writing paper having been laid upon the top, and a flat plate above that, the whole should be turned upside down, as in the figure. If you now place your apparatus in the sunshine, you will see small bubbles form upon the leaves of the sprig, and rise to the upper part of the inside of the tumbler; this is pure oxygen gas. The carbonic acid, which the water absorbed, is undergoing decomposition; that is, the materials, oxygen and carbon, of which it is composed, are being separated or de-composed; the oxygen is set free, and the sprig having used the carbon would be found to be exactly so much heavier, in proportion to the oxygen set at liberty. This operation requires light, and in a natural condition only goes on during the day. This should be borne in mind with regard to flowers in sick rooms; in the day their presence has a purifying effect, but at night this ceases. Besides this chemical change, the leaves of plants take an active part in the function of perspiration while exposed to sunshine. The similarity between this function in plants and animals is singular. The quantity of water thrown out by plants may be proved by the simple experiment of placing a tumbler inverted upon the grass-plot on a fine sunny day. The sides of the glass will presently be covered with the condensed vapour of water, then drops will form, and presently run down in little streams. This fluid has, in most cases, been derived from the root. The nutritious fluid of the plant, like the blood of animals, needs exposure to the air before it is fit to take a place in the organized tissue of the body, and this contact with air is brought about in the leaf, the anatomy of which I will now endeavour to make plain to you.

If you split a stem down carefully, exactly at the point where a leaf is attached, you will be able in many instances without a magnifying glass to detect that the stalk of the leaf is connected with the central pith or medulla. A leaf is composed of four layers of tissue, or two layers folded upon themselves, as these pieces of paper are folded.

The outside represents the skin, or cuticle, of the stem, which is continued from the stem first along the upper surface, then turned over the edge, and so along the under surface to the stem again. This skin is colourless, or nearly so; and like our own, filled with pores.

Viewed beneath a powerful magnifying glass, it is found to be composed of very small bags, or cells, pressed very closely together: hence it is said to be composed of cellular tissue. Our own bodies are chiefly composed of this tissue, and all growth is effected by means of the addition of these little cells. The skin, or cuticle of the leaf, is composed of compressed, or condensed, cellular tissue. Beneath it run the vessels which bring the sap up from the root, which, coming from the medulla, or pith, pass first over the upper surface of the leaf, and then, having been turned under towards the stem, deposit the new wood within the bark. Here we find, under the microscope, beautiful vessels with twisted or spiral fibres within them.

These tubes are called spiral vessels, and are the agents in bringing about that wonderful change before spoken of. All the juices of plants are the same, till they pass along these vessels in the leaf, where they undergo a change. After having been exposed to light and air, in the myriads of vessels which run along the leaf, the juice, passing downwards on the outside of the stem, deposits woody fibre in its downward course. This is chiefly composed of the carbon of the air, which has been taken from the air by the leaves, which have really much more to do with the nourishment of most plants than their roots. Here is a strong bough in the hedge, round which a piece of woodbine has been tightly bound, and which will illustrate this matter.

The stem is swelled above the woodbine, not below, proving that the growth of the tree takes place from above downwards. You may prove this also by a simple experiment, in which a piece of strong string may be substituted for the woodbine:—If round the stem of some rapidly-growing young tree you tie a piece of string, you will find, in a short time, that the fibres sent down from the leaves and buds will swell the stem above the ligature, while the portion of the stem below where you have tied the string will not have increased in size. Never, therefore, pluck the leaves from plants, with the idea that they have got more than their roots can nourish; for, on the contrary, the leaves are the support of the plant. The beautiful green colour of leaves depends upon the decomposition of carbonic acid in its vessels, and what we are breathing out of our lungs to-day will probably be incorporated with the tissues of a beautiful plant to-morrow; perhaps with some blade of grass; on that grass the cow will feed, and again appropriate the carbon, by absorbing it into its circulation, and forming the butter of milk; and of that butter, whose chief component part you breathed out from your lungs a week before, you may eat, digest, and again breathe out into the atmosphere. Such are the wonderful journeys of a particle of carbon.

A hole being thus made in the bed for the reception of a better plant, the latter is lifted from the reserve bed in the same manner, and with the transplanter is inserted in the hole previously occupied by its less beautiful predecessor. It will be seen by the figure, that one side of the transplanter is held together by the pin b; now, when the flower is placed in its proper position, and this pin drawn out, the edges of the tube spring open a little, and allow the instrument to be withdrawn from the soil without disturbing the plant. Some, who do not use a transplanter, cut a flower from the reserve bed, and insert the end of its stalk in a phial of water, sunk out of ordinary vision in the grand bed; these cut flowers will keep in bloom several days, and can be renewed when requisite.

A thicker piece, or a tube of larger bore, a beginner in chemistry could not manage to work. Let the piece be about eight inches long. Next light the spirit lamp, having trimmed the wick in such a manner as to yield a good flame. Hold the tube in the flame and near its point, somewhat about three inches from one end of the tube.

Whilst the tube is thus exposed to the heat, never allow it to rest for an instant, but keep revolving it, pulling at the same time. Very soon the tube will assume this appearance, which, when observed, the two pieces of the tube, 1 and 2 respectively, being twisted in reverse directions, and a final pull being given, No. 2 will separate like this—

That is to say, closed at one end, open at the other. Allow it to cool. When cold, put in the tartrate of lead (provided it be quite dry), and when in, carefully draw out the tube like this—

that is to say, permitting a very fine tube at the point (a). Next apply the spirit lamp flame to the tartrate as long as any smoke escapes, by which means the tartrate of lead is what chemists term decomposed, every portion of it except lead and charcoal resulting from the operation being evolved in the gaseous form. When this point is arrived at (known by the cessation of smoke), re-melt the fine tube at (a) and separate the two pieces of tube with a twist. The lead in a very fine state of subdivision, and intimately mixed with charcoal, will be now what is called hermetically sealed into the glass tube, and may be caused to inflame at pleasure by breaking off one end of the closed tube, and shaking it into the air.

Cut off a piece of brass-tubing, one quarter of an inch in diameter, and of sufficient length to allow half an inch below the cork and three-quarters of an inch above it. Push the tube in (a) through the hole made in the cork by the red-hot wire, and be sure that it fits well. Pass a piece of cotton used for lamps through the tubing, and be sure that it is long enough to reach the bottom of the bottle. Fit a tin cap (c) to the cork so as to keep the spirit of wine or naphtha from evaporating, and your spirit lamp will be complete.

2.—Temporary Retort (To Make a). Procure a Florence flask, such as olive oil is usually sold in, and clean it out by washing the inside well, first with a strong solution of soda and small pieces of brown paper, and then with clean water; turn it up mouth downwards, and let it drain well. Fit the mouth with a sound cork and bore a hole in it with a red hot wire, as directed in section 1. This hole is intended to receive a bent tube, which we will now proceed to form.

3.—Bent Tubes for Chemical Experiments (To Construct). Take a piece of glass tubing one-third of an inch in diameter, and of the proper length—light your spirit lamp (section 1), and hold the tube diagonally in the flame, taking care to turn it round all the time, and to move it backwards and forwards, so as to heat about four inches of it in the part where it requires to be bent.

When the glass begins to get soft, place the two thumbs against the glass so as to form fulcra, as in the annexed figure, and bend it slowly backwards,—that is, towards your body, until it acquires the proper form. When the tube has been bent into the proper shape, heat each end of it in the flame of the spirit lamp for a minute, so as to round off the edges.

Take a triangular file, and slightly scratch the flask with the end of it, then run the point of a piece of heated wire in the required direction. Thus, if passed in the direction d e, or f g, in the annexed figure, you will have deep evaporating dishes; if in the directions a o and b o, you will have shallow ones with tips; if from b to g, you will have a very shallow one for evaporating small samples of fluid. Portions of a Florence flask will be quite as useful, or remnants of retorts, which may be cut into circular dishes by bending a piece of stout iron wire into the form given in the annexed diagram,

fitting it into a wooden handle, and then, making it hot, apply it suddenly to the portion of flask or retort, and then remove it. This will cause the glass to crack in a circular form (See Section 3).

Let e f represent a boat, f i the rope by which it is drawn along, and also the force of draught. It may then be assumed that there are two forces acting, f g which draws the boat forward, and f h which would draw the head in the direction f h, were it not counteracted by the helm e d, which is parallel to the line f i. When the boat is moving, the resistance of the water acts upon the helm, which may be explained thus: If c a represents the resistance, it may be resolved into a d and e c. Now, as a d produces no effect upon the helm, it is evident that the pressure is in the line e c, which tends to turn the stern of the boat in the direction b e k, and thus counteracts the force of f h.

The salaries of the various officers at Greenwich Observatory are as follow:—the Astronomer Royal, £800 per annum; the first Assistant to ditto, £400; the second Assistant, £250; the third Assistant, £200; fourth, sixth, and seventh Assistants, each £100; and the fifth Assistant £120. The apparatus in use for denoting the exact time at which a heavenly body crosses the wire of the telescope consists of a cylinder, in circumference about three feet, and over which a covering of paper is to be placed. This cylinder will be made to revolve uniformly by means of a clock movement, governed by a centrifugal pendulum. The paper will travel a distance of about one-third of an inch in a second of time, but of course it can be made to travel a greater or less distance if desired. A pricker or marker, to be actuated by means of electricity, will be placed immediately over this paper. Wire will extend from this marker, and terminate in a key by the side of the observer at the telescope. On pressing down this key a mark will be made on the paper on the revolving cylinder, in the same way as marks are made by Morse’s telegraph. At the instant that the observer notices that a heavenly body is crossing one of the wires in his telescope, he will touch the key, and thus cause a mark to be made on the moving paper. Each second of time will, by clock-work mechanism, be also marked by dots upon the same piece of paper, so that, by measuring the distance of the dot made by the observer from the nearest second dot made by the clock-work, the exact instant of time at which the observer’s mark was made will be ascertained. By this means the observer will be enabled to record the exact period at which such heavenly body crosses the respective wires of his telescope, and that with a degree of nicety which can be measured to the fractional part of a second of time. Without such apparatus it would be almost impossible to denote the time of an observation to a degree much less than that of a whole second of time, but by its means it will be perfectly easy to ascertain the exact instant, even to the one-hundredth or one-thousandth part of a second.

The principle of the diving-bell depends upon the impenetrability of atmospheric air, and may be explained by a very familiar experiment. Bring the edge of an inverted tumbler, or any close vessel, to the surface of water, and, keeping the mouth horizontal, press it down in the water. It will be seen that though some portion of the water ascends into the tumbler, the greater part of the space remains empty, or only filled with air; and any object placed in this space, though surrounded on all sides with water, would remain perfectly dry. In fact, the quantity of air remains the same, but it is compressed into a smaller volume, in proportion to the depth to which it is made to descend.

The sago palm, whose pith, dried and granulated, is in use through Europe, is also prolific in sugar. The talipot is famous for its large leaves, (one of which shelters from fifteen to twenty men,) and its fruit. The jack produces fruit as large as a man’s body, filled with delicious pulp, and with seeds as large as chesnuts, of which many dishes are made. A Cingalese family live at ease on the produce of a dozen cocoa-nuts and three or four jack-trees.

Symbol or Allegory of the Month.—A young man, with a cheerful and youthful face, clad in green, with a garland of myrtle and hawthorn in buds crossing his left shoulder, allegorical of the verdure at this period of the year. In his right-hand he holds a bunch of prize roses and violets, while his left hand rests upon a bull’s head, typical of the sign of Taurus, or the Bull, because the sun enters that constellation on the 19th of the month.

Synonymes.—In Latin, this month is called Aprilis; in French, Avril; in Italian, Aprile; in Portuguese, Abril; in ancient Cornish, Eprell; and in Saxon, Oster-Monath, or Easter month.

There are several remarkable days belonging to the month. The 1st day is called All Fools’-day. The well-known practice of making persons go on some foolish errand, such as to inquire for “pigeon’s-milk,” “strap-oil,” &c., or playing some practical joke upon them, has given rise to the name of All Fools’-day. The person so deceived is called an April fool in England, a gowk in Scotland, and un poisson d’Avril (an April fish) in France.

The 2nd day, in the present year, is Good Friday, being the day that is held in commemoration of our Saviour’s crucifixion. The oldest title given to this day is Holy Friday, or the Friday in Holy Week. The well-known “hot-cross buns,” which are so vigorously called about the streets early in the morning by itinerant vendors, are supposed to have originated in the desire to commemorate the Crucifixion, by marking the only food anciently sanctioned with the sign.

10th. On this day, in 1736, died Prince Eugene, the celebrated commander, in conjunction with the great Duke of Marlborough, of the armies of the Continent allied against the French. He was so popular in England that a maiden lady bequeathed to him £2,500.

On the 14th day, in 1471, the battle of Barnet was fought, in the wars between the houses of York and Lancaster; when the Earl of Warwick, called the “King-maker,” was slain in the field.

21st. In the old almanacks this day is dedicated to St. Anselm, who was born at Aoust, in Piedmont, and created Archbishop of Canterbury in 1093, by William Rufus. He died on this day, 1109, aged seventy-six. In 1142, Peter Abelard, a learned doctor in the Church, died, aged sixty-three. He was the celebrated lover of the no less celebrated Heloise.

23rd. St. George’s-day. St. George is the patron saint of England, and is said to have been born in Cappadocia, of Christian parents. Every schoolboy has read the fabulous history of St. George rescuing the King of Beyrout’s daughter from a desperate dragon, and all that befell him in his sojourn in Palestine. He is represented on our old sovereigns and five-shilling pieces in the act of slaying the dragon. Historians agree that he was beheaded on this day, 290, after being drawn through the city of Lydda, for having openly avowed himself as the champion of the Christians. St. George was the ancient word of attack of England, as St. Andrew was that of Scotland, and the figure of this saint is attached to the Order of the Garter, which was instituted by Edward III., after the battle of Calais, in the year 1349.

25th. This day is dedicated to St. Mark, whose Gospel was written in the year 63. The order of Knights at Venice, taking his name, was instituted in 737; their motto was “Pax tibi, Marce, evangelista meus.” There were many peculiar customs kept upon this day, but they have now become obsolete. Among others was that of blessing the corn, and also watching in the church-porch on the eve of St. Mark, to see the ghosts of those who should die in the following year.

Four illustrious individuals were born in this month, viz., Handel, Harvey, Shakspeare, and Cromwell.

But if the valve is loaded with a second 15 lb., equal to another atmosphere, then the mercury will rise to 60, and the force be doubled, steam being 20 times its former bulk; if it be loaded with 28 lbs. it will be again doubled, and so on; but, of course, such augmentation of force tries the strength of the engine. Of course, the energy of the steam rises from the motion of the oxygen transferred to the combustible, and by it to the water, the atoms of which evolving, in consequence, form moving circles, and hence the expansive force. The boiler is on the right-hand, and communicates the steam to the piston O A, whence it rushes into X and G, and raises the rods X Q, and G C, which force up the beam; and the beam carries round a small wheel O, which works in the small one, S, connected with the large one, R, and with R the works are connected.

Fig. 1.

You may see this formidable little insect upon their trunks, making a passage through the bark, and then dexterously excavating a kind of tunnel between the bark and wood, wherein she deposits her eggs, thus forming a nest for her future progeny, and for herself a tomb; for she dies when her work is done, and is generally found at the extremity of her channel, as if conscious that her end was approaching, and unwilling to impede the future operations of her progeny. Scarcely, however, have the larvæ emerged from their eggs than they begin to feed, working nearly at right angles from the path formed by their careful parent, and proceeding almost parallel to one another. They may even be found alive in January; and it is therefore probable that they work during the whole winter, when, in consequence of the sap being down, the bark adheres less firmly, and the progress of the grub is consequently not impeded.

Select a smooth part of the stock at the height you wish, and the side least exposed to the sun; with your budding-knife make a horizontal cut across the bark through to the wood, but not deeper; from the centre of this cross-cut make another of a similar kind, perpendicularly downwards, about an inch, or rather more, in length—these two cuts will be in the form of a T. Then proceed to take off the bud—or as it is technically termed, the shield—first cutting off the leaf, but leaving a part of the leaf-stalk. The shield must be carefully sliced out of the stem at one cut. (Figures a and b represent the stem and shield after their separation). A portion of the wood must be taken off with, and attached to, the shield; the greater part of this wood must be carefully picked out, but it is essential that a portion should be left at the back of the bud—if you do not do so, but make a hole through the shield at the eye, or root of the bud, you may throw it away as useless. Then, with the handle of the budding-knife, separate and turn back the bark from the stock on each side of the perpendicular cut (it will then resemble figure d), and insert the shield close to the wood, and between it and the turned-back bark. Cut off the top part of the shield horizontally (in the direction of the dotted line c), and fit the remaining upper part of the shield accurately, and closely, to the cross-cut in the stock—on this close contact of the two barks the success of the operation principally depends. You must now lay down the turned-back bark over the shield, and with a worsted thread, or bit of bass, bind it down, leaving the point of the bud clear. (Figure e represents the bud in the stock previous to its being bound). A friend informs us that he uses common adhesive plaster for binding, and that it answers admirably. If the weather be very warm, a handful of damp moss should be loosely tied over all, leaving, as before, the point of the bud exposed. In about a month, or six weeks, the ties may be removed; and, to throw the whole strength of the plant into the bud, all shoots must be cut off, and suckers, whenever they make their appearance, carefully eradicated. By budding, you may produce several kinds of roses upon the same plant. The more tender exotic roses would scarcely exist in this country if they were not budded on our more hardy kinds. Indeed, it is now generally acknowledged that all roses bloom finer, and last longer, when budded on the common wild rose. Budding is also extremely useful for filling up the vacancies which so frequently occur in peach and apricot trees, when trained to walls, by branches dying. Variegated shrubs, as holly, &c., are propagated by budding on the plain kinds.

Yet, not only in woods and hedges, on village commons, and beside the road, grow wild brambles in abundance; for they are found on mountains, at an elevation of at least two thousand feet, and where, in order to give shelter to those small birds and quadrupeds which affect high places—as the grouse and Alpine hare—they become nearly evergreen.

This plant, with the Dutch rush, or shave-grass, of which the stems have long been imported from Holland to polish cabinetwork, ivory, plaster casts, and even brass, are the only known instances of natural productions being applied to mechanical purposes. The teasel is alone available to raise the nap from woollen cloths, and for this purpose the heads are fixed round the circumference of a large broad wheel, which is made to turn in contact with the cloth; if a knot, or roughness, or projection, catch the hooks, they break immediately, without injury; but any mechanical invention, instead of yielding, tears them out, and materially injures the surface. Teasel crops require both labour and close attention, and are precarious in their returns; they suffer considerably from dripping seasons, and therefore cultivators who have heavy rents to pay seldom raise them. They consequently become the care of the more considerable cottagers; and as the members of a family unite in attending to them, they are frequently a source of considerable profit. Travellers who pass through districts where this plant is cultivated, relate that the teasel harvest is one of considerable interest. Some way-side cottage, with its garden and apple orchard, where also a small plot of ground is covered with teasels, presents a cheerful and animated scene when the labourer and his wife are busily employed in cutting the prickly heads from their tall angular stems with teasel-knives affixed to poles, and their children are seen joyfully running in all haste to place them in the sunbeams. The terminating heads, which ripen first, are called kings; they are large and coarse, and are adapted only for the strongest kind of cloth. The collateral heads then succeed, known by the name of middlings, and are used for the finest purposes. When dry, the older children pick and sort them into bundles—ten thousand of the best and smallest make a middling pack—nine thousand of the larger, the pack of kings. This valuable plant is known in almost every country throughout Europe by a name expressive of its use. Gerard tells us that its old English name was the carding teasel. The French call it cardon de foullon; the Danes and Swedes, carde tidsel; the Spaniards and Portuguese, cardo and cardencha; the Hollanders, caarden; and the Flemings, carden distel.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

1. The Mitre—(Fig. 1). Fold the napkin into three parts longways; then turn down the right-hand corner, and turn up the left-hand one, as in fig. 2, A and B. Turn back the point A towards the right, so that it shall lie behind C; and B to the left, so as to be behind D. Double the napkin back at the line E, then turn up F from before and G from behind, when they will appear as in fig. 3. Bend the corner H towards the right, and tuck it behind I; and turn back the corner K towards the left, at the dotted line, and tuck it into a corresponding part at the back. The bread is placed under the mitre, or in the centre, at the top.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

2. The Exquisite—(Fig. 4). Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then fold down two-fifths of the length from each side, as in fig. 5, at A; roll up the part B towards the back; repeat on the other side, then turn up the corner towards the corner A, and it will appear as D. The centre part E is now to be turned up at the bottom, and down at the top, and the two rolls brought under the centre-piece as in fig. 4. The bread is placed under the centre band, K, fig. 4.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

3. The Collegian—(Fig. 6). Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then turn down the two sides towards you, so that they shall appear as in fig. 7; then roll up the part A underneath until it looks like B, fig. 8. Now take the corner B and turn it up towards C, so that the edge of the rolled part shall be even with the central line; repeat the same on the other side, and turn the whole over, when it will appear as in fig. 6. The bread is placed underneath the part K.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

4. The Cinderella—(Fig. 9). Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then turn down the two sides as in fig. 7; turn the napkin over, and roll up the lower part as in fig. 10, A, B. Now turn the corner B upwards towards C, so that it shall appear as in D; repeat on the other side, and then bring the two parts E together, so that they shall bend at the dotted line; and the appearance will now be as at fig. 9. The bread is placed under the apron part, K, fig. 9.

Fig. 11.

5. The Flirt—(Fig. 11). Fold the napkin into three parts longways; then fold across the breadth, commencing at one extremity, and continuing to fold from and to yourself in folds about two inches broad, until the whole is done; then place in a tumbler, and it will appear as in the illustration.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

6. The Neapolitan—(Fig. 12). Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then fold one of the upper parts upon itself from you; turn over the cloth with the part having four folds from you, and fold down the two sides so as to appear as in fig. 7; then roll up the part A underneath, until it appears as in the dotted lines in fig. 13, at B. Now turn up the corner B towards C, so that the edge of the rolled part shall be even with the central line: repeat the same upon the opposite side, and turn the whole over, when it will appear as in fig. 14; the bread being placed underneath the part K, as represented in the illustration.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

7. The “Favourite”—(Fig. 14). Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then turn down the two sides as in fig. 7, and roll up the part A on both sides, until as represented on the right-hand side in fig. 14; then turn it backwards (as A B) on both sides; now fold down the point C towards you, turn over the napkin, and fold the two other parts from you so that they shall appear as in fig. 15. Turn the napkin over, thus folded, and raising the centre part with the two thumbs, draw the two ends (A and B) together, and pull out the parts (C and D) until they appear as in fig. 13. The bread is to be placed as represented in K, fig. 13.—Extracted from the Family Friend.

Fig. 1.

In Germany, the worm is being superseded by an excellent condenser, which is so superior that we are induced to give a sketch of it, hoping that it may lead to its adoption in this country. The vapours from the still pass into the tube A (fig. 1), by which they are conducted into B, a hollow globe, made to unscrew at its centre. The vapours, passing along the tubes C, are condensed, and the distilled liquid drops from D. The pipe E should convey a constant stream of cold water to the bottom of the tub, and this, rising as it is warmed by abstracting heat from the tubes and globe, should escape by F. All the tubes being straight, it is obvious that they can be readily cleaned from their ends.

In the laboratory, distilling is most frequently performed with vessels termed retorts, or even from flasks; but as these are not very applicable to domestic purposes, we pass them over.

In domestic practice, the still is usually employed to obtain some water or spirit flavoured with essential oil, or the oil itself, and the process should be slightly modified so as to suit each case. The vegetable substance should not be placed on the bottom of the still itself, as in that case it might become burnt, and so give an unpleasant flavour to the whole; but a bottom of wicker-work should be placed in the still in the first instance for it to rest upon, or a perforated board. The substance to be distilled should be placed in the still, covered with water, for some hours before the fire is lighted; no more water being added than sufficient to cover it, if the preparation of oil is the object.

Herbs, for distilling, should be collected on a dry day, and—unless the oil resides in the seeds, as in the case of caraway, anise, &c., or in the flowers, as in the rose, lavender, &c.—just before the flowers have opened, as at that period there is the greatest quantity of essential oil in the plant. All plants cultivated for distillation should be grown in a situation where they can receive a full amount of sun-light, as shade or darkness very much tend to prevent the formation of essential oil.

The liquid which comes out of the worm is a mixture of water highly-flavoured with the substance, and some undissolved oil. This latter is sometimes heavier and sometimes lighter than water, either sinking or floating; in the latter case the oil may be readily separated by filling a bottle with the mixture, and, when the oil is collected at the top, carrying it off by a few threads of cotton placed as in fig. 2, taking care that they are moistened with oil before arranging them; the cotton acts as a syphon, and removes the whole of the oil. If the object of the operation is to obtain the oil and not the distilled water, the latter should be preserved, and used again and again with fresh herbs; because, having in the first operation dissolved up as much oil as it is capable of doing, it causes no loss in the subsequent distillations.

Fig. 2.

It may, perhaps, be thought that our article is incomplete, from our not giving any particular directions as to the manufacture of spirits, both as regards the first fermentation and subsequent distillation; but our readers should bear in mind that the manufacture of spirit is illegal, and the result is most frequently a heavy fine and imprisonment, to which we have no wish that our articles should be introductory.

An electric is any substance, which being excited or rubbed by the hand, or by a woollen cloth, or other means, has the power of attracting light bodies. If a piece of sealing wax be rubbed briskly with the sleeve of your coat, a silk handkerchief, &c., for some time, and then held near hair, feathers, bits of paper, or other light bodies, they will be attracted; that is, they will jump up, and some of them will adhere to the wax. If a tube of glass, or small phial, be rubbed in a similar manner, it will answer much better. If this operation be performed in the dark, something luminous will be seen, which is called the electric matter or fluid; and all bodies that we are acquainted with have more or less of it in them; though it seems to lie dormant till it be put into action by rubbing. The air, and everything, is full of this fluid, which appears in the shape of sparks; the rubbing of the glass with the hand collects it from the hand; and the glass, having now more than its natural share, parts with it to any body that may be near enough to receive it. The substance rubbed and that with which it is rubbed are always found to be oppositely electrified—the one body having more and the other less than its natural share; indeed, one kind of Electricity is never obtained without, at the same time, the productions of the other. Those bodies which have been called Electrics, will not convey electricity from one body to another, and therefore they are termed Non-Conductors. The most remarkable are—glass, and all vitreous substances, precious stones, resins, amber, sulphur, baked wood, wax, silk, cotton, wool, hair, feathers, paper, white sugar, air, oils, metallic oxides, all dry vegetable substances, and all hard stones. Those bodies, which, when rubbed ever so much, do not exhibit electricity, are called Non-Electrics. They convey electricity from one body to another, and therefore are denominated Conductors; they are as capable of having electricity developed upon them by friction as those bodies which have been called “electrics,” but it is conducted away as fast as it is produced. Some of them conduct electricity much better than others. The principal conductors are the metals, charcoal, all fluids except dry airs and oils, most saline substances, and stony substances. Woollen and silk, when wet, will, by means of the water, conduct electricity.

When a body has more than its natural quantity of this fluid, it is said to be electrified positively, or plus; and when it has less than its natural quantity, it is said to be electrified negatively, or minus. When bodies are electrified either of these ways, they repel each other; but if some be electrified plus, and others minus, they mutually attract; or if one body be electrified plus, and the other not electrified in either way, they also attract each other.

There are some fishes which possess the extraordinary faculty of being able, at pleasure, to communicate shocks like those of an electric battery or galvanic pile, to any animal that comes in contact with them. They are called the torpedo, the gymnotus electricus, and the silurus Indicus. The most remarkable of these is the Gymnotus Electricus, or Electric Eel, which is frequently found in the marshes and stagnant pools of Guiana, and other countries of South America. The shocks they give are exceedingly severe; and Humboldt mentions a road which has been totally abandoned, because the mules, in crossing a wide ford, were, by these violent attacks, often paralysed and drowned. Even the angler on the bank was not exempt from danger, the shock being conveyed along his wetted rod and fishing-line. The Electric Eel is sometimes twenty feet long. The electricity of all those fishes is exerted by them only when they please, and of course only while they are alive. After the animal has discharged its electrical matter, the next shock is weaker; and when the animal is exhausted, it has lost all the power of producing any effect for some time.

There is no longer any doubt that the cause of thunder is the same with that which produces the ordinary phenomena of electricity. The resemblance between them is indeed so great, that we cannot believe thunder itself to be any other than a grander species of electricity.

Black and white varieties of this bird occasionally occur: the plumage of the former is of a motley hue, with a tinge of dull red showing through; the latter is either pure white or yellowish. Specimens of this variety are sometimes found wild. In February or March these flocks break up, and soon after commences the work of incubation. The nest is generally built in a hole scraped in the ground, or a natural hollow between two ridges in a corn or hay-field. The Scottish poet, Grahame, thus describes it:—

And in this little fabric, which Macgillivray says is rather loosely put together, may be found four or five eggs, of a greenish gray colour, freckled and marked with grayish brown. There are generally two broods in the year, the first young appearing sometimes as early as the end of April; the second come out in June or July. They frequently leave the nest before they are fully fledged; and, therefore, should be taken for rearing in good time. They should be fed with white bread, soaked in milk, and crushed poppy seed; a few ants’ eggs conduce much to make them healthy. The males may be known by the yellow tinge of their plumage. In confinement they should have poppy seed, crushed hemp, barleymeal, and bread crumbs, with an occasional supply of green food, such as water-cresses, cabbage, lettuce, &c. A little lean meat, with ants’ eggs, now and then, by way of a treat, tend to make them lively, and more inclined to sing. Adult birds, introduced into the aviary, will become immediately reconciled if they have some oats and poppy seed thrown to them; afterwards they will do very well on the universal paste. Any air or melody which it is desired they should learn must be whistled to them before they are fully fledged, as the males commence practising their natural song very early. They must also be kept separate from other birds while under this system of tutelage. Naturalists say that adult larks will sometimes acquire the song of the chaffinch and nightingale. Larks are subject to the ordinary maladies which afflict birds, and are especially liable to yellow scurf about the beak; generous diet, such as ants’ eggs, meal worms, with green food, and universal paste, are most likely to cure this. These birds will live eight or ten years in confinement. We have heard of instances of extreme longevity; as many as thirty years being mentioned.

They require a cage at least a foot and a half long, nine inches wide, and fifteen inches high; the shape is immaterial, and it is best to cover the top with cloth, as the birds have a habit of springing upwards, especially when they are at all wild, and so may injure themselves. Their food and drinking vessels should be of glass or porcelain; a piece of fine turf, renewed at least once a week, should be placed in the bottom of the cage; and great attention should be paid to cleanliness, as, if the feet get dirty, they are apt to acquire disease.

The names of the eight pieces are as follows:—King, Queen, two Rooks or Castles, two Bishops, and two Knights. These are placed in the first rank of each player’s side of the board, the Pawns being placed before them in the second rank. The pieces are arranged in the following manner:—In each corner square stands a Rook, or Castle, next to these a Knight, a Bishop, and the two middle or centre squares are occupied by King and Queen, so that the White King always stands on a black square, and the Black King on a white square, the Queen standing on a square of her own colour, Regina servat colorem. The diagram represents the board and men, neither side having made a move yet.

King.

Movement of the Pieces and Pawns. The King can move in any direction, but only to a square adjacent to the one he occupies. He can also capture any adverse man that comes near him, unprotected by any other piece or Pawn; but he cannot place himself on any square which is attacked by an adverse man, for the King is the only piece that is never taken; he is the soul of the game, and a player may have all his men, and being checked (the meaning of which will be explained hereafter), without being able to remove the attacking or checking man, he is checkmated—that is to say, the game is lost. Though the King can only move one square at a time, there is one exception to this rule, which is only permitted once in a game, that is, the act of castling. For this a player has two choices; he may castle to the right or to the left. This is done by moving the King two squares in either direction towards the Rook with which he castles, and placing the Rook on the other side of the King on the square next to him. For instance, supposing white to have his two Rooks in each corner, and the King on his original square, the King can castle on the left, which is called his Queen’s side; or on the right, termed the King’s side. In the former case he would be placed on the square originally occupied by a Bishop, and his Queen’s Rook would have to stand on his Queen’s square; in the latter he would be moved to a square where his Knight stood, and his Rook would occupy the square of his Bishop. There are, however, certain conditions attached to the privilege of castling. 1. You cannot castle after having moved your King, or the Rook, with which you wish to castle. 2. There must be no piece between the King and the Rook, whether your own or your adversary’s. 3. You cannot castle while in check, nor to a square where the King would be in check; nor can the King castle, if, in doing so, he passes a square which is attacked by an adverse piece or Pawn. The two Kings cannot, of course, come close to each other, but must have at least one square between them.

QUEEN.

The Queen is by far the most powerful of all pieces, combining the action of the Rook and the Bishop. It moves in a straight line, rank or file, backwards and forwards, and also diagonally, but only over empty squares, like all other pieces, except one. Place a Queen on the empty board, on the fourth square, counting from the King’s square upwards; and thus placed in the centre of the board, she will be found to bear upon twenty-seven squares, exclusive of the one she occupies. Placed in one of the four corners, where her action is most limited, she will still command twenty-one squares besides the one she stands on.

ROOK.

The Rook, also called the Castle, is next in importance to the Queen. She moves in a straight line, backwards or forwards, or sideways, always over empty squares. It is a peculiarity of this piece, that, whether it is placed in the middle of the board, or in a corner, it always commands the same number of squares, fourteen, besides the one it stands on.

BISHOP.

The Bishop moves diagonally, backwards and forwards, as far as the squares are empty. It never can change its colour; and as each player has two, they are placed, one on a black square, and the other on a white one, the former called the Black Bishop, the latter the White Bishop.

KNIGHT.

The move of the Knight is very peculiar, and difficult to describe. The Knight is the only piece that has the privilege to leap over another piece. It moves one square in a straight line, and one obliquely. Thus, for instance, the White Knight, which at the beginning of a game stands to the right of the White King (see diagram), can at once be moved to the third square of the Bishop, or to the third square of the Rook, thus springing over the intervening Pawns. This movement, being of a complicated nature, should be practised carefully by the student.

PAWN.

The Pawn moves only in a straightforward direction, one square at a time; but, unlike the pieces, which take an adverse man in the same way they move, the Pawn captures diagonally. It never moves nor takes backwards. Any Pawn can, on starting from its original place, which, as the diagram shows, is the second rank, make two steps, but, in doing so, cannot capture an adverse man, but is liable to be taken in passing the intermediate square by an adverse Pawn, but not by any piece or officer. For example:—your opponent, playing the black, has a Pawn of his on the fourth square, counting upwards from your Queen. You advance your Pawn in front of your King two squares; he has the option of either allowing it to pass or to take it with his Pawn, as if you had moved it only one square, and in thus capturing your Pawn in passing, he must place his own on the third square from your King—not on the fourth.

On Taking an Adverse Man.—The art of capturing an adverse man is by removing it from the board and placing your man on the square which the captured piece or Pawn occupied. All the eight men standing in the first rank of the board take in the same direction in which they move; not so the Pawn, which, as stated above, captures diagonally. Any of your men can be captured by an adverse one, except the King: he is never taken, but checkmated. The King being, as before mentioned, the soul of the game, each player directs his efforts towards attacking the adverse King, and carefully surrounding his own by his officers and Pawns. Any piece or Pawn attacking the adverse King, this is called giving check or checking, and such an attack must be notified by saying, check; whereupon your opponent must attend to this immediately, by either capturing the man that thus attacks or checks him, or by interposing some of his men between the checking-piece and his King, or lastly by removing his King to another square. But, should you be unable to get out of check by either of the above ways, then your King is checkmated,—that is, you have lost the game. Capturing is optional in all cases save one—when your King is in check, and you incapable to move out of check, except by taking the Pawn or piece that checks, you are obliged to do so.